BRITISH STANDARD Structural use of aluminium Part 1: Code of practice for design reso1.090.10 NO COPYING WITHOUT BSI PERMISSION EXCEPT AS PERMITTED BY COPYRIGHT LAW BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 Incorporating Amendment No. 1 om ZBS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Committees responsible for this British Standard ‘The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted by the Civil Engineering and, Building Structures Standards Policy Conumittee (CSB/) to Technical Committee (CSBV36, upon which the following bodies were represented: Aluminium Federation Association of Consulting Engineers Institution of Civil Engineers, Institution of Structural Engineers London Regional Transport Ministry of Defence Royal Institute of British Architects Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors Welding Institute ‘This Brush Standard, having ‘been prepared under slirection of the Cl Engineering ‘and Bulkdng Structures Standards Policy Committe, was ‘published under the autho of the Standards Commitiee and tomes nto effect on 3 March 1992, i Amendments issued since publication © Rstor-1990 Amd.No. | Date ‘Comment 10485, July 1999 | Indicated by a side line ‘The following BSI references rejate to the Work on this Standard Commitee reference CSB36 Draft for comment 812254 DC ISBN 0 580 19209 1BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Contents Page Committees responsible Inside front cover Foreword 9 Code of practice - Section 1. General 11 Scope 10 1.2 Definitions 0 13, Major symbols ry Section 2. Properties and selection of materials Designation of materials 15 Permitted materials 5 Extrusions, sheet, plate, drawn tube, forgings and castings 15. Bolts and rivets 16 Filler metals 2 Strength, mechanical and physical properties 2 Strength and mechanical properties 2 Physical properties 2 Durability and corrosion protection 2 General 2 Durability of alloys Py Corrosion protection Fabrication and construction 26 General 26 Bending and forming 2% Welding 26 Selection of materials Availability General ‘Structural sections Tube Sheet, strip and plate Forgings Castings Section 3. Design principles 3.1 Limit state design 3.2 — Loading General Nominal loading Factored loading Dynamic effects 31 © pst o7-1999Static strength General Action-effect under factored loading Factored resistance Deformation Recoverable elastic deformation Permanent inelastic deformation Distortion due to frequent assembly Durability Fatigue General ‘Total collapse Stable crack growth 3.7 Vibration 3.8 Testing Section 4. Static design of members 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 General 4.1.2 Limit state of static strength 4.13 Heataffected zones (HAZs) 4.14 Advanced design 42 Limiting stresses 4.3 Section classification and local buckling 43.1 General 4.3.2 Slendemess parameter 6 4.3.3 Section classification 43.4 Local buckling 4.4 HAZ softening adjacent to welds 44.1 General 44.2 Severity of softening 44.3 Extent of HAZ 45 Beams 45.1 Introduction 4.5.2 Uniaxial moment resistance of the section 4.5.3 Shear force resistance 4.5.4 Combined moment and shear force 4.5.5 Web bearing 4.5.6 Lateral torsional buckling 4.6 Tension members 4.6.1 General 4.6.2 Tension resistance 4.6.3 Eccentrically connected ties BYERRRRRBRE SSEQeeeeeeee eeeeeee a7 © BSI o7-1909BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Compression members General Section classification for axial compression Resistance to overall buckling Column buckling Torsional buckling Strut curve selection Local squashing Hybrid sections Certain cases of eccentrically connected struts. Battened struts Bending with axial force and biaxial bending General Section classification and local buckling under combined actions Section check Overall buekling check Deformation (serviceability limit state) General Recoverable elastic deflection Section 5. Plates and plate girders Ba 52 5.2.1 522 523 524 525 52.6 53 531 53.2 533 General Unstiffened plates General Unstiffened plates under direct stress Unstiffened plates under in-plane moment Longitudinal stress gradient on unstiffened plates Unstiffened plates in shear Combined actions Multi-stiffened plating General Multi-stffened plating under uniform compression Multi-stiffened plating under in-plane moment Longitudinal stress gradient on multi-stiffened plates Multi-stiffened plating in shear Plate girders General ‘Moment resistance of transversely stiffened plate girders Shear resistance of transversely stiffened plate girders Longitudinally and transversely stiffened girders Web stiffeners and tongue-plates Use of corrugated or closely stiffened webs Girders under combined moment and shear eee Betas a elaalats alesse t S8ae2eeaa BSI 07-1990 3BS 8118 : Part 1 Section 6. Static design of joints 61 General Riveted and bolted joints: design considerations General Groups of fasteners Effect of cross-sectional areas of plies Long joints iveted and bolted joints: geometrical and other general considerations Minimum spacing ‘Maximum spacing Eadge distance Hole clearance Packing Countersinking Long grip rivets ‘Washers and locking devices Intersections Factored resistance of individual rivets and bolts other than HSFG bolts complying with British Standards Limiting stresses Shear Axial tension Bearing Com High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts General Ultimate limit state (static strength) Friction capacity Serviceability limit state (deformation) Prestress Slip factor Pinned joints General Solid pins Members connected by pins Welded joints General Effect of welding on static strength Effect of welding on fatigue strength Corrosion Edge preparations Distortion Information given to fabricator Butt welds Fillet welds sd shear and tension Page 82 82 82 82 82 82 2 82 82 83 3 Bees 83 33 REEEEE © BSI 07.1900BS 8118 : Part 1 : 1991 Design strength of welded joints General Groups of welds Limiting stress of weld metal Limiting stress in the HAZ Factored resistance of welds Butt weld metal llet weld metal Heataffected zones (HAZS) Bonded joints General Factored resistance Page BRERERBARS 9 igue Introduction 95 General 95 Influence of fatigue on design 95 ‘Mechanism of failure 95, Potential sites for fatigue cracking 85 Conditions for fatigue susceptibility 95 Fatigue design criteria 95 Design philosophy 95 Fatigue failure criterion 96 Fatigue assessment procedure 96 Fatigue loading 9% Stresses 98 Derivation of stresses 98 Stress parameters, 98 Derivation of stress spectra 98 Cycle counting 98 Derivation of stress spectrum. 106 Classification of details 106 Fatigue strength data 108 Classified details 108 Unclassified details 108 Low endurance range 108 Improvement techniques 108 ‘Workmanship 108 BS 07-1900 5BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 — Page Section 8. Testing 81 General 113 Preparation for test, 13 Statle tests 113 General 113 Application of loads 118 Acceptance criteria 14 Retests 4 Ultimate resistance measurement 14 Acceptance testing for fatigue 14 Objectives of test 14 Derivation of loading data 14 Derivation of stress data 115 Derivation of endurance data 116 Acceptance 116 Reporting 47 ‘Appendices A Nomenclature of aluminium products 118 B _ Formal statement of safety factor format adopted in the code for static design resistance calculations 123 © Typical values of design life 124 D _ Derivation of material limiting stresses for use in design 124 E _Elastoplastic moment calculation 125 F —_HAZs adjacent to welds 128 G General formulae for the torsional properties of thin-walled open sections 133, H_ Lateral torsional buckling of beams 145 J Torsional buckling of struts: determination of slendemess parameter, 2 147 K Equations to design curves 151 L___ Fatigue strength data 154 Tables 2.1 Heat-treatable alloys 7 2.2 — Nonheat-treatable alloys 19 2.8 Bolt and rivet material a1 2.4 Welding filler metals 2 2.5 Physical properties 22 2.6 General corrosion protection of aluminium structures 23 2.7 Additional protection at metal-to-metal contacts to combat crevice and galvanic effects, 25 2.8 Selection of filler wires and rods for inert-gas welding, 2 2.9 Product form availability 28 2.10 Range of sizes for extruded section complying with BS 1161 29 3.1 Load factors (based on building structures) 30 3.2 Load factors for combined loads 31 3.3 Material factors 31 3.4 Limiting deflections 3 6 © RSI o7-1990BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 4d 42 43 44 46 47 48 49 4.10 6A 62 TA Type I classifications: nonwelded details 72 Type 2 classifications: welded details on surface of member 7.3 Type 3 classifications: welded details at end connections of memiber TA Values of Ko and m in figure 7.9 81 Fatigue test factor F A. Nearest foreign equivalents to designated wrought and east alloys complying with British Standards CA ‘Typical values of design life D.A__ Limiting stress py for weld metal Fl Modified HAZ, softening factor F2 General determination of k, and ki GA Specimen calculation: monosymmetric shape G2 __ Specimen calculation: skew-symmetric shape G3 Specimen calculation: asyrametric shape HA _Biffective length 1 for beams of length L H2-_Biifective length / for cantilever of length L K.1__Equations to design curves 2 Figures 4.1 “Types of flat element 42 Flat elements under stress gradient, value of g 48 Buekling modes for fat reinforced elements 44 Reinforced elements, value of h 4.5 Local buckling facto ky, 4.6 Extent of HAZ, definition of = 4.7 ‘Typical heat-path measurement _ 4.8 Lateral torsional buckling, equivalent uniform moment Mf 4.9 Lateral torsional buckling of beams, buckling stress, 4.10 Column buckling stress 7, for struts 4.11 Torsional buckling of struts, interaction factor k 4.12 Torsional buckling stress p, for struts 5.1 Unstiffened plate 52 Mullistiffened plate 53 Plate girder Limiting stresses, heat-treatable alloys Limiting stresses, non-heat-treatable alloys: Limiting values of 6 Curve selection for figure 4.5 (local buckling) HAZ softening factor ky Extent of HAZ, factor « Lateral torsional buckling of beams, coefficients X and ¥ Effective length factor K for struts Torsional buckling parameters for struts Choice of strut curve diagram. Limiting stress py for aluminium fasteners Limiting stresses of weld metal py, Limiting stress pyz and Pye in the HAZ Page 35 40 a a“ 45 52 14 125 130 138 12 18 16 M6 © nsto7-1990BS 8118 : Part 1 5A 55 56 5.7 58 59 61 62 63 64 65 66 6.7 68 TA 72 73 74 15 76 17 78 79 7.10 BA El Fl F2 Ga G2 G3 GA G5 da J2 JB J Kl La Elastic critical shear buckling factor 0 Basie tension field shear buckling factor 1 Flange assisted tension field shear buckling factor 1; Shear buckling factor m, Effective stiffener section ‘Schematic interaction diagrams for plate girders Effective butt weld throats Effective fillet weld throats Failure planes for static welded joint checks Butt weld design Fillet weld design Effective length of longitudinal fillet welds ‘Thick adhered shear test ‘Thin sheet test specimens Fatigue assessment procedure Stress parameter for parent material Stresses in weld throats Stress in lapped joints Stresses in root of fillet Reservoir cycle counting method Simplified stress spectrum ‘Tpieal f,—N relationship Design f;—N curves (for variable amplitude stress histories) ‘Method of identification of fatigue class of drawings Ultimate limit state criterion Assumed elasto-plastic stress pattems (non-hybrid) Extent of HAZ, factor m ‘Typical hardness plot along a heat path from a weld Torsion constant coefficients for certain fillets and bulbs Shear centre position (S) and warping factor (H) for certain thin-walled sections Monosynumetric section notation Skew-symmetric section notation Asymmetric section notation Sections which exhibit no interaction between the pure torsional and flexural buekling modes Monosymmetric section Asymmetric section Nomogram for solving cubic equation 2! Buckling strength at high slendemess Zone of greatest variation in effective f;—N curves ae? + Av - B=0 92 98 97 105 105 106 106 107 108 10 M1 127 132 132 13h 135 137 139 M1 9 150 11 155 © BSI 07-1000)BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 ——————————————————————— Foreword ‘This Part of BS 8118 has been prepared under the direction of the Civil Engineering and Building Structures Standards Policy Committee. BS 8118 is a document combining a code of practice to cover the design and testing of aluminium structures (Part 1) and a specification for materials, fabrication and protection (Part 2). ‘This Part of BS 8118 gives recommendations for the design of the elements of framed, lattice and stiffened plate structures, using wrought aluminium alloy. Although BS 8118 is a revision of CP 118 it is written with a different design philosophy. Because of this CP 118 will not be withdrawn immediately so that a period of overlap in design procedures can be allowed. thas been assumed in the drafting of this British Standard that the execution of its provisions is entrusted to appropriately qualified and experienced people and that construction and supervision is carried out by capable and experienced organizations. ‘The full list of organizations that have taken part in the work of the Technical Committee is given on the inside front cover. The Chairman of the Technical Conumittee is Dr P $ Bulson CBE and the following people have made a particular contribution in the drafting of the code. Mr R J Bartlett MrM J Bayley Mr P G Buxton DrMSG Cullimore Mr J B Dwight Prof. H R Evans Mr K Ewing Mr W Ferguson MrR A Foulkes MrJH Howlett Mr D Knight ‘Mr W I Liddell Prof. D A Nethercot Dr MH Ogle MrJAThomton Mr PB Tindall Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immunity from legal obligations. Summary of pages ‘This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, pages 1 to 156, an inside back cover and a back cover. ‘The BSI copyright notice displayed throughout this document indicates when the document was last issued. Sidelining in this document indicates the most recent changes by amendment. © Bst 07-1990BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 1 ——————————————————— Section 1. General 1.1 Scope ‘This Part of BS 8118 gives recommendations for the design of the elements of framed, lattice and stiffened plate structures, using wrought aluminium alloy. Where castings or forgings are used they should be ‘manufactured and designed in aécordance with the appropriate British Standard and in close consultation with the specific manufacturer. The design recommendations are for a variety of aluminium alloys suitable for structural use, and apply to a range of structures subjected to normal atmospheric conditions such as bridges, buildings, towers, road and rail vehicles, marine craft, cranes and offshore topside structures, The recommendations do not cover aerospace alloys, the detail design of castings, curved shell structures or structures subjected to severe thermal or chemical conditions. They are not intended to be used for the design of containment vessels, pipework, airborne structures or naval vessels, or for any application for which specific altemative Codes exist, e BS 5500 for pressure vessels and BS 5649 for lighting columns. NOTE, The titles ofthe publications refered to in this standard are listed on the inside of the hack cover 1.2 Definitions For the purpose of this Part of BS 8118 the following definitions apply 1.2.1 compact cross-section ‘A cross-section that can develop the full plastic capacity, either in compression or bending, with no reduction due to local buckling of thin-walled elements, 12.2 design life ‘The period in which the structure or component is required to perform safely, with an acceptable probability that it will not require repair or withdrawal from service, 1.2.3 design spectrum A tabulation of the numbers of occurrences of all the stress ranges caused by loading events, 12.4 detail class ‘A rating given to a detail which indicates its level of fatigue resistance, 1.2.5 edge distance Distance from the centre of a fastener hole to the nearest edge of an element. 126 effective length Length between points of effective restraint of a ‘member, multiplied by a factor to take account of end conditions and loading, 1.2.7 factored load A nominal load multiplied by the relevant partial load factor. 128 factored life ‘The design life multiplied by the relevant partial life factor, 1.2.9 factored resistance ‘The resistance of a member divided by the relevant partial material factor. 1.2.10 fail safe ‘The ability of a structure to continue to be serviceable after the discovery and monitoring of fatigue cracks. 12.11 fatigue The damage, by gradual cracking, to a structural member caused by repeated applications of a stress that is insufficient to cause failure by a single application. 1.2.12 fusion boundary ‘The material in a heat-affected zone immediately adjacent to the leg of a weld, 1.2.13 heat affected zone A.zone in which there is a reduction in strength of material in the vicinity of welds in certain classes of aluminium alloy. 1.2.14 imposed load All loading on a structure other than dead or wind loading, 1.2.15 instability A loss of stiffness of a structure (usually sudden) that limits its load-carrying capability and in certain instances can cause catastrophic failure. 1.2.16 lateral torsional buckling ‘The buckling of a beam accompanied by a combination of lateral displacement and twisting. 12.17 lateral restraint Restraint that limits lateral movement of the ‘compression flange of a beam. 1.2.18 limit state Condition beyond which a structure is unfit for its intended use. 1.2.19 loading event A defined loading cycle which, for design purposes, is assumed to repeat a given number of times, 1.2.20 load spectrum A tabulation showing the relative frequencies of loading events of different intensities on a structure. 10 © BSI 07-1909Section 1 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ———————— 1.2.21 local buckling Buckling of the thin walls of a component in ‘compression, characterized by the formation of waves or ripples along the member. 1.2.22 Miner's summation A cumulative fatigue damage summation based on a rule devised by Palmagren and Miner. 1.2.23 nominal load ‘The load to which a structure may be expected to be subjected during normal service. 1.2.24 outstand element ‘The element of a section, composed of flat or curved elements, which is supported along one longitudinal ceige, free along the other. 12.25 reinforced element ‘The element of a section which is stiffened by the introduction of longitudinal reinforcement, either along the edge of the element, or within its width. 1.2.26 resistance ‘The strength of a member based on calculations, using acceptable maximum values for material strength. 12.27 safe life A design against fatigue in which the calculated life is many times longer than the life required in service. 1.2.28 semi-compact cross-section A cross-section of a beam in which the stress in the extreme fibres is limited to the 0.2% proof stress, because local buckling of the compression elements would prevent development of the full plastic moment capacity. 1.2.29 serviceability limit states ‘Those limit states which when exceeded can lead to the structure being unfit for its intended use, even though the structure has not collapsed. 1.2.30 slenderness The effective length of a strut divided by the radius of gyration, 1.2.31 stiffened elements ‘The element of a section, composed of flat or curved elements, which is supported along both longitudinal edges. 1.2.82 stress cycle A pattern of variation of stress at a point, which is normally in the form of two opposing half-waves, 1.2.33 stress history A record showing how the stress at a point varies during loading. 1.2.34 stress range (1) The greatest algebraic difference between the principal stresses occurring on principal planes not more than 45° apart in any stress cycle on a plate or element, (2) The algebraic or vector difference between the greatest and least vector sum of stresses in any one stress eyele on a weld. 1.2.85 stress spectrum ‘A tabulation of the numbers of occurrences of all the stress ranges of different magnitudes during a loading event. 1.2.36 torsional buckling Buckling of a strut accompanied by twisting. 1.2.37 torsional/flexural buckling Buckling of a strut accompanied by overall flexure as well as twisting, 12.38 ultimate limit states ‘Those limit states which when exceeded can cause collapse of part or whole of a structure NOTE, Specific terms relating to limit slate principles are defined sn appendix B. 1.3 Major symbols A Area or Durability rating Ae Effective section area Ay Effective shear area @ Spacing of transverse stiffeners or Width of unstiffened plates B Overall width of multistiffened plate or Durability rating Bap Factored resistance in bearing of a fastener > Width of flat element be Effective width of web plate (plate girder) C Durability rating or Lip size D Diameter of round tube to mic-metal or Overall depth of web to outside flanges @ Depth of web between flanges or Depth of unstiffened plates dg Nominal diameter of fastener or pin E Modulus of elasticity F Fatigue test factor F —__Fision boundary of heat-affected zone (HAZ) F. Friction capacity of high strength friction grip bolt (HSFG bolt) © BSI 07.1900 uwBS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 1 ————————— St Reduction factor applied to kz, ‘Mpsx — Factored uniaxial moment resistance about oe Constant anmplitude cuvoff stress major axis (with allowance for shear) Mey Factored uniaxial moment resistance about Variable ampli RSy Sow Design at SE minor axis (with allowance for shear) fe len cea ‘Mpx — Factored moment of resistance to lateral Sx Uline tensile sess (designated Ry in torsional buckling eo) M, — Semi-compact value of Mas Jax Minimum 02% tensile proof stress (designated . , Ryoo in BSEN 1002-1) Mx Uniaxial moment about major axis Gee modus Ti, Equivalent uniform moment about major axis ree My Uniaxial moment about minor axis % Throat of weld ‘My Equivalent uniform moment about minor axis ge Leg length of weld M, Maximum factored moment a eee My Minimum factored moment Reinforced elements coemicient rm Inverse slope of fe ~ N curve (fatigue) ee my, m Shear buckling factors (pate girders) Js Second moment of area of full section of eee effective stiffener (plate gidet) ar Predicted eycles to falture (endurance) Ise Second moment of area of one sub-unit of m—-_Equivalent number ofeycls of stress range plating (mulrtiffened plates) (fatigue) Jy ‘Second moment of area about centrold axis or Time in days between welding and loading J Torsion constant P Axial tensile or compressive force due to K Effective length factor for struts factored loading Ky Coefficient in calculation of resistance of bolts or Protection Ky ‘Constant in fatigue failure criterion Por Elastic critical load for torsional buckling See P, Proof load fora bolt ky Reduction factor on longitudinal resistance to Po Prestress load take account of high shear Pr Factored axial resistance based on overall eee = cee Column oF torsional buctding kK Modified strength factor for HAZ material Pre Factored resistance of butt weld Pye Factored resistance of filet weld L Lengt ven supports Prep Factored resistance of HAZ adjacent to butt 1 fective length between lateral supports weld fusion boundary (atect normal tenile Effective length of butt weld force) Effective length of fillet weld Prev eye are of HAZ adjacent to fillet Moment under factored loading ee a eae alent uniform moment eee i gl fom manent for erly Fated ai ita reo compressive) Mp Fully compact value of Mrs Perp Factored resistance of HAZ adjacent to butt ‘Mgr — Reduced value of Mrs for flanges only weld toe (direct normal tensile force) Mrs — Factored moment resistance of a section in the Pprp — Factored resistance of HAZ adjacent to fillet abeence of shear ‘weld toe (vec nonma tenile fore) Mase) Reduced factored moment resistance of a Pry __‘Factored axial resistance to overall column section to allow for shear Dueling about major axis 12 © BSI 07-1999Section 1 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ————————— ee Pay Factored axial resistance to overall column fe Thickness of thickest element connected by buckling about minor axis welding Pra Factored resistance of HAZ under direct fe Blfective throat thickness loading i Flange thickness Ps Limiting stress for local capacity (tension and, Flange thickness compression) vo Shear force under factored loading Pa, Limiting direct stress in HAZ a Postarea he ee or ee — shear resistance of HAZ adjacent to Pr Limiting stress for solid vets and bos fry Pactored shear resistance of HAZ a Po Limiting stress for bending and overall yielding pe Factored shear resistance of HAZ, adjacent to Por Limiting stress for flange material fillet weld fusion boundary Pow Limiting stress for web material Vas Factored shear force resistance rs Limiting stress for overall buckling stability Very, ‘Factored shear resistance of HAZ adjacent to or Lateral torsional buckling stress ou ee te or Buckling stress for web treated as a thin Vere Fuctored shear resistance of HAZ adjacent to a ee fillet weld toe >» Weld penetration Vaw Reduced value of Vis ea Vie Factored resistance of HAZ in shear ae enna na tn Tension fleld factor (plate girders) ee ee 2 Blasticeritical shear buckling factor Dei Stress arising at extrome edge of web due to %-—_~Basic tension field shear buckling factor localized force 2 Flange assisted tension field shear buckling Pwy Stress arising at mid-point of web due to factor localized force Wo Weld metal Py Stress axis value of py in strut curve diagrams —w Pitch of stiffeners in multistiffened plate orValue of po for unwelded fully compact section y Distance from centre of nultistiffened plate to R Radius of curvature of curved internal, centre of outermost stiffener element, to mic-metal Ye Distance from neutral axis to more heavily vy Minor axis radius of gyration ‘compressed edge S Plastic section modulus of gross section, with Mo Distance from neutral axis to tess heavily no reduction for HAZ, local buckling, or holes compressed edge, or edge in tension — a 11 Distance from neutral axis to most severely ane loading actions red st fibres 5; Plastic modulus of effective ange section _-«¥2-—_~stance from neutral axis to the compression (a gnoey flange element in a beam. A ae ere Elastic modulus of effective section Sne Plastic modulus of net effective section Zn Elastic modulus of net section 5 Factor on p, to allow for strut not meeting Zoe ~—-—=#lastic modulus of net effective section tolerances of straightness or twist = Distance the HAZ extends from a weld T Toe of HAZ Basie value of 2 {Thickness e Ratio of minimum to maximum shear stress in ta Lesser of O5(Gg + tc) and 15ty web (clastic stress distribution) ee ee Modifying factor for extent of HAZ. to allow welding dy for elevated temperature as, Coefficient in calculation of bolt or rivet in single shear © pst or 1090 BBS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 1 — B Slendemess parameter a Slenderness parameter for column buckling, See torsional ching a tera sional treing Fully compact limiting value of tered dy Stenderean rt of sro shout nor axis a aaa actor 1 Modifying factor for extent of HAZ to allow Me Overall load factor for increased heat build-up Yel, Ym Partial load factors Ger Elastic critical stress of element with wn Fatigue ite factor reinforcement ya Matera factor Sew Elastic etal stress of clement without Ye Fatigue material factor reinforcement ys Coefficient in calculation of friction capacity 1 Normal stress on weld under factored loading an Re sence peas eer e Constant (=~) t2 Shear stress parallel to weld axis Sip hetwe is © BSI 07.1900Section 2 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ——————————————————————————————— Section 2. Properties and selection of materials 2.1 Designation of materials ‘The designation of wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys for general engineering purposes used in this standard is in accordance with the international 4-digit Classification system. Details of this system are given in appendix A. Table A.1 in appendix A shows by cross reference the current and old British Standard designations together with the nearest equivalent ISO and other foreign designations. ‘The designation for castings is in accordance with the system used in BS 1490 for aluminium alloy castings. ‘The alloy temper designation used in this standard is generally in accordance with the ISO 2107 ‘alternative’ temper designation system. Details of this system. together with the former system still used for some alloys and forms of materials are given in appendix A. NOTE, To simplify the text and to avoid confusion, In sections four, five and six the temper designations M, TH, TE and not used. The equivalent temper designations , TT a respectively are used 2.2 Permitted materials 2.2.1 Extrusions, sheet, plate, drawn tube, forgings and castings 2.2.1.1 Standard materials 22ALA General ‘This Part of BS 8118 covers the design of structures fabricated from a range of aluntinium alloys used in conditions and tempers listed in tables 2.1 and 2.2 and commonly supplied to the specifications given in BSSLI8: Part 2. ‘The alloys are in two categories, the first of heat-reatable alloys given in table 2.1 and described in 2.2.1.1.2 and the second of non-heat-reatable alloys in table 2.2 and described in 2.2.1.1.3. Castings should only be used in load bearing structures after both adequate testing and the setting up of quality control procedures for production of the castings has been performed to the approval of the engineer. The design rules of this standard should not be applied to castings without close consultation with the manufacturers thereof. 2.2.1.1.2 Heat-treatable alloys ‘The following alloys derive strength fro treatment. (a) Alloy 6082. The commonest of these alloys is the medium strength alloy, 6082, (Al SiIMgMn) of durability rating B (see 2.4.2) used usually in the fully heat-treated condition, ic. 6082-T6, and used in welded and non-welded structures, 1 heat The choice of this alloy is based on a combination ‘of good physical properties and a good degree of resistance to corrosion. It is available in most forms; solid and hollow extrusions, plates, sheets, tubes and forgings. Care should be taken in design to account for loss of strength in welded joints in the heataffected zone (HAZ). (b) Alloy 6061, An altemative alloy to 6082 is 6061, (AIMgISiCu) of durability rating B which has very similar properties with slight improvement in formability and surface finish. It is available in extruded tabular form and mainly used for structures. (0) Alloy 6063, In applications where strength is not of paramount importance and has to be ‘compromised with appearance, the alloy 6063, (AIMg0,7Si) of durability rating B is preferred, because it combines moderate strength with good durability and surface finish. It is particularly responsive to anodizing and similar patented finishing processes. Alloy 6063 has a lower strength than 6082, and like the latter there is a loss of strength in welded joints in the HAZ, It is available in extrusions, tubes and forgings and is particularly suitable for thin-walled and intricate extruded sections. It is used mainly for architectural applications such as curtain walling and window frames. (@) Alloy 7020. A further alloy which is readily weldable (although not restricted to welded structures) is the medium strength 7 2 ask. series alloy 7020 (Al Zn4,5Mgl) of durability rating C. It has better post-weld strength than the 6 2k series ‘due to its natural ageing property. This material and. others in the 7 + 3 a series of alloys are however sensitive to environmental conditions and its satisfactory performance is as dependent on correct ‘methods of manufacture and fabrication as on control of composition and tensile properties. If ‘material in the T6 condition is subjected to any ‘operations which induce cold work, such as bending, shearing, punching, ete. the alloy may be made susceptible to stress corrosion cracking; it is essential therefore that there be direct collaboration between the engineer and the manufacturer on the intended use and the likely service conditions. This alloy is available normally only in rolled forms and simple extruded solid and hollow sections, though forgings can sometimes be made to special order: (e) Alloy LM25. Alloy LM25 (AI Si7Mg) of durability rating B is a casting alloy with good foundry characteristics, corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. It is available in four conditions of heat treatment in both sand and chill castings, and is mainly used for architectural and food ‘manufacturing installations. © BSL 07-1000 15BS 8118 : Part 1 : 1991 Section 2 221.13 Non-heat-treatable alloys. ‘The following alloys derive enhanced strength only by strain hardening. They are normally produced in sheet and plate forms and occasionally in some simple extruded forms. (@ Alloy 1200. The alloy 1200 (A199,0) of durability Tating A is ‘commercially pure’ aluminium with high ductility and a very good corrosion resistance. It is used for architectural work where components are not highly stressed and is available in sheet only. (®) Alloy 3103, The alloy 3103 (Al Mnl) of durability rating A is stronger and harder than ‘commercially pure” aluminium but with the same high ductility and very good corrosion resistance, and is used extensively for building sheet and vehicle paneling Its available in sheet form. (©) Alloy 3105. The alloy 3105 (Al Mn0,5Mg0.5) of durability rating A is becoming more prevalent in the profiled building sheet market due to its superior properties over 3103 in hartiness and strength. It also has an economic advantage. Available forms are limited to sheet. (@) Alloy 5083. The alloy 5083 (Al Mg4,5Mn0.7) of durability rating A is used for welded structures, plating and tank work, because it welds readily ‘without significant loss of strength and has high ductility. The tensile strength of 5083 in the O and F conditions is lower than 6082-T6 but significantly higher ifthe latter is welded. However, subjection to Jong exposure at temperatures above 657°C, it can result in grain-boundary precipitation of rmagnesiunvaluminium intermetallic compounds which corrode preferentially in some adverse environments. This effect is aggravated if the alloy is subjected to subsequent cold working operations. It is avallable in plate, sheet, simple extruded sections, drawn tube and forging, Apart from its easy welding and good formability properties, it also exhibits very good durability, especially in marine environments (e) Alloys 5251, 5154A and 5454. Alloys 5251 (AIMg2), 51544 (Al Mg3,5(A)) and 5454 (Al Mg3Mn) all of durability rating A are available in sheet, plate and simple extrusions. 51544 and 5251 are also available as forgings. Magnesium is the main addition and as a result the alloys are ductile in the soft condition, but work harden rapidly. They have good weldability and very good resistance to corrosive attack, especially in a marine atmosphere. For this reason they are used in panelling and struetures exposed to marine atmospheres. 51S4A and 5454 are stronger than 5251, ‘The strongest 5 4: 4 series alloy which offers Immunity to stress corrosion when exposed to elevated temperature is 5454. The 5 a series alloys with greater than 3% Mg may be rendered susceptible to stress corrosion when exposed to elevated temperatures. (Alloy 5251 : in seam welded tube. Seam welded tubes are produced from 5251 strip (AlMg2) giving a durability rating B to the tube, which has been further strengthened by work hardening through forming and finishing rolls. Its main uses are in general engineering such as garden furniture, handrails and ladders (@) Alloy LMS, Alloy LM6 (AL MgSSi1) of durability rating A is a medium strength casting alloy possessing excellent finishing properties where it maintains a surface of high polish, but is only suitable for simple shapes. Its mainly used for san castings for architectural and decorative purposes and where anodizing is required. (h) Alloy LMG. Alloy LMG (AISi12) of durability rating B is a further medium strength casting alloy which has excellent foundry characteristics, high ductility and impact strength, together with good corrosion resistance. Its suitable for both sand and chill castings and for a wide range of uses in ‘general, marine and electrical applications and in castings of above average complexity and size. 2.2.1.2 Materials in other thicknesses and alloys with other standard and non-standard properties ‘The alloys listed in tables 2.1 and 2.2 are sometimes: used in other thicknesses and in other standard and non-standard tempers and conditions. Guaranteed ‘minimum properties for such materials may be used if, agreed between designer and client, 2.2.1.8 Other alloys Other alloys are available which offer higher strengths, e. 20144 and/or better post-weld strengths, e-8. 7019, Dut these strengths may be achieved to the detriment of other properties. The engineer is therefore, advised against using any of these alloy's without careful consideration, and in full consultation with a reputable ‘manufacturer. Properties to be considered include durability, weldability, resistance to crack propagation, and behaviour in service. Other alloys in the 7 5% > series having higher proof strengths such as 7019 will require particular control on manufacturing processes, for example control of micro structure, residual stress and cold working, see 22.1.1.1 (4). 2.2.2 Bolts and rivets Bolt and rivet materials together with their durability ratings are given in table 2.3. Guidance on the selection of bolt and rivet materials is given in 2.4.3.2. 16 © pst o71909Isao not Table 21 Heat weatable elope a Z uono9g STIs Sa ena —— = Fron tee | Sate) ‘i Fg ad ll A PP eee ee et oa =e See SS SS Tua 1661blank(61-20 188 61 (Table 22 Now heat testable alloys or fanaa [oon a — oT RO pp ET — ow Tee [ree |e” [RS ws fret |e aot a fa Ra 100 ne lovee ee fies [us fics | aso ic __|aweo ies [ie sneer oa fra [rot [rao] B50 [RJA 8 eas fies 5 = me fae [Ser ——Joa J [ies [189 > Te [RTA a Fo [1e5 —[- i eas —|- Baoan —|-— [rep — fis — fare — fr CoC a Seta va JO [oO —]e6 Te Ye as ro Same — [=e [a sar aa FF [exsens —[-— [169 — [197 [207 fa erie Sheard pa [3s —[ 160 [aaa as 7 Treen | —fis0 ows Tir Brie a ]oveet andy [azo [238 —]sI0—]- ase [oes — [|e oe ae fo Era mR] [Bxatne —]-— [ep Ios [ats fin ase |e Shee ard ome [oF Joos |e |= as Gam wee [fre [or a rr eer [serene [= Teo [roo a6 ase = ——[ferens [> —Tieo —fioo —Tes —Tis Ere [area eo [5 [16s es = ase at [Shee and pe [02 [o——[z26 [or at —[orwnte [ft [aon [2 aa ]F Yan welaed [ou [10 fo [eas aN tube 12 [20 220. 245, = Foren] [oo [ono fie Talat and pe [oz [6 [190 ew = i ae ye fas [Breerand wate [Oz |e Cs Be |e Bs 0 Fines — i fies ae YY war e me [se eases eo we STF [ee oa a——[an0 |e |] wf iar ]F ane — |= | ooo] x [a [aT art =| ta] oe Da |F [Sarg et [= fas Re asa foe a os a CR ZuoNDAg 1661 : I 4d : STIS SA20 blank‘Table 2.3 Bolt and rivet material Type Material Process ‘Temper in we [Diameter [02% proof strength | Ultimate] Durability strength | rating [rm Ninn Nina? Bolts and proprietary | 6082 6 j=6 255 25 [BD threaded fasteners 6-12 0 310 [BD 6061 TB = 25 310 505642) 24 =2 240 310__ |B» Stainless steel [ A4 (316816) |—— ‘See the relevant British Standard specification for the | (See note 1) Hecate materia tee nae 1) Steel (ee note 2) Solid rivets and BISA Cold or hot diiven [0 or F (02% proof stress is [215 | AD proprietary blind rivets not quoted in Cold driven we 245, 082 Cold driven in 14 | 4 20 |B» temper Cold driven in 16. | 16 295 temper 505642) Cold or hot driven | 0 or F 255 |B!) Cold driven i 280 Stainless steel { A4 (316816) | Cold or hot driven [See the relvant British Standard specification for the | (Gee note 1) {Mausie oy comp Nickel-copper alloy Cold ariven (zine (see note 1) plated) Steet Cold driven (see note 2) 9 6082-74 rivets are Nor Nor 1 See 24.9.2. [Pthe durabitiy of alloys joined if their durability flower ° Ror example BS.G105 for stainless ste! bolts 2 5056 bolts and rivets should nol he used in corrosive oF pica environments tore realy driven immediately afer solution heal treatment. 2. Stet bolts should preferably be galanin or Shera 10 BS 72 Z wong T66I + 1 4¥d + SITS SEBS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 2 ‘These materials may also be used for special proprietary rivet and bolt products, including thread inserts. Special head shapes may be necessary for the larger diameter rivets, see BS 1974) 2.23 Filler metals Filer metals for tungsten inert-gas (TIG) welding and ‘metal inert-gas (MIG) welding, are given in table 24 together with their durability ratings. Guidance on the selection of filler metals is given in 2.5.3.2 2.3 Strength, mechanical and physical properties 23.1 Strength and mechanical properties The range of the standard alloys together with their available forms, temper conditions and mechanical properties are shown in tables 2.1 and 22. The mechanical properties for wrought materials for the tempers and conditions of the alloys given in tables 2.1 and 2.2 have been used to determine the limiting stresses given in table 4.1. Where alloys are welded the approximate percentage reduction in strength of the alloy is given for each temper. These strengths in the HAZ may not be achieved until after @ period of natural or artificial ageing, see notes to table 2.1 for detail. ‘The strength of bolt and rivet material is given in table 23. Table 24 Welding filler metals Filler [BS alloy 150 alloy Durability metal [designation | designation?) | rating group ‘Type 1_| 10808 ‘A190,8 x 10504, A199.5, Type 3_ [3108 ‘AIMai a ‘Type 4 [40138 ADS) [B 404749) AISiI2 (A) Type 5 | 5056 ‘AIMg5 5856 AIMgscr(a) | a 55568 ALMg5.2MnCr 5183 AIMg4,5Mn See BSB Part Tor chemical composition 2) nearest equivalent > A0I7A is specifically used 0 prevent weld metal erackng in Joning involving high aun at high esr In mst cases Sais preferable opsolescent standart ‘The mechanical properties of the alloys vary with. ‘temperature and those given in tables 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 should be applied to the design of structures over a temperature range ~50°C to 70°C except for 5083 (See 2.2.1.1.3 (d)). The 0.2% proof stress and tensile strength improve at lower temperatures, but at higher temperatures are reduced. For properties outside the temperature range given, the manufacturer should be consulted, The alloy will melt within the range 550°C to 660°C, with the precise range dependent on the alloy. 2.3.2 Physical properties ‘The physical properties for the standard alloys although varying slightly may be taken as constant and are listed in table 2.5. In critical structures the engineer may wish to use the exact value which should be obtained from a reputable manufacturer. ‘Table 2.5 Physical properties Property Value Density 2710 kein Modulus of elasticity 70.000 Nim? Modulus of rigidity 26 600 Nim? Coefficient of thermal 28 x 10-6 per °C expansion. 2.4 Durability and corrosion protection 2.4.1 General In many instances the standard materials listed in tables 2.1 to 2.4 can be used in the mill-finish, as extruded or as welded condition without the need for surface protection, ‘The good corrosion resistance of aluminium and its alloys is attributable to the protective oxide film which forms on the surface of the metal immediately on. exposure to air. This film is normally invisible, relatively inert and as it forms naturally on exposure to air or oxygen, and in many complex environments, containing oxygen; the protective film is thus self-sealing. In mild environments an aluminium surface will retain its original appearance for years, and no protection is needed for most alloys. In moderate industrial environments there will be a darkening and roughening of the surface. As the atmosphere becomes more aggressive such as in certain strongly acidic or strongly alkaline environments, the surface discoloration and roughening will worsen with visible white powdery surface oxides and the oxide film may itself be soluble. The metal ceases to be fully protected and added protection is necessary. These conditions may also occur in crevices due to high local acid or alkaline conditions, but agents having this extreme effect are relatively few in number, 2 © pst o7-1999Section 2 BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 In coastal and marine environments the surface will roughen and acquire a grey, stone-like, appearance, and protection of some alloys is necessary. Where aluminium is immersed in water special precautions may be necessary, Where surface attack does occur corrosiontime curves am and aluminium alloys usually follow an form, with a fairly rapid initial loss of reflectivity after slight weathering, After this there is very little further change over very extensive periods On atmospheric exposure, the initial stage may be a few months or 2 to 3 years, followed by litle, if any, further change over periods of 10, 30 or even 80 years, Such behaviour is consistent for all extemal freely exposed conditions and for all intemal or shielded conditions, except where extremes of acidity or alkalinity can develop. Tropical environments are in «general no more harmful to aluminium than temperate environments, although certain alloys (see BS 5500) are affected by long exposure to high ambient temperatures, particularly when in a marine environment. 2.4.2 Durability of alloys ‘The alloys listed in tables 2.1, 22, 2.3 and 24 are categorized into three durability ratings A, B and C in descending order of durability. These ratings are used. to determine the need and degree of protection required. In constructions employing more than one alloy, including filler metals in welded construction, the protection should be in accordance with the lowest of their durability ratings. 2.4.3 Corrosion protection 24.3.1 Overall corrosion protection The need to provide overall corrosion protection to structures constructed from the alloys or combination of alloys listed in tables 2.1, 22, 2.3 and 24 when exposed to different environments (see PD 6484) is given in table 26. The methods of providing corrosion protection in these environments are detailed in BS 8112: Part2, In selecting the appropriate column of table 2.6 for an atmospheric environnient there may be localities within a region that have ‘microclimates’ vastly different from the environmental characteristics of the region as a whole. A region designated ‘rural’ may have local environments more closely resembling an industrial atmosphere at sites close to and down wind of factories. Similarly, a site near the sea but close to shore installations may, with the appropriate prevailing ‘winds, have the characteristies of an industrial, rather than marine, atmosphere. The environment is not necessarily the same for a structure inside a building as for one outside. Because of these factors, localized conditions of increased severity may result. Its advisable to study the precise conditions prevailing at the actual site before deciding on the appropriate environment column of table 2.6. Where hollow sections are employed consideration should be given to the need to protect the intemal void to prevent corrosion arising from the ingress of corrosive agents. Because of the difficulty of painting such sections, chemical conversion coatings may be beneficial. Where the intemal void is sealed effectively, internal protection is not necessary. ‘Table 2.6 General corrosion protection of aluminium structures P Protection needed (see BS 8118: Part 2), ph) 2 Protection not recommended if of welded construction [NR Immersion in sea water is not recommended Material | Protection needed according to environment thickness T stmospherie Immersed mm Rural [Industriavrban | Marine Fresh water [Sea water Moderate [Severe |Non- | Moderate | Severe industrial A All None [None |P. None [None [P. None None B 3 None [P P P P P P P =3 None [None |P None [None [P. P P c All None [P0 P P P P Pe NR Key Requires only local corosion protection to weld and HAZ in urban non-industrial environments, © pst o7-1909 BBS 8118: Part 1: 1991 Section 2 2432 Metal-to-metal contacts including joints Consideration should also be given to contacting surfaces in crevices and contact with certain metals or washings from certain metals which may cause electrochemical attack of aluminium (see PD 6484). Such conditions can occur within a structure at joints. Contact surfaces and joints of aluminium to aluminium or to other metals and contact surfaces in bolted, riveted, welded and high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolted joints should be given additional protection to that required by table 2.6 as defined in table 2.7. Details of the corrosion protection procedure required are given in BS 8118: Part 2 2.4.3.3 Contact with other non-metallic materials 2AB.B.1 Contact with concrete, masonry or plaster Aluminium in contact with dense compact concrete, masonry or plaster in a dry unpotluted or mild environment should be coated on the contacting surface with a coat of bituminous paint, see BS 8118: Part 2. In an industrial or marine environment the contacting surface of the aluminium should be coated with at least two coats of heavy duty bituminous paint; the surface of the contacting material should preferably be similarly painted. Submerged contact between aluminium and such materials is not recommended, but if unavoldable separation of the ‘materials is recommended by the use of a suitable mastic or a heavy duty damp course layer, Lightweight concrete and similar products require additional consideration when water or rising damp can extract a steady supply of aggressive alkali from the cement. The alkali water can then attack aluminium surfaces other than the direct contact surfaces 2433.2 Embedment in concrete ‘The aluminium surfaces before embedment in concrete should be protected with at least two coats of bituminous paint or hot bitumen, see BS 8118: Part 2, and the coats should extend at least 75mm above the concrete surface after embedment. Where the concrete contains chlorides eg, as additives or due to the use of sea-dredged aggregate, at least ‘two coats of plasticized coaltar pitch should be applied in accordance with BS 8118 : Part 2 and the finished assembly should be overpainted locally with. the same material, after the concrete has fully set, 0 seal the surface. Care should be taken where metallic contact occurs between the embedded aluminium parts and any steel reinforcement. 2.43.3.3 Contact with timber In an industrial, damp or marine environment the timber should be primed and painted in accorda with good practice, Some wood preservatives may be harmful to aluminium. As a general guide the following preservatives have been agreed between the Aluminium Federation, the British Wood Preserving Association and Damp-proofing Association to be safe for use with aluminium without special precautions: a) coal tar creosote; ) coal tar oil, ©) chlorinated napthalenes; 4) zine napthanates; ) pentachlorophenol; ) organo-tin oxides; 4) orthophenylphenol, Where timber, treated with the following preservatives, is used in damp situations the aluminium surface in contact with the treated timber should have a ‘substantial application of sealant: 1) copper napthanate; 2) copper-chrome-arsenate; 3) borax-boric acid, Other preservatives should not be used in association with aluminium, Reference may be made to CP 143 : Part 15. Oak, chestnut and westem red cedar, unless well seasoned, are likely to be harmful to aluminium. ABBA Contact with soils ‘The surface of the metal in contact with soil should be. protected with a least two coats of bituminous paint, hot bitumen, or plasticized coalar pitch, see BS 8118 Part 2. Additional wrapping-tapes may be used to prevent mechanical damage to the coating 2433.5 Immersion in water Where aluminium parts are immersed in freshwater or sea water including contaminated water, the aluminium. should preferably be of durability rating A, with fastenings of aluminium or corrosion-resisting steel or fastened by welding. Tables 2.6 and 2.7 give the protection needed for fresh water andl sea water Immersion. In addition the engineer should obtain competent advice on the oxygen content, pH number, chemical or ‘metallic, particularly copper, content and the amount ‘of movemient of the water as these factors may affect the degree of protection required. © BSL 07-1090‘Table 2.7 Additional protection at metal-to-metal contacts to combat crevice and galvanic effects Metal joined to] Bolt or rivet metal ‘Protection needed according to environment (see BS 81187 Part 2) slumtaium acoeapuere Tmnmersed Rural Tndustrial urban Fresh water [Sea water Dry Moderate | Severe Severe unpottared ‘Aluminium Aluminium 0 2 0 [2 Steel aluminized or | 4 4 5 galvanized steel, stainless steel Zine oF zine coaied | Aluminium 0 2 2 2 [2 5 steed Steel, aluminized or [1 3 4 4 5 5 galvanized stec, stainless steel Steel stainless steel, [Aluminium 0 3 3 3 [3 5 5 cast iron, lead Steel, aluminized or | 1 4 1 | 4 5 5 galvanized steel, stainless | steel | | Copper” ‘Alumina 0 NR___|NR NR___[NR NR Copper, copper alloy [0 5 5 5 5 5 2 Conia surfaces and joins of aluminum to copper Or copper alogs shoul be avoed poste, W sei The auninian Should be oF dara Fling Aor Ba he bol and nats cot eopper or copper aly Ni The use of aluminum eves and bots 10 Jjn aluminium and copper in these environments ot recommend Z uoREg i T66TBS 8118 : Part 1 : 1991 Section 2 ———————— eee 2.4.3.3.6 Contact with chemicals used in the building industry Fungicides and mould repellents may contain metal compounds based on copper, mercury, tin and lead which, under wet or damp conditions could cause corrosion of the aluminium. The harmful effects may be countered by protecting the contacting surfaces which may be subject to washing or seepage from the chemicals, ‘Some cleaning materials can affect the surface of the aluminium. Where such chemicals are used to clean aluminium or other materials in the structure, care should be taken to ensure that the effects will not be detrimental to the aluminium. Often quick and. adequate water rinsing will suffice, while in other situations temporary measures may be necessary to protect the aluminium from contact with the cleaners. 24.3.3.7 Contact with insulating materials used in the building industry Products such as glass fibre, polyurethane and various insulation products may contain corrosive agents which can be extracted under moist conditions to the detriment of the aluminium. Insulating materials should be tested for compatibility with aluminium under damp and saline conditions. Where there is doubt, a sealant as described in BS 8118 : Part 2 should be applied to the associated aluntinium surfaces. 2.5 Fabrication and construction 2.5.1 General ‘The fabrication and construction requirements to be detailed are included in the relevant design clauses. BS 8118 : Part 2 specifies the methods of fabrication to be followed. In addition 2.5.2 and 2.5.3 should be considered by the engineer. 2.5.2 Bending and forming Aluminium alloys are available in a wide range of tempers which affect their formability. Where bending or forming is required the engineer should consult the manufacturer for guidance on the choice of alloy, temper and any subsequent heat treatment that may be required, 2.5.3 Welding 2.5.3.1 General ‘The loss of strength that can occur in the vicinity of the weld with some alloys and tempers should be considered by the engineer in the choice of the alloy or alloys to be used in welded construction. The engineer should satisfy himself that the combination of parent and filler materials is suitable in regard to Strength and durability for the service conditions of the structure, Particular attention is drawn to the susceptibility ‘of 6082, 6063, 6061 and 5251 alloys to cracking during solidification when welds are made under constraint, This may be avoided by the use of the filler materials and welding techniques recommencled (see BS 8118 Part 2: 1990). This will ensure a suitable combination of filler material in the actual weld. 2.5.3.2 Filler metals. The filler wire for use in welded construction should be chosen in accordance with table 28, 2.6 Selection of materials ‘The choice of an alloy or alloys for any structure is determined by a combination of a number of factors: strength, see 2.3; durability, see 2.4; physical properties, see 2.3; weldability, see 2.5; formability, see 2.5 and availability, see 2.7 in both the particular form and alloy required. The standard materials given in tables 2.1 and 2.2 are described in terms of the above factors in 2.2.1.1.2 and 2.2.1.1.3. 2.7 Availability 2.7.1 General ‘The range of alloys given in tables 2.1 and 2.2 are not available in all product forms. Table 2.9 indicates the alloys available in particular product forms and where materials may be stocked in limited quantities. Product and alloy combinations not normally manufactured but, which may be manufactured by special arrangement are indicated, design in these materials should only be attempted after confirmation of their availability with the materials supplier. 2.7.2 Structural sections ‘A number of structural extruded sections complying with BS 1161 and some other structural sections are available in 6082-T6 or 6063-T6 from stock, but in most instances they will need to be produced to order, see table 2.9. Table 2.10 gives the range of sizes of sections given in BS 1161. Other sizes may be obtained from existing or new dies by arrangement with the manufacturer, Where sections are produced to order, minimum order quantities may be applied. Special new extruded sections are normally made to order and the low cost of simple dies gives great flexibility in this design. The engineer should consult the manufacturer at an early stage to verify the shape, thickness, size and feasibility of the design of a new section and delivery of both the new die and the extruded section, ‘Some sections or products are made by drawing, forming or roll forming, these operations may require special tooling. © BSI 07-1900Section 2 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ——————— ‘Table 2.8 Selection of filler wires and rods for inert-gas welding Parent metal combination” istpart | 2nd Pare IMs 1M6 3103 1200 v2 [oer [51544 | 508 castings | LMS 3105 606s | s2s1 castings cos: | sana ‘Type 5 Type 5 5556A [Type 5 | Type 5 5083 Types | NR ‘Type 5 Types types | types | Types ‘Type 5 ‘Type 5 55564 | type 5 _| Type 5_| Type 5 BIS4A_) | Type 5 Type 5 ‘TDpe 5 | Type5 | Type 5 5251 Types | NR?) ‘Type 5 Type 5 [types | Type 5% 5454 ‘Type 5 Type 5 Type 5_| type 5_| Type 5 6061 ‘Tes | Typed | Typed Type 5 | Type a5 6063 Tyres [typed — | typed =| typed types | typed 6082 Typed [typed | typed | typed _—_| type _| typed Type 5 ‘Tye5|Type5 | 55560 7020 Type5 | NR® Tred — [types — | types Type 5 Type 5 [type __| type Type 5 ‘Type 4 ‘Type 4 ‘Type 1) 1200 Types [typed — | type | type 1 Types [typed [typed | Type 1? 3103) |Type5 [Typed [Type 39 f | Type 5 ‘Type 4 ‘Type3 3105 | [ayes [types | type 3 ‘LM6 ‘Type 4 Las NR?) ‘Type 4 Castings ‘Type 4 IMS pe 5 Castings | Type 5 Lavpe 5 "Filler metals for parent combination tobe welded are shown in one box, which f located atthe ftersection of che weevant parent ‘etal row and column, In each box, the filer metal for maximum siren i shown inthe top line: Inthe case of 6 3 2 and 7020 alloys, this wil be below the filly eattwated parent meta strength. The filler metal for maximum resistance 1o corrosion is shown inthe midale line. The filer metal for freedom from persistent weld cracking is shown inthe bottom line. 2) NR» Not recommended, The welding of alloys containing approximately 2% or more of Mg with A-SI (0% to 129% Si) fer metal {ant ice vers) is not recommended because sulTient Mg precip i formed st the fasion Boundary to emit the joi 9) The corrosion behaviour of weld meal is likely to be beter its alloy content s close to that of the parent metal and not me higher, Thus for service in potentially corrosive environments it fs preferable to weld SIS1A with SISA flier metal or S464 with filler metal However, n some cases this may only be possible atthe expense of weld soundness, so that a compromise wil Ie ‘ic higher strength andor beter crack resistance s essential type filer metal can he used. NOTE 1. Table derive! fom BS3010 : Part | and BS9571: Part 1 NOTE 2, For particular filer metal alloy in each alloy type se table 2 © pst or-1990 a‘Table 2.9 Product form availability ‘lly [Pate | ert nd [Brad sets Bawa a [giana | Fons | Caer Frnt |p [Bld brand | Conpnr and | Exide [iow weled the = Gam thick | simple shapes | special round and | sections seston | Fetes ‘she 1200 LY s 103 i 2105 o 5083 L L s s oO saa [0 0 s s ° 5251 L L s s L oO 5 tL s 5 con] 5 o a o ° 6063, 1) L L oO oO o 6082 Ea L Pa L 0 oO oO 7020 oO oO s s s M5. oO ia o M25, oO to Standard product manufactured to order with a limited range of sizes available from stock, 0 Standard product manufactured to order, S Alloy product combination not normally manufactured but possibly available by special arrangement Blank indicates the product is not available "Includes stocked patterned and embossed sheet. 2) Includes sections from BS 116 2 Includes stocked tread plate NOTE. Certain mechanical properties are given in tables 2.1 and 22. +] Wed + S118 SE 1661 zuonDagBS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ‘Table 2.10 Range of sizes for extruded sections complying with BS 1161 Section (ype Range of size Equal angles 30x30 to 120% 120 Unequal angles 50x38 to 140%105 Channels, 60%30 to 240x100 ‘Tee-sections 50x38 to 12090 60X30 to 160%80 50X50 to 120%120 50x37.5 to 140%106 80X40 to 14070 90%75 to 180%150 sections Equal bulb angles Unequal bulb angles Lipped channels Bulb teesections 2.7.3 Tube ‘Tube may be produced by extrusion, by drawing or seam welding. Tube is available from stock in some of these forms in a limiting range of sizes but generally it will be made to order, see table 2.9, 2.7.4 Sheet, strip and plate A wide range of sheet, strip and plate is normally stocked in the standard alloys (see table 2.9). Some alloys are available as patterned sheet and as treadplate, There is a wide range of standard rolled roofing and cladding products, some of which are available in moderate quantities from stock in both mill finish and painted, but most are generally produced to order, 2.7.5 Forgings Fongings are supplied to order as hand forgings or die forgings, the former normally requiring all over ‘machining to achieve the finished dimensions whilst the latter are produced to the finished dimensions, Dies for forgings are relatively expensive and costs should include at least one forging made and cut up to check grain flow to prove the die for forgings used in structural applications. 2.7.6 Castings Castings are supplied to order as sand casting or chill castings. Sand castings are produced from patterns made at moderate cost and are used normally for small quantity production. Chill castings are generally used for larger quantity production and where greater production rates are required, where greater dimensional accuracy and good surface finish is required. The cost of tooling may be high, especi for pressure die castings. © BSL 07-1999BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 3 Section 3. Design principles 3.1 Limit state design Stnnetures should be designed by considering the limit states at which they become unfit for their intended use, Consideration should always be given to the following lint states: (@) static strength (ultimate limit state) (see 3.3); (©) deformation (serviceability limit state) (see 3.4); (©) durability (see 3.5). In certain structures it will be necessary to consider one of both of the following: (2) fatigue (see 3.6); (2) vibration (see 3.7). Design will normally be carried out by calculation. using the guidance given in sections 4 to 7 and appendices B to L. It is permissible, however, to verify ‘a proposed design by testing (see section 8). 32 Loading 3.2.1 General A structure or structural component should be designed to resist all loads and actions to which, within reason, it can be subjected. These are classified 2s follows. (a) Dead load. Self-weight of the structure and of any permanently attached item it supports (©) Imposed load. Any statically or dynamically applied load other than dead or wind loading. (€) Wind load. Dynamic loading due to wind gusts (d) Temperature effect. Temperature fluctuations leading to forces in a structural component. All relevant loads should be considered separately or in such realistic combinations as to comprise the most critical effects on the elements and the structure as a ‘whole. The magnitude and frequency of fluctuating Joads should also be considered. Particular attention should be given to loading conditions during assembly, and the settlement of supporting structures may need to be taken into account. The possibility of loads due to seismic forces, fire, explosion and vehicular impact should be considered. 3.2.2 Nominal loading Nominal loads are defined as those to which the structure may be reasonably expected to be carrying during normal service. They are used for checking the limit states of deformation, fatigue and vibration, Where possible they should be deterntined from the relevant British Standard. For dead and imposed loading refer to BS 6309 : Part 1. For wind loading on buildings refer to CP3: Chapter V: Part 2. British Standards also exist for nominal loads on cranes and lifts (including dynamic effects). Where no relevant British Standard exists nominal loads should be decided by the designer and the client. A method of assessing loads using a statistical and probability basis is given in appendix B. ‘When the imposed load consists of soil or other filling, consideration should be given to the material becoming saturated. In assessing temperature effects it may be assumed that in the UK, in the absence of local information, the average intemal temperature of the structure varies between ~5 °C and +35 °C. The effect, of the colour of extemal sheeting on internal temperature should also be considered, 3.2.8 Factored loading Factored loads are used for checking the limit state of static strength. They are the nominal loads multiplied by the overall load factor, yr, which provides an allowance for variability in loading, accidental overload, etc. ris defined as follows: a= rare where yn and yp are the partial load factors. yn Js governed by the type of load, and 3 allows, ‘some relaxation when a combination of imposed and/or wind loads is applied to the structure. As a ‘uid, tables 3.1 and 32 give values of yry and yr, based ‘on building structures, but different values may be used by agreement between the designer and the client. If different values are chosen by reference to other British Standards, care should be taken to ensure that 7x1 does not include a factor to allow for variability of material strength. For initial design of simple structures yp may be conservatively taken as 10 for all imposed or wind loads. ‘Table 3.1 Load factors (based on building structures) ‘Type of load Ya Dead load Direct effect 12 Countering overturning or uplift 08 Imposed load (not including wind loads) 133) Wind load 12 Forces due to temperature effects 10 © BSI 07.1000Section 3 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Table 3.2 Load factors for combined loads Load combination we Dead load 10 Imposed or wind load giving mast severe 10 Joading action on the component Imposed or wind load giving second most [08 severe loading action on the component Imposed or wind load giving third most severe [0.6 loading action of the component Imposed or wind load giving fourth most ry severe loading action on the component NOTE. In some structures the wind load could be the most, severe applied load, in others the sind load could produce load effects less severe than those due to the mar imposed loads 3.24 Dynamic effects In order to determine the nominal loading on a structure under dynamic conditions, reference should be made if possible to an appropriate British Standard, Forces from dynamic effects are treated as imposed, loads in table 3.1 In other cases, should a ‘dynamic magnification factor’ be used, the designer should be aware that this might be a dangerous procedure if the response of the structure is not taken into account. This applies particularly to alunuinium structures of high flexibility that have a natural period of vibration similar in magnitude to that of the imposed load. If initial calculations show that a problem exists, a ‘more detailed computation based on the equations of motion should be carried out. The need to provide artificial damping should be examined, and tests on prototype components may also be necessary. 323 Static strength 3.3.1 General A component is acceptable in terms of static strength if the following is satisfied: factored resistance Action-effect under - (See appendix B) factored loading 3.32 Action-effect under factored loading This is the axial force, bending moment or shear force arising in a component due to the application of factored loading, found by using accepted structural analysis. The factored loading is found by taking the nomiinal loads and multiplying each by the appropriate load factor. 3.3.3 Factored resistance ‘This is the calculated resistance divided by the material factor yp The calculated resistance is the actual capacity'of the component in relation to the action-effect being considered (axial load, bending moment or shear force), based on recognized structural analysis and assuming satisfactory manufacture ‘The material factor, ym, takes account of differences between the strengths of material test specimens and the strength of the actual material in the structure as manufactured, and reflects possible doubt as to the soundness of the component as built. ym should nommally be taken from table 83, but different values may be used by agreement between the designer and the client. Table 3.3 Material factors ] Toe of construction [yy Members [Joints Riveied and bolted 12 2 Welded 12 139 Bonded 12 30 7 For welding procedures which do not comply wiih BS 70 Pam 3, en should be incensed to. Rules for establishing the calculated resistance are given in sections four and five (members) and section ‘six (joints). A method of assessing the calculated resistance or the basis of statistics and probability is given in appendix B, NOTE. In certain structures it is necessary to check thal failure will not occur by overtuening oF sway Falla 3.4 Deformation 4.1 Recoverable elastic deformation A structure is acceptable in terms of deformation if the following is satisfied: elastic deflection under nominal loading limiting deflection Itis permissible, when different combinations of imposed loading are possible, to assume a reduced loading equal to 72 X nominal loads, where ye is given in table 3.2. ‘The calculation of elastic deflection should generally be based on the properties of the gross cross-section. However, for slender sections it may be necessary to take reduced section properties to allow for local buckling (see section 4) © BSI 07-1000 31BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 3 ‘The limiting deflection should be based on the relevant British Standard, or agreed between the designer and the client. In the absence of such information table 3.4 fives suggested values for certain types of structure. In setting limiting deflections itis important to realise that aluminium is three times as flexible as steel, so unduly small limiting deflections should be avoided. ‘Table 3.4 Limiting deflections Element Recommended defection limit Geenote) Cantilevers carrying floors [1/180 ‘Beams carrying plaster or other| Z/360 brittle finish urlins and sheeting rails: (a) under dead load only | 1/200 (©) under worst combination | 1/100 of dead, imposed, wind and snow loads Curtain wall mullions and transoms: (@) single glazed LAT (b) double glazed L250 ‘Tops of columns: horizontal | L/300 deflection (NOTE: isthe lengih Deaween Supports 3.42 Permanent inelastic deformation It may be generally assumed that components, whose static strength has been calculated in accordance with section four, will not suffer significant permanent deformation under action of nominal loading. This applies to all alloy groups. 3.43 Distortion due to frequent assembly In certain structures which have to be assenibled and disassembled frequently, it is necessary to consider the possibility of changes in major dimensions of the coupling system, leading to the gradual build-up of unacceptable errors in the assembled shape. 3.5 Durability ‘The durability rating of alloy groups is given in tables2.1 to 24. Ifa structure is designed in a durable alloy and protected in accordance with BS 8118 Part 2, it will be deemed satisfactory. The degree of exposure and the design life should be taken into consideration. 3.6 Fatigue 3.6.1 General Any structure or strictural component which is subject, to significant variations in load should be checked for fatigue. In general two possible limit states should be considered: a) total collapse; ») stable crack growth (damage tolerant), In both cases the design load spectrum (unfactored) is assumed to act. 3.6.2 Total collapse ‘The procedure for considering this limit state is to determine the predicted life in accordance with section seven, and check that this is not less than the design life. In certain circumstances the designer n Increase the nominal design life by multiplying by a factor (the fatigue life factor) , (>1). The choice of yy could be influenced by the following @) the possibility of increasing crack growth during the later stages of the life of the detail; (©) the accuracy of the assumed loading spectrum; (© whether records of loading will be kept during the life of the detail (@ the possibility of a change of use of the structure in mice ‘The designer may also wish to apply a fatigue material factor, ype to the design stress range given in figure79. The stress range would be divided by nur GD), and the choice of yy could be influenced by the following: (1) the need for the detail to exist in a very hostile ‘environment; 2) whether failure of the detail will result in failure Of the entire structure, or whether alternative load paths exist, 3.6. Stable crack growth Damage to a structure under fatigue conditions is assessed by monitoring the rate of growth of fatigue cracks by inspection at regular intervals, Methods of inspection, allowable limiting crack lengths, allowable rates of crack growth, and the time between Inspections should be agreed between the client and the designer. Crack growth is stable when the allowable rate of crack growth does not suddenly increase between inspections. NOTE. Methods for calculating crack growth and limiting crack length are outside the scope ofthis ead, but the ease with which 4 detail ean be inspected for eracks can influence the choice of Ding (63.6.2). © BSI 07.1990Section BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 3.7 Vibration 3.8 Testing For certain structures the possibility of undesirable Structural components designed in accordance with vibration under normal service conditions should be _sections 4 to 7 and the appropriate appendices are considered, In checking for the incompatibility of acceptable without testing. Components designed using vibration amplitudes nominal loads should be used. If other calculation methods, and components not vibration is thought to be a potential problem, the amenable to calculation, are acceptable only if their possibility of fatigue failure should also be checked resistance has been verified by testing. Such testing (see 3.6). should be carried out in accordance with section 8. © pst o7-1990 38BS 8118 : Part 1 : 1991 ction 4 Section 4. Static design of members 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 General All members should satisfy the limit states of static strength and of deformation, Deformation is covered ino Where reference is made to design curves, itis permissible instead for the designer to use formulae from which the curves are derived (see appendix K). Members are usually formed of extrusions, plate, sheet, tube or a combination of these. The rules below do not apply to castings, and designers wishing to employ castings should do so in close consultation with the manufacturers thereof, 4.1.2 Limit state of static strength The factored resistance of a member to a specific action-effeet should not be less than the magnitude of that actioneffect arising under factored loading. Rules for obtaining resistance to different actions are fiven as follows: (a) for beams (resistance to moment and shear force) (see 4.5); () for ties (resistance to axial tension) (see 4.6); (©) for struts (resistance to axial compression) (see 4.7). The procedure for calculating the interaction between ‘moment and axial load in members subject to combined actions is given in 4.8. ‘The formulae given contain limiting stresses (Po, Pas ‘py) Felated to material properties, which should be taken in accordance with 4.2. They also contain the material factor yyy which should be read from table 3.3 ‘The resistance of a memiber may be reduced as a result of local buckling, depending on the slendemess of its cross section. A proposed design is checked (except for a member under axial tension) by classifying the section in terms of its susceptbity to this type of failure. A method for checking the local buckling, including section classification, is given in43 4.1.3 Heat-affected zones (HAZS) Structural aluminium material generally becomes \weakened in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) adjacent to welds, and this should be allowed for in the design. This does not apply when the parent material is in the O or T4 condition; or when it is in the F condition and design is based on O-condition properties, Rules for estimating the severity and extent of HAZ softening are given in 4.4. Subsequent clauses then show how to allow for the effect of this softening on ‘member resistance. It is important to realize that a small weld, as used for example in connecting a small attachment, may considerably reduce the resistance of a member, due to softening of part of the cross-section. In beams it is often beneficial to locate welds in low-stress areas, ie. near the neutral axis or away from the region of peak moment. 4.1.4 Advanced design ‘Members can be safely designed using the recommendations of this section and the appropriate appendices. Other appendices provide a fuller treatment of certain specific aspects of member behaviour, and their use may lead to lighter designs, 4.2 Limiting stresses Resistance calculations for members are made using ascumed limiting stresses as follows Po is the limiting stress for bending and overall yielding; Pa 1S the limiting stress for local capacity of the section in tension or compression; py 1s the limiting stress in shear, Ps is the limiting stress for overall buckling stability ‘Values of po, Pa and py depend on the material properties and should be taken as in table 4.1 or 42. For materials not covered in these tables refer to appendix D. Values of p should be determined in accordance with 4.5.6.5 or 4.7.6. 43 Section classification and local buckling 43.1 General B.1.1 Section classification Resistance of members under moment or axial compression may become reduced by local buckling, if the slenderness of their component elements is high, ‘The first step in checking such members is to establish the section classification, ie. the susceptibility to local buckling. In order to do this, and also to allow for the effect of local buckling (when necessary), the designer should consider the slencemess of the individual elements comprising the section. 43.12 Types of element The following basic types of thin-walled element are identified in these rules: (@) flat outstand element; () fat intemal element; (© cured intemal element ‘These are often unreinforved, ie. not longitudinally stiffened (see figure 4.1 (a)). The stability of flat elements can be greatly improved by the provision of longitudinal stiffening ribs or lips, see figure 4.1 (b), in which case the elements are referred 0 as reinforced, auSection 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 —————— Table 4.1 Limiting stresses, heat-treatable alloys ‘Alloy Condition] Product Thickness Timiting stress ‘Over |Uptoand |p, Po > including mm [mm [Ninn [Ninne | Nine 6061 6 Extrusion - 150 }240 260 | 5 a Drawn tube = 6 a0 m5 | 14 6 0 25 |260 5 603 TH Exinision = wo «(6 «dS 40 ™ Drawn tube — fro 95 20 | 60 ™ Forgings — [0 | 80 100 | 50 15 Extrusion = % no {130 | 6s, 16 Extrusion = wo [igo sd 95 16 Drawn tube = 10 189 = |190 | 10 76 Forgings = 150 [160 {17095 6082 Tm! Extrusion = wo [ie [as [70 um Sheet 02 |s CC nc) ™ Plate 3 % 105 = |40 | 65, ™ Drawn tube = 0 105 | 40 | 65, 4 Forgings _ 150 15 | a5 70 16 Extrusion _ 20 25 | 278 155 2» 150 [27 | 290 | 160 16 Sheet ois 275 | 155 16 Plate 3 % 20/265 | 16 Drawn tube = 6 255 380 | 155 6 10 mo jas | as Te Forgings = 10 {ass fam | 55 7020 [t Exinision = % 1 [20 ~~ 110 T! Sheet, plate F B io }205 | 95, 16 Extrusion - % 20 = [310 | 470 1 Sheet, plate 02 |as 270 |205 | 160 © BSL 7-999BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 ———————— Table 42 Limiting stresses, non-heat-treatable alloys ‘Alloy Condition | Produet Thickness Over | Up toana | p, rs * including mm [mm | Nim® | Nine 1200 HM Sheet 02 125 [90 95 55 3108 Hid Sheet 02 ms /uo0 [0 |e | His Sheet 02 3 150 | 150 | 90 3105 Hid Sheet 02 3 me [i50«([ 8 16 Sheet 02 3 0 |175 | 100 Hs Sheet 02 3 190 {200 | 115 5083 OF Extrusion 150 ~/i05 [150 ‘| 65 ° Sheet, plate F 80 105/150 65 ° Drawn tube = 10 105/150 5 F Sheet, pate 3 25 0/170 75 He Sheet, plate 02 6 23 feo | 140 He Drawn tube = 10 235 [2 10 BIBIA OF Extrusion = 10 «(6 100 ‘(40 ° Sheet, plate 02 6 6 100 | 40 ° Drawn tube = 10 6 100 | 40 12 Sheet, plate 02 6 10 200 | 95 | 14 Sheet, plate 02 6 25 [aso | 35, 4 Drawn tube = 10 20 [220 | 180 5251 F Welded tube 08 20 Bo (330 ~—~« 130 12 Sheet, plate 02 6 ws 155 | 5 4 Sheet, plate 02 6 175 [200 | 105 BABA OF Extrusion = 150 «(& 100 —*(40 ° Sheet, plate 02 6 % 9% 35 2 Sheet 02 3 180 | 215 110 ea | sheet 02, 3 200 __| 235 120Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 19 1 — Key Os outstand Ts inert (2) Unreintorced (©) Reinforces | Figure 4.1 Types of flat element 43.13 Shear webs ‘The buckling of shear webs is treated separately (see 4.5.3.3 and also section 5). 4.3.2 Slenderness parameter f B21 General ‘The susceptibility to local buckling of an element in a beam (moment resistance) or in a strut (axial force resistance) depends on the parameter f as defined in43.2.2 1043.25. 43.2.2 Unreinforced flat elements ‘The parameter 8 depends on b/t or d/t for the element concemed, where is the element thickness, b the width of an element generally, and d the depth of a web element in a beam, b and d should be taken as the flat element width, measured where relevant to the springing of a fillet or to the toe of a weld. Bis defined as follows: (@) element under uniform compression: = b/t (D) element under stress gradient: 2) internal element with a stress B= 04dt gradient that results in a neutral axis ator the centre: (2) for any other stress gradients B= ght or adit where g is the stress gradient coefficient and is read from figure 42. In figure 4.2 y and yp are the distances from the neutral axis of the gross section to the more heavily compressed edge and the other edge respectively of the element, taken positive towards the compression side. They should generally be measured from the elastic neutral axis, although in checking whether a section is fully compact it is permissible to use the plastie neutral axis. 43.23 Reinforced flat elements ‘Two possible buckling modes should be considered as follows (see figure 4.3), and separate B values found for each: (a) mode 1: the reinforced element buckles as a unit taking the reinforcement with it (b) mode 2: the sub-elements comprising the reinforced element themselves buckle as individual elements the junctions between them staying straight, For mode 2 buckling f is found separately for each, sub-element in accordance with 4.3.2.2. For mode 1 it is generally determined as follows (but see the note {0 4.5.2.1, conceming outstand elemients in beams). (@) Mode 1, uniform compression. (2) Standard reinforcement, defined as reinforcement consisting of single-sided rib or lip Of thickness equal to the element thickness /, located as in figure 4.4 B= hot where band t are defined as in 4.3.2.2 h is read from figure 4.4 (a), (b) or (©) as appropriate, For figure 4.4, ¢ should be taken as the clear depth of the rib or lip measured to the surface of the plate © DSI oT-19%0BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 (2) Non-standard reinforcement. With any other shape of reinforcement f should be found by replacing it with an equivalent rib or lip of the standard form and proceeding as in (1). The value of for the equivalent rib or lip is chosen so that its second moment of area about the mid-plane of the plate is the same as that for the true reinforcement. (8) General method. For cases not covered by (1) ‘or 2) B may be taken as follows B= (WI) Ger0/ ae) where Ger ae the elasti critical stresses, and assuming simple edge support, with Ger __and without the reinforcement. (b) Mode 1, stress-gradient. A should be found using the expression in (a) (3) where der and Gero NOW relate to the stress at the more heavily compressed edge of the element. 4.3.24 Curved internal elements For a shallow curved element under uniform compression, f should be determined as follows: om B= mNMeTRET where Ris the radius of curvature to mid-metal b is the developed width of element at mid-metal {is the thickness For shallow curved elements under a stress gradient, a more favourable value of f may be taken, obtained by factoring the above value by g as found from figure 42. ‘The above treatment is valid, provided R20 is not less tha 0.164. Sections containing more deeply curved elements require special study. 7 1.0 0.5 +4 NOTE: For internal elements or outstands (peak compression a root) use curve A For outstands (peak compression a toe) use line B Figure 4.2 Flat elements under stress gradient, value of g 05 0 05 10 Yolo ) Figure 4.3 Buckling modes for flat reinforced elements © BSI 07-19096e 05 fa) Figure 4.4 Reinforced elements, value of h p UoTDag I66L + 1 148d : SITS SEBS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 ———— 432.5 Round tubes B should be found as follows, with no distinction between axial compression and bending: B=3 (pny where Dis the diameter to mid-metal {is the thickness. 4.33 Section classification 433.1 General The procedure is to classify the individual elements comprising the section, except for any element stressed wholly in tension. The classification of the section is then taken as that for the least favourable clement. Individual elements are classified in accordance with 4.3.3.4 or 4.3.3.5. 43.3.2 Sections: beams and struts For the section of a beam (moment resistance) or of a strut (axial force resistance) the following classifications apply. (@) Moment resistance: (1) fully compact: local buckling can be ignored; (2) semi-compact: the section can develop a moment equal t0 py times the elastic section ‘modulus; (8) slender: the moment resistance is reduced by premature local buckling at an extreme fibre stress below Po, (b) Axial compression resistance: 2) compact: local buckling can be ignored; (2) slender: local buckling lowers the resistance. 43.3.3 Sections subject to combined actions For the classification of sections required to carry biaxial bending, or simultaneous bending with axial force, see 4.8.2.1, 4334 Element classification ‘The classification of an individual element depends on the value of f (see 4.3.2) as follows: (@) elements in beams (moment resistance): B=; fully compact Bi By slender (b) elements in struts (axial resistance): B= By compact A> Bo slender where fy and fy are as given in table 43, ‘Table 43 Limiting values of # Elements Bo hi Unwelded | Welded] Unwelded | Welded Ontstand Te Ge [Ge Be elements Intemal De 18 | 18e be elements [NOTE 1. The quantiiy¢ should generally be taken as Follows (except for certain flange elements in beams, see 43.3.5) “2 (50),)" where i the limiting stress (in Nin) (see tables 4.1 and 42), NOTE: 2. An element is considered as welded! i it contains welding a an edge or at any point in its widtd, When the ‘Stability ofa paricular cross-section of a member is evaluated, however, cs permissible 1o consider an element as unvwelded if ‘it contains no welding at that section, even though i s welded clsewhere along ts length NOTE 3. Ina welded element the classification is independent of the extent of the HAZ, 4.3.3.5 Understressed flange elements A more favourable classification may if desired be taken for flange elements in members under bending, or bending with axial force, that are both: a) parallel to the axis of bending; and b) less highly stressed than the most severely. stressed fibres in the section, For these it is peruissible, in using table 4.3, to take a modified value of ¢ as follows: = (250y3/poy2) "* where y} and yp are the distances from the neutral axis of the gross section to the most severely stressed fibres and to the element respectively. They should generally be measured from the elastic neutral axis, although in checking whether a section is fully ‘compact it is permissible to use the plastic one. 4.3.4 Local buckling 43.4.1 General ‘The possibility of local buckling in members classified as slender is generally allowed for by replacing the true section by an effective one. The effective section is obtained by employing a local buckling coefficient kk, to factor down the thickness, this being applied to any uniform thickness slender element that is wholly or partly in compression, Elements that are not uniform in thickness require special study. 4.3.4.2 Determination of ky, The coefficient kj, which is found separately for different elements of the section, is read from the appropriate curve in figure 4.5 selected in accordance with table 4.4. In order to select the correct curve the value of file should be determined as follows: A is found as in 4.3.2; © = (250/p,)"* generally (but see note 3 of 4.5.2.3 for beam conipression flanges); © BSL T1999Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 where ‘Po is the limiting stress for material (in Ninm2), regardless of HAZ effects, ‘Table 4.4 Curve selection for figure 4.5 (local buckling) Elements Unwelded Flat outstand curve A elements Internal elements | curve C curve D (fat or curved) Round tubes Lower of, Lower of curves Cand | curves D and E E NOTE: See note 5 to table 4 In order to decide whether an element should count as. unwelded or welded in table 4.4, refer to note 2 to table 43. In the case of reinforced flat elements it is important to consider both possible modes of buckling (see figure 4.3) and take the more critical. In the case of mode 1 buckling the factory, should be applied to the area of the reinforcement as well as to the basic plate thickness. 4.3.43 Sections subject to combined actions For the determination of kj, in sections required to cary biaxial bending, or simultaneous bending with axial force, see 4.8.2.2, 4.4 HAZ softening adjacent to welds 4.4.1 General It is necessary in design to allow for the softening that usually occurs in the vicinity of welds. The region ‘worst affected extends immediately around the weld, beyond which the material properties rapidly improve to their full parent values. The softening affects the 2% proof stress more severely than the tensile strength. For design purposes it is acceptable to approximate to the true condition by assuming that around each weld there is a zone, the HAZ, in which strength properties are reduced by a constant factor k,. Outside this zone it is assumed that the full parent properties apply. The severity of the softening in the HAZ, as defined by ky. is covered in 4.4.2. The extent of the HAZ, defined by a distance z from the weld, is considered in 4.4.3, It is sometimes possible to mitigate the effects of HAZ, softening by means of artificial ageing applied after welding (see appendix F), 4.4.2 Severity of softening 44.2.1 HAZ softening factor ‘The factor k, should normally be taken from table 4.5, For certain Calculations it is permissible instead to use a more favourable value as explained in appendix F © BSI 07-100 This applies when the resistance of a member is govemed by pq oF py rather than Po. To find k, for materials not covered in table 4.5 see appendix F, 44.2.2 7020 material ‘The alternative k, values given in table 4.5 for 7020 material should normally be applied as follows, accorting to the nature of the stress acting on the 1AZ material: (a) value (A): tensile stress acting transversely to the axis of a butt or fillet weld (b) value (B): any other stress condition, ie Jongitudinal stress, transverse compressior Itis sometimes permissible to increase value (A) to a figure above that in the table, depending on the degree of thermal control exercised du appendix F). 4423 Recovery time for heat-treated alloys The k, values given in table 45 are valid from the following times after welding, provided the material hhas been held at a temperature not less than 15 °C shear, (@) 6 2k a seseries alloys (b) 7 2% 2 seseries alloys 3 days; 30 clays. In determining the resistance of components that 3 to be loaded sooner than this, but not less than 24 after welding, the value of k, should be reduced by a factor.f found as follows: (Ox f= 09 +O. ( — DR) Series alloys Q@QIixee f= 08+ 02 ((n — He series alloys. where ais the time (in days) between welding and loading. If the material is held at a temperature below 15°C ter welding, the recovery time will be prolonged and advice should be sought. 4.4.3 Extent of HAZ 44.3.1 Definition of = ‘The HAZ is assumed to extend a distance z in any direction from a weld, measured as follows: (1) transversely from the centre-line of an in-line Dutt weld (see figure 4.6(a)); (2) at fillet welds, transversely from the point of intersection of the welded surfaces (see figures 4.6(¢),(1),(g) and (h)); (B) at butt welds used in comer, tee or cruciform Joints, transversely from the point of intersection, of the welded surfaces (see figures 4.6(b), (¢) and @) 4) in any radial direction from the end of a weld (See figures 4.6(i) and (j)). 4BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 Curve A: outstands, unseeded Curve Bs outstands, welded (@) For fat outstand elements | Figure 4.5 Local buckling factor ky, ‘The HAZ boundaries should generally be taken as straight lines normal to the metal surface, as shown in figure 4.6. However, itis permissible instead to assume a curved boundary of radius z as shown at B (in place of A) in figure 4.6(i). This will tend to be advantageous when surface welding is applied to thick material 4.43.2 Basic formula for z ‘The following expression should generally be used for estimating z: z= azo where 2 is the basic value (see 4.4.3.3); wand 7) are modifying factors, which may be found from 4.4.3.4 and 4.4.3.5, or alternatively using appendix F The use of appendix F will tend to be favourable when the interpass temperature during fabrication is held below the normal value required in BS 8118 : Part 2 44.3.3 Determination of = The basic value zo, which would relate to an isolated ‘weld laid on unheated material with complete inierpass cooling, should be taken as the lower of the two Values given by (i) and (i) (in mm) (depending on the parent material) as follows: @) intine butt welds: (1) 7 & & * series alloys: (2 = 304 W2 (i) 2 = 45 ty (2) other alloys: (i) % = 20 + WB Gil) 20 = Bty (b) All other types of butt weld and all types of fillet weld: (1) 7 + % % series alloys: @ y= 304 2 Gi) 20 = 45M (2) other alloys: Oz) = 20448 (i) 25 = Supa where ty isthe lesser of O5(ty + tc) and 1.5ty; are the thickness of the thinnest and thickest elements connected by welding respectively. thy te 42 © BSL 07-1909Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 TT g Curve C: intemal elements, unwelded Curve Dr intemal element, seeded Curve Ei round tubes NOTE. See note $ 10 table 43 () For internal elements and round tubes Figure 4.5 Local buckling factor k, (concluded) 44.3.4 Determination of a ‘The factor a in 4.4.3.2 provides for the possibility of the material at the start of deposition of a weld pass being at an elevated temperature, due either to preheat, or to the laying of a previous pass or weld in the same joint. Its value may be taken from table 4.6, which is Valid provided fabrication complies with BS 8118: Part 2 (altematively see appendix F). 4.4.3.5 Determination of 7 ‘The factor 1 in 4.4.3.2 covers the possibility of increased heat buildup due to the following: (@) proximity of a free edge or edges; or (b) other welding in the same vicinity ‘The value of 7. may be found as in (I) oF (2) as follows, provided fabrication satisfies BS 8118 : Part 2 Alternatively refer to appendix F. (1) For a joint away from which there are at least ‘wo valid heat-paths: n=1 a valid heat-path being one for which where his the distance to a free edge, or half the distance (0 a nearby weld (see note); hy 4.5azy for 7 sk 4 series alloys, or = Bazo for other alloys, When a weld is located too close to the free edge of an outstand, such that ’ 25mm y= 133 © BSI 07-1090) 43BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 ‘Table 45 HAZ softening factor k, ‘Alloy Condition Product rs (see note 1) ‘Non heat treatable 1200 Hid s 0.13 3108 Hid s 08) Hs s 013, 3105 Hid 5 O17 HIG s 015, HIB, s 013 5083 OF ESR DT 1.00) 22 SP 0.45, BISMA OF ESP 1.00 H22 P 00 24 SP. 029 5251 F wr (020 F F 1.00 2 SP. 035 Ho SP. 024 Bae OF ESP 1.00 Hee s 0.35 ay s 0.30 Heat-treatable 6061 6 EDT 0.50 6063 1! E 1.00 ™ pr 0.65 ™ F 0.80 a E 0.75, 16 BF 050 16 pr 0.45, (0082 ™ E,8,R DT, F 1.00) 16 E,S,RDT,F 050 7020 oy E,S,P (0.80(A) 1.00(B) 76 ESP 0.604) 0.808) (See note 2) NOTE Ie the prods colar FSD WT and F eer respectively 1 exon, she, lat awn abe, weed abe and forgings. NOTE 2. For 7020 material refer to 4.4.2.2 forthe applicability ofthe A and B values. © BSI 07.1000Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 iy : Zaz x @ () ra © @) i oC) hy 4 @ o Figure 4.6 Extent of HAZ, definition of 2 ‘Table 4.6 Extent of HAZ, factor a Case | Joint configuration Value of ‘Substantially straight continuous weld figure (see figures 4.6(a), (©), (and @®) P total deposit area = 50 mnt 10 | Q total deposit area > 50 mn? 15 R Substantially straight continuous joint containing two or more 15 20 adjacent welds (see figures 4.6 (b), (), (6) and (h)) 5 Localized iregular joint 15 20 (a) membersto-meniber joints in trusses; (b) welds connecting transverse stiffeners in beams and | plate-girders; (©) Welds used to connect lugs and other attachments, © BSI 07.1900 45BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 Figure 4.7 Typical heat-path measurement 443.6 Overlapping HAZs When two joints are located so that their respective HAZs (determined as in 4.4.3) overlap, it may be assumed that the extent of the HAZ on the outer side ‘of each joint is unaltered by the proximity. In calculating whether HAZs overlap, the possibilty of elevated temperatures should be taken into account by using the formula for = from 4.4.3.2. 4.43.7 Experimental determination of 2 As an altemative to estimating the extent of the HAZ by calculation, itis pemutted instead to determine it experimentally. This may be done by conducting a hardness survey on a representative specimen (see appendix F). 45 Beams 4.5.1 Introduetion 45.1.1 General ‘The following checks should generally be carried out on all beams (including plate girders). (a) Moment check. At any cross-section the moment M under factored loading should not exceed the factored moment resistance Mis of that section, ‘as found from 4.5.2 (or alternatively appendix E), ‘Mpg should be suitably reduced to allow for coincident shear when necessary (see 4.5.4). (b) Shear check. At any cross-section the shear force V under factored loading should not exceed the factored shear force resistance Vas (see 4.5.3) For some cases it is also necessary to make one or both of the following checks: (1) web bearing check (see 4.5.5); (2) lateral torsional buckling check (see 4.5.6). 45.1.2 Plate girders Plate girders having slender stiffened webs should preferably be designed using 5.4, It is permissible to design them as beams, but with probable loss of ‘econoniy. 45.1.3 Bending with axial load For the design of beams required to carry load, in addition to moment, reference should be made to 4.8. 4.5.14 Biaxial bending Beams subjected to simultaneous bending about both principal axes should also be checked using 4.8. 4.5.2 Uniaxial moment resistance of the section 4.5.2.1 Section classification for moment resistance It is first necessary to classify the section as fully ‘compact, semi-compact, or slender, the classification being based on that of the least favourable of its component elements. This should be carried out in accordance with 4.3.3. In the case of a reinforced outstand element, forming patt or all of the compression flange, the presence of reinforcement in the form of an outwardly facing lip should be ignored in classifying the section, 45.2.2 Basic calculation ‘The factored moment resistance Mgs at a given section, in the absence of shear should generally be found as follows: (@) unwelded, fully compact —-Mps = PoSp/mni (©) unwelded, semi-compact Ms = PoZw/Yns (©) welded, fully compact Ms = PoSpe!?ni (@) welded, semi-compact ——-Mps= PoZneYsi (©) unwelded, slender Mass = DoZelm OF PoLe/Yen Whichever is the smaller; Mas = Poel? oF Polly, whichever is the smaller (0 welded, slender where Sy and Zy are the plastic moduli respectively of the net section; Spe and Ze are the plastic and elastic moduli respectively for the net effective section; Ze is the elastic modulus of effective section; Po is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 42); Ym is the material factor (see table 3:3), NOTE, For semi-compact and slender sections itis permissible, if found favourable, to take a moment resistance hased on an elastoplastie stress patter as Set out in appendix B, tsing the expressions in 45.2.2. When this fs done, note 5 1045.23 is invalid 46 © BSI 07-1900Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ———————————— eee 4.5.2.3 Assumed section ‘The terminology used in 4.5.2.2 Is as follows: (a) net section includes the deduction for holes only; (b) net effective section includes the reduced thickness taken in the vicinity of welds, to allow for HAZ softening, together with deduction for holes (0) effective section includes the reduced thicknesses taken to allow for HAZ softening and local buckling, but with no deduction for holes. In items (b) and (c) the reduced thicknesses should generally be taken as follows for different elements in a section (but see notes 1 105). (2) Slender element free of HAZ effects. A thickness ky/ is taken for the whole element, where fy is found as in 4.3.4. (2) Nonsslender elements subject to HAZ effects. A thickness of kt is taken in the softened parts of, the element, where k, and the extent of the softening are as given in 4.4.2 and 4.4.3, (8) Slender element with HAZ effects. The reduced thickness is taken as the lesser of ft and ky in the softened part, and as kf in the rest of the element, NOTE 1, When a hole is located in a reduced thickness region, the eduction for that hole may be based on the reduced thickness. NOTE 2. In the case of reinforced elements k, should be applied to the area ofthe reinforcement as well othe basi plate thickness. NOTE 3. In considering slender lange element that lies nearer te the neutral axis than does the extreme fiber tensile material, it 's permissible 1 take a more favourable value for This is dane by using a modified value of ein figure-.5 (instead of the normal value, See 43.4.2) as follows: 250yV/P, where y, andy, are the distances from the elastic neutral axis of the gross section to the extreme fibres and to the element considered, respectively: This relaxation only applies i the ubstantially parallel tothe axis of bending NOTE 4. Fora reinforced element forming part oF al of the ‘compression ange of slender section, In which tl reinforcement takes the form of an outwardly facing ip, he presence ofthe lip should be ignored in determining the monvent NOTE 5, For a welded element in a semi-compact or slender Section a more favourable assumed thickness may be Taken a8 follows (a) HAZ sontening is ignored in any material less than ky fom the elastic neutral axis of the gross section, where isthe distance therefrom to the furthest exizome Aibres of the section () Por 14% materia, at a distance y (okgy,) fromthe neutral ‘aus, kz may be replaced by a vale yy determined as follows wn ky nha 4.5.2.4 Hybrid sections ‘The moment capacity of a hybrid section, containing parent materials of different strengths, may be safely based on the lowest value of pg within the section. Alternatively, the following more advantageous procedure may be used. (@) Fach element is classified according to its particular value of po () For a fully compact section Ms is found using conventional plastic bending theory, allowing for the value of po in each element, and again using the net effective section in the case of welded members (©) For other sections Mps is found from expression (b), (d) of e) in 4.5.22 as appropriate, basing py and Z on the point in the section giving the lowest values of Mis 45.2.5 Semi-compact sections For these it is permitted, if desired, to take an improved value of Mgs which may be obtained by interpolation as follows: BoB ay — my Ms Bi f, are the fully compact and semi-compact values of Ms, found from 4.5.2.2; B is the value of f for the most critical clement in the section; are the fully and semi-compact limiting values of f for that same table element (see table 4.3), By and fo 4.5.3 Shear force resistance 4.5.3.1 Section classification Its first necessary to classify the section as compact or slender in terms of its resistance to shear force as follows: (@) a compact section is unaffected by buckling: (b) a slender section should be checked for buckling, ‘The sections are classified as follows: (1) sections containing shear webs orientated in the plane of loading, without tongue-plates: a= 49¢ compact dit>49¢ slender where a is the clear depth of web between flanges (measured on the slope in the case of inclined webs); t is the web thickness; e (Po)"* = (150/p,)'*s ‘Po and py are the limiting stress (in N/m (ee tables 4.1 and 4.2); (2) sections as in (1), but with tongue plates: see 4.5.3 (8) solid bar: compact; (4) round tube: same classification as for axial compression (see 4. 071900)BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 453.2 Compact sections ‘The factored shear force resistance Vas at a section, in the absence of moment, may be found using the following equation Ves = Plt where ‘Py is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); A, is the effective shear area; Ym is the material factor (see table 3.3). | ‘ne cece shear area is follows (a) For sections containing shear webs without tongue plates, that are free from HAZ softening, Ay is determined from the folowing equation: Ay = 0.8NDt where Dis the overall depth of web measured to outer surface of anges tis the web thickness; Nis the number of webs. ‘The presence of small holes may be ignored, provided in total they do not occupy more than 20% bf the clear web depth, between flanges (b) For sections as in (a), but with webs affected by HAZ softening Ay is determined from the following equation ‘Ay = NOSDI ~ "(1 ~ kz)dt} where ys the total depth of HAZ material occurring within the clear depth of the web between flanges (see 4.4.3); ky, is the softening factor (see 4.4.2), For a web welded over its full depth, or continuously welded longitudinally at any point in its depth, Vag should be taken as k, times the unwelded value. (©) For a solid bar, Ay = 084 oF 0.84, (@) For a compact round tube, Ay = 0.64 oF 0.04. where A isthe section area (in the absence of HAZ softening); Ae _ is the effective section area (when HAZ softening is present), found by taking an effective thickness off times the true thickness for HAZ material, In the case of sections containing shear webs, the methods provided for the calculation of Vps for plate girders may be used (see 5.4.8.2 and 5.4.3.5) 4.5.3.3 Slender sections ‘The factored shear force resistance Vs in the absence of moment for sections containing slender shear webs ‘without tongue-plates, orientated in the plane of, loading, should be taken as the lesser of the two values obtained from (a) and (b) as follows: (a) Fielding check. The resistance is calculated as for a compact section, using 4.5.3.2 (a) or (b) as appropriate (b) Buckling check. Vis, in KN, is obtained from the following expression: Vs = MONEY where dis the clear depth of web between flanges (mm); tis the web thickness (mm); Nis the number of webs; ‘Yo is the material factor (See table 3:3). 4.5.34 Inclined shear webs ‘The expressions covering compact sections in 4.5.3.2 (a) and (b) remain valid for inclined webs, provided D is still measured normal to the neutral axis But in checking slender inclined webs (see 4.5.3.3) the ‘expression in (b) should be factored by cos 6, where 6 is the angle between the web and the plane of the applied loading. 45.35 Use of tongue-plates ‘The shear force resistance of sections containing shear webs with tongue-plates may safely be found generally using the treatment given in 5.4.3.1 10 5.4.3.5, but with the factors taken as follows: Is the elastic critical shear buckling factor and is determined as given in 5.4.3.3; 4 Is the tension field factor and is equal to zero. ‘This treatment is valid only if the tongue-plates comply with 5.45. 4.5.4 Combined moment and shear force 4.5.4.1 Moment with low shear At any section it may be assumed that the factored ‘moment resistance Mys is unaffected by a coincident shear force V (under factored loading) less than half the factored shear force resistance Ves found in45.3.3, 4.5.4.2 Moment with high shear If V exceeds 015 Vps, a reduced value for the factored moment resistance iso should be found as follows: @) For sections with shear webs, connected to flanges at both longitudinal edges: Maso = Mrs (1+ (1 ~ a)(0.6 ~ 12 VVps)) (©) For other sections: Meso = Mps (1.6 ~ 1.2V/Vps) where Mps is the factored moment resistance of the sseetion in the absence of shear (see 4.5.2); @ isthe ratio of minimum to maximum, shear stress in the web, assuming an clastic stress distribution. For sections classified as slender for bending, or affected by HAZ softening, « should be based on the assumed section used in the determination of Mis, (see 4.5.2.3) 48 © pst o7-990Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 4.5.5 Web bearing 45.5.1 General ‘This clause concerns the design of webs subjected to localized forces caused by concentrated loads or reactions applied to a beam. 4.5.5.2 Unstiffened web ‘When the web itself is required to carry the localized force, without the provision of a bearing stiffener, as for example under a rolling load, both the following should be met: (@) PwiPal¥m OF KPa! Ym (©) Pw2 Porn where Dy ANd Py ate stresses arising at its extreme edge and mid-point respectively, assuming a 45° dispersion angle either side of a localized force; Ds is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 42); Ps is the buckling stress for the web treated as a thin column between the flanges; kK is the softening factor for HAZ material (see Appendix F, table E1 and 4.4.2); ym is the material factor (see table 33). In (a) the second expression should be used when the web is welded to the flange and HAZ softening occurs. Otherwise the first expression is valid. ps should be determined as given in 4.7.4.1 selecting the curve in figure 4.10(a) that intercepts the stressaxis at a value py (see tables 4.1 and 4.2). The slendemess parameter \ to be used to select the curve should allow for possible relative lateral movernent of the flanges as the web buckles, Assuming a web fixity intemediate between full fixity and simple support, the value of 2 is given by 2.54 45.5.3 Web with tongue-plate When a tongueplate is provided, 4.5.5.2(a) should be satisfied both at the top edge of the tongueplate, and at the upper edge of the thin web. 45.5.4 Stiffened web A bearing stiffener, if fitted, should be of compact, section. It may be conservatively designed on the assumption that it resists the entire bearing force, unaided by the web, the stiffener being checked as a strut (see 4.7) for out-ofplane column buckling and local squashing, with bending effeets allowed for if necessary (see 4.8). Alternatively, a more economical stiffener may be designed by referring to the plate girder stiffener clause (see 5.4.5). 4.5.6 Lateral torsional buckling 45.6.1 General ‘A beam, other than those allowed exemption in 4.5.6.2, should be checked against possible failure by lateral torsional buckling in accordance with 4.5.6.3 045.68, 45.6.2 Exemptions ‘The possibility of premature failure by lateral torsion buckling may be ignored in any of the following cases: (a) bending about the minor axis; (b) beam supported against lateral movement throughout its length; (© lateral supports to compression flange provided at spacing not greater than 40y where ry is the minor axis radius of gyration of , the section: € = (250/p6)"*; Po is the limiting stress (in Nimni?) of, ‘compression flange material (see tables 4.1 and 42), 4.5.63 Basic condition The beam should be checked for possible lateral torsional buckling in every unsupported bay between points of lateral support. In each of these the following, condition should be satisfied: M=Mpx where M is the moment arising under factored loading in the length considered; Mrs Is the factored moment of resistance to lateral torsional buckling, and is equal to PsSMeni s is the plastic section modulus of gross section, without reduction for HAZ. softening, local buckling or holes; Yn {is the material factor (see table 33); Ps is the buckling stress (see 4.5.6.5). 4.5.6.4 Allowance for moment variation ‘The value of M in 4.5.6.3 may be safely taken as the ‘maximum value arising in the bay considered. Alternatively, it is permitted to take M as the equivalent uniform moment i. For the case of simple moment_ ‘gradient in the length considered (linear variation) 7 may be taken as follows: (@) for LO> MoM, = -05 = 0.60 +041 (®) for MyM, <-05 M=04My; where M, and Mg are respectively the maximum and ‘minimum moments arising (see figure 4.8). For other ‘eases of moment variation refer to appendix H. © BSI 07.1990 49BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Figure 4.8 Lateral torsional buckling, equivalent uniform moment 45.6.5 Buckling stress ‘The lateral torsional buckling stress p, should be read from figure 4.9 using the curve which intercepts the stress axis at a stress p; found as follows: (a) For unwelded fully compact section PL Poi (b) For other sections, including hybrid Pi = YoMes/S where Po I the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); Mps is the factored moment resistance of the section; Sis the plastic section modulus of gross section; Yn 18 the material factor (see table 33), Mp should be found generally in accordance with 4.5.2, allowing for local buckling and HAZ softening, but with no deduction for holes. NOTE, For beams of high slenderness (2 > 190) it wil be necessary to refer to the appropriate nondimensional curve in appendix K to find 4.5.6.6 Slenderness parameter ‘The lateral torsional buckling slendemess parameter 2, needed for figure 4.9, may be obtained using any of the following expressions (a) to (c). (@) Conservative value: 4 = dy = Vry where Lis the effective length for lateral torsional buckling; 2, is the minor axis radius of gyration for gross section. For the following cases, however, appendix H should be used to find the effective length of the beam (0): (1) cantilever beams; @) beams subject to destabilizing loads, Le. loading between points of lateral support, that effectively acts at a point in the section on the compression side of the neutral axis; (8) beams subject to normal loads when the compression flange is laterally unrestrained, both flanges are free to rotate in plan, and torsional restraint is provided only by the bearing of the bottom flange on the supports, For all other types of support ! may be safely taken as the distance between points of lateral support. Altematively a more favourable value for certain restraint conditions may be found using H.1 (b) General expression: 2 = x(ES/Mc,)"" where E is the modulus of elasticity; Sis the plastic section modulus of gross section; Mer is the elastic critical uniform moment (see H.2). (©) Channel and Isection members covered by table 4.7: parameter 2 may be taken as follows, but should not exceed the value given by (a): Xdy A T e ae ¥(Ae et f+¥(s) where: D is the overall section dep t is the ange thickness; Xand ¥ are the coefficients to be found using table 4.7 or they may be conservatively taken as X'= 1.0, ¥= 005. NOTE, When the Nange reinforcement to an Lbeam oF channel member isnot of the precise form shown in table 47 (simple lips), itis sil permissible to obtain 2 using the expression in (c) above In so doing. X and Y should be taken as for an equivalent simple lip having the same internal depth C, while Ay ts calculated forthe stetion with its actual reinforcement. 45.6.7 Effective lateral restraints Bracing systems providing lateral restraint should be designed on the assumption that the total lateral force exerted by a compression flange, under factored loading, shared between the points of restraint in any one span, is 3% of the compression in that flange. © Bs1 07-1900BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 300 200 . £ © 100 ° 50 NOTE. To find gat 2 > 190 refer to igure KL 100 a Figure 4.9 Lateral torsional buckling of beams, buckling stress p, Where a series of two or more parallel beams require lateral restraint, itis not adequate merely to tie the compression flanges together so that they become ‘mutually dependent. Adequate restraint will be provided only by anchoring the ties to an independent robust support, or by providing a triangulated bracing system. If the number of parallel beams exceed three, itis sufficient for the restraint system to be designed to resist the sum of the lateral forces derived from the three largest compressive forces only. 45.6.8 Beams containing localized welds ‘The value of Mgs in 4.5.6.5 for a beam, subject to HAZ, softening, should generally refer to the most unfavourable section in the bay considered, even when such softening occurs only locally along the length. However, when HAZ softening occurs at the ends of the bay only, its presence may be ignored in considering lateral torsional buckling, provided that such softening does not extend a distance along the ‘member, at each end of the bay, greater than the width of the section, 4.6 Tension members 4.6.1 General ‘The tension P arising under factored loading of axially loaded tension memibers (ties) should not exceed the factored tension resistance Pgs of the section. (see 4.6.2), For tension members having eccentric end connections it is generally necessary to refer to 4.8 to allow for interaction between axial load and the moments. introduced. However, in certain cases (see 4.6.3) itis permissible to use a simplified procedure. © BSI 07-1000)BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Table 4.7 Lateral torsional buckling of beams, coefficients X and Y Coefficients rst x= 09-0032 001 ; a 5 a v= o05 ~ on 22 oa Ba a a eh peony x= o01~3(om — 0078) a8 Ww] nf v= 005 — 006 soe, im wu 4 ml = 095 ~ 0.032 + 0.06 2 a x= 008 — 0002 om P| vd 9] =" o7 ~ oo1a{ Be - 1} “4 , / alt “Tr 5 X= 101- Bid /, © (0.03 - a06§ c ¥=007 ~ 0105 NOTE 1, The expressions for X and Vare val for 15 = DB TS tah = 05 NOTE 2. For the specific shape of lipped channel standardized in BS 1161 : X = 095, ¥ = QUT Cy © BSL 7-190Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 4.6.2 Tension resistance 4.6.2.1 General The factored tension resistance Pyxs should be taken as the lesser of two values corresponding respectively to: (@) general yielding along the member (see 4.6.2.2); (b) local failure at a critical section (see 4.6.2.3), 4.6.22 General yielding ‘The value Pigs is based on the general cross-section of the member along its length, ignoring the effect of end connections, occasional holes or localized HAZ, regions, as follows. (a) For a member free from HAZ softening, or only thus affected at localized positions along its length: Pres = Pom (b) For a member in which the section contains HAZ material generally along the length, as with longitudinal welds: Pass = PoAc!n where ‘Po is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4. Ais the gross section area; Ac is the effective section area; im i the material factor (see table 3:3), Ae is found by taking a reduced area equal to kz times the true area for a softened zone, ky, being taken as in 4.4.2, and the extent of the zone as ind, 46.23 Local faiture ‘The value of Pigs is based on the most critical section as follows: (a) For a section free from HAZ, softening: Pass = Pan! (b) For a section containing HAZ material: nen Pas. where Pa isthe limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); Ay _ is the net section area, with deduction for holes; Ano i the net effective section area; Ym 18 the material factor (see table 3.3). ‘The value of Ane is found in the same way as Ae (See 4.6.2.2), but with suitable deduction for holes if necessary. The deduction for holes in HAZ regions may bbe based on the reduced thickness kt 4624 Staggered holes Where staggered holes occur, alternative values for Ay or Ane should be calculated as in (a) and (b) as. follows, and the lower value then used in 4.6.2.3, (@) Ay OF Age is taken at the least favourable cross-section. (b) A diagonal or zig-zag section is considered, with Ay OF Ane found as follows, An=A~ Hor Ane = Ae ~ H where H=YAy ~ Seely are the longitudinal and transverse pitch of holes respectively: ‘ isthe plate thickness or effective plate thickness; yy is the sum of hole areas on the diagonal or zigzag section considered wand y 4.6.2.5 Hybrid sections ‘The tension capacity of a hybrid section, containing material of different strengths should be found by’ adding together the resistances of the various parts, obiained in4.6.2.3, 4.63 Eccentrically connected ties Eccentrically connected ties include the following (@) angles connected through one leg; (b) web-connected channels (©) flange connected tees, Single-bay tension members of these three types may be designed as axially loaded and the variation in stress in the outstanding leg or legs ignored, provided that, in determining the area Ay OF Aye needed for the local check (see 4.6.2.3), part of the outstanding leg. area is deducted fromthe gross area, as well as any eduetion for holes or HAZ effeets, The amount of ‘outstanding leg to be deducted is as follows (1) single component connected one side of a gusset (2) double component symmetrically connected either side of gusset where Ay is the effective area of the outstanding leg or legs lying clear of the connected element, but ignoring any fillet. When such members are continuous over several bays, itis only necessary to apply the above treatment at the outer ends of the end bays. Elsewhere the local tension resistance may be found as in 4.6.2.3, without any outstanding leg deduction. ‘The general yielding check should be performed as given in 4.6.2.2 064, 024, © BSL 7-900BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 4.7 Compression members 4.7.1 General 4.7.1.1 Three checks are generally needed for axially loaded compression members (struts) as follows: (@) column, ie. flexural, buckling check (see 4.7.3 and 4.7.4) (refers to overall buckling of the member as a whole); (b) torsional buckling check (see 4.7.3 and 4.7.5) (refers to overall buckling of the memiber as a whole); © local squashing check (see 4.7.7) (relates to the weakest crosssection down its length). ‘Check (a) should always be made. Check (b) is generally required, but may be waived in some cases. Check (©) is only needed for struts having low slendemess ratios that are significantly weakened locally by holes or welding. 4.7.1.2. To take account of interaction between axial load and bending it is generally necessary to refer to 4.8. However, for struts having eccentric end-connections it is in certain cases permissible to use a simplified procedure (see 4.7.9) to allow for the moments introduced. 4.7.2 Section classification for axial compression Before making any of the three checks given in 4.7.1 It is first necessary to classify the cross-section as compact or slender. The classification is based on that of the least favourable of its component elements, in accordance with 4.3.3. 4.73 Resistance to overall buckling With both checks (a) and (b) the axial thrust P under factored loading should not exceed the factored axial resistance Pp based on overall buckling, given by the following: Pa = DeAlYon where A is the gross area, without reduction for HAZ softening, local buckling or holes; ps is the buckling stress in flexural or torsional buckling; ym Is the material factor (see table 33). In finding p, for column buckling, failure about both principal axes should be considered and the lower value taken, NOTE. For a strut of high slendemess (2 > 130) it wail be necessary to refer to appendix K to fnd p, 4.7.4 Column buckling 4.7.4.1 Buckling stress ‘The value of p, for column buckling should be read from the appropriate curve in figure 4.10, selected in accordance with 4.7.6. 4.742 Stenderness parameter ‘The column buckling slendemess parameter 1 needed for figure 4.10 is defined as follows: har where Lis the effective length; rris the radius of gyration; both appropriate to the direction of buckling considered. ‘The effective length ! should be taken as KL, where L is the length between points of lateral support; or for a cantilever strut, its length. The value of K, the effective length factor for struts should be assessed from a knowledge of the end conditions; table 48 gives guidance. ‘The value of r should be based on the gross section for all members. NOTE. When the cross-section is wholly or substantially affected by HAZ softening at a directionally restrained end of a memiber, ‘sch restraint should be ignored in arriving at a sultable value for K. Thus for case | in able 48 K should be taken as 1.0 iC the ‘section is fly softened at each end. Table 4.8 Effective length factor K for struts End conditions K 1 Effectively held in position and 07 restrained! in direction at both ends 2 Biffectively held in position at both ends and restrained in direction at one end 3 Effectively held in position at both [1.0 ends, but not restrained in direction 085 4 Effectively held in position at one [1.25 end, and restrained in direction at both ends 5 Effectively held in position and 15 restrained in direction at one end, and Partially restrained in direetion but not held in position at the other end 6 Effectively held in position and 20 restrained in direction at one end, but not held in position or restrained at the other end © BSI OT:1000Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 —— 300 200 P,.Nimm? loo 50 100 @ NOTE: To fin p, a 2 > 130 refer to figure K.1 Figure 4.10 Column buckling stress p, for struts © BSL 71999BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 el 300 200 p,.Nimm? loo 50 100 © NOTE. To find pg at 2 > 190 refer to figure KL Figure 4.10 Column buckling stress p, for struts (continued) © RSI o7-1909Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ee 300 200 Nia? 100 50 100 a Figure 4.10 Column buckling stress p, for struts (concluded) © pst 07-1990BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 ———— 4.7.5 Torsional buckling 4.7.5.1 Exemptions ‘The possibility of torsional buckling may be ignored for the following: (@) closed hollow sections; (b) doubly symmetrical Esections; (©) sections composed entirely of radiating outstands, e.g. angles, tees, cruciform, that are classified as compact in accordance with 4.3.3, 4.7.5.2 Slenderness parameter ‘The torsional buckling slendemess parameter A may be obtained using either (a) or (b) below, or else by referring to appendix J. It should always be based on the gross area of the section as follows. (@) General formula A = x(EAPo,)!* where A is the gross section area, without reduction for local buckling, HAZ softening or holes, E is the modulus of elasticity; Per is the elastic critical load for torsional buckling, allowing for interaction with column buckling when necessary. (b) Sections as given in table 4.9 dakhy where kis read from figure 4.11 2, is found as follows: (1) for angles, tees, cruciforms A, © for channels, top-hats Ae ‘Table 49 contains expressions for dy and ¥; and also for s and X (needed for figure 4.11), In(2) the quantity 2x should be taken as the effective slendemess for column buckling about axis xx (as defined in table 4.9). 4.75.3 Buckling stress The value of p, for torsional buckling should be read from the appropriate curve in figure 4.12, selected in accordance with 4.7.6. 4.7.6 Strut curve selection 4.7.6.1 Basic procedure ‘The overall buckling stress p, should be read from the appropriate strut curve diagram in figure 4.10 (for column buckling) or figure 4.12 (for torsional buckling). Choice of diagram should be in accordance with table 4.10. In any given diagram the appropriate curve is that meeting the stress axis at a stress p,, to bbe determined as in'4.7.6.2. 4.7.6.2 Determination of p; ‘The value of p; should generally be found as follows, (but refer to 4.7.6.4 for sections composed of radiating outstands): (@) compact section, with no HAZ — py = po, effects (b) other sections, generally Pi =AdAYPo where A is the gross area of section; Ae is the area of effective section (see 4.7.6.3); Po is the limiting stress for the ‘material (see tables 4.1 and 4.2). Curve selection on this basis is valid, provided the member meets the tolerances of straightness and twist laid down for extruded material (see BS 8118 : Part 2). When there is a possibility that a fabricated strut wil fail to meet these tolerances, p should be taken as times the value given by 4.7.6.2 (a) or (b) above, where 8 = 06 + 0.5exp(— 0.022) (but not exceeding 1.0). 4.7.6.3 Effective section Effective section applies to strut sections that are as follows: (@) classified as slender, (b) affected by HAZ softening; © both (a) and (b), ‘The effective section may be obtained by taking reduced thicknesses, with no deduction for holes as follows, and may be based on the least favourable cross section (but see 4.7.6.5 for welded members), 1) Stender section, free from HAZ, softening. The thickness of any element is taken as hy, times its true thickness f, where ky, is found as in 4.3.4, In the case of reinforced elements ky, should be applied to the area of the reinforcement as well as to the basic thickness of the plate. (2) Compact section, with HAZ softening. The thickness of any softened zone should be reduced so as to give it an assumed area equal to , times its true area. The extent of such a zone should be found from 4.4.8, and the value of k, from 4.4.2, (B) Slender section, with HAZ softening, For slender elements free from HAZ effects the reduced thickness is found as in (1); and for HAZ regions not located in slender elements it is taken as in (2). If an element is both slender and affected by HAZ softening, the reduced thickness is taken as the lesser of kf and kzt in the softened part and as kf elsewhere in it Sections composed of radiating outstands are treated specially (see 4.7.6.4). 58 © BSI 07-1999Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 “Table 4.9 Torsional buckling parameters for struts 1 psd Ao = Ay = SBIt ~ 0.69!(B1t)* ; al || // lio Z X= 06 — we Lt Bp pas Fo = Ai ~ (o-DI2Q0-DE = 15p} [? / _ [isws2s duo © y i X= 06 7 u oF 3 [Gee note 3 | en v 4 p=5 Jo = DINIAZ + 08 (BDP} - 069" (Dit) 055 BDS10 (1 + 601 - BDY]Aw/ao) 9 X= X= 06-0401 - RDP 5 p Ao = Ay + L.5p(w-1) = 2 (w-1)" 5=BD<10 a 1sw=25 © | eenote 19 = 5 ? = AQlho) peal X= 060 om 7 p35 Jo = B1BA- p (B® a & X=1 © BSI 7-900 59BS 8118 : Part 1 : 1991 Section 4 Table 4.9 Torsional buckling parameters for struts (continued) e y pao 05 =DB=20 Jo = Ag = (BIA + + L108) - 0.7915 (Bay* 8 = Aylho, X=Xg= 11-0308 Fe] IFL_. Ef 9 y Aomdg + L5p(w — 1) - 2(w - 1 S=Ayhy Of jisw=2s X=% v4 10 [eenoreiy—y Jo = 70 q $= Ayo Equal X= 083 jow~ y a Jo = 0 ap S=Ayho 1] unequat X= 076 jin ly 12 |Geenore 5 y D Ayo if] Unequat X= 089 B 05=DB=20 |i, = (Dilla + 15RD) + ps35 +1.1(DB)} - p!5 (Dmy* iylho X= 13-08DB + 020/BP © BSI o7-1000Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ‘Table 4.9 Torsional buckling parameters for struts (continued) [ornate y 6 5 (Bity)\7 + LB(D/BYty/t))) = Ayhe X= 038 DB - 004 (DB)? | ¥ = 0.14 - 0.2028 - 0.02ta/t) | 16 To = BIN + 1SDB + SOB) = ayy oy x | Uniform thickness | X = 0.38D/B - 0.04(D/B)? - 0250/8 ty ¥ = 012-0022 + (a6(CBPDB - 05) Ww 5 1=DB=3 Ao = (BAYT + 1.5D/B + 5C/B) | | it CB =04 s= adh, | Uniform thickness |X = 0.38D/B - 0.04(D/B)" | x 0.12 - 02DB — (0.05(C/BY(DB — 05) | boy = 1s [wwrae Toa 186 so Adh x= 050 -—« ¥= 0.104 ows ranBS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 ————————S ‘Table 4.9 Torsional buckling parameters for struts (concluded) No ‘Shapes of reinforced section complying with BS 1101 2. The sections are generally of uniform thickness f, except cases 14 and 15. Nor + Ay is the slendemess parameter (Vr) for Nexural buckling about the u, oF yas NOTE 4. pis factor depending on the amount of filet material atthe root of the section as follows: Raiused filets p = Rt 'iilets p= 186A er ene NOTE: 5. The values given for 2X and ¥are only valid within the limits shown, In the case of back-to-back angles (cases 8 to 12) the expressions cease to-apply ifthe gap between the angles exceeds 2 ‘Table 4.10 Choice of strut curve diagram “Type of buckling Vnwelded strat [Welded strut Column buckling symmetric or mildly asymmetric section Figure 4.10(a) Figure 4.1000) severely asymmetric section Figure 4.10(b) Figure 4.10(c) ‘Torsional buckling: generally Figure 4.12(@) section composed of radiating outstands (see 4.7.6.4) Figure 4.12(b) NOTE I, A strut should generally be regarded as welded, forthe purpose ofthis table, it contains welds on a lengih greater than the largest dimension of the section, This Is regardless of whether or not there are HAZ effects NOTE 2. A mildly asymmetric section is one for which yl = 1.5 where yy andl yp are the distances from the buckling axs 10 the further and nearer exteme flrs, respectively: Otherwise, the section should be treated as severely asymmetric 4.7.6.4 Sections composed of radiating outstands _(b) Section containing outstands with tip For sections such as angles, tees and eructforms, reinforcement. Ifthe reinforced outstands are such composed entirely of radiating outstands, local and that mode 1 would be exitical in tems of local torsional buckling are closely related. For such struts buckling (see 4.3.2.3), the same procedure i the procedure should be as follows: flowed in (a) Bit modes cel figure 412 (a employed and the effective (Seon omaig on wed sans Sten NTA I considering torsional buckling figure 4. ound Me ie aed tor ning pe reat 4.7.65. Struts containing localized welds figure 4.12 (a). (The relevant diagram for column Strut curve selection for a member affected by HAZ buckling is unaltered), Softening should generally be based on a value ofp) @) In determining p,, needed for selecting the __oblained for the most unfavourable section, even when appropriate curve in Agures 410 and 412 such softening occurs only locally along the length. (See 4.7.6.2), the area A, should be based on an This includes HAZ effects due to the welding on of effective section in which the normal reduction is temporary attachments. made for zones affected by HAZ softening, but However, when such HAZ, softening has a certain with no reduction for local buckling, specified location along the length, its presence may be ie. take ky, 1. Thus for such a section free of ignored in considering overall buckling, provided the HAZ effects: 7) = Do softening does not extend longitudinally a distance ‘greater than the least overall width of the member. The location of the HAZ softening, for this relaxation to be allowed, is the position of zero or nearzero curvature in the buekled form of the strut. e © RSI o7-19099 2.5 2.0 0 0 Figure 4.11 Torsional buckling of struts, interaction factor k F uonDag T Hed : S118 SA 1661BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 300 200 p,.Nimm? 100 50 @ NOTE. To find py at 1 > 150 refer to igure K.1 Figure 4.12 Torsional buckling stress p, for struts 100 ‘Thus for a strut held in position at its ends (see table 48, case 3) it may be assumed that the overall buckling resistance is unaffected by the presence of localized softened zones, if these are located at the ends. (In such a case it will be important to make the local squashing check). 4.7.7 Local squashing ‘The axial thrust P under factored loading should not exceed the factored resistance Ps of the most unfavourable section along the length of a strut, determined as follows: (@) compact section, free from HAZ Pas = PaAn/Yn effects, (b) other sections, generally Pas = PeAne!Ymi where ‘Pais the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); Ay is the net section area, with deduction for unfilled holes; Ane. Is the net effective section area; Ym» is the material factor (see table 3.3). ‘The area Ane Should be taken as Ae less deduction for unfilled holes, where Ag is the effective area used in the consideration of overall buckling (column or torsional), see 4.7.6.3 and 4.7.6.4. For holes located in reduced thickness regions the deduction may be based on the reduced thickness, instead of the full thickness. © BSL O79Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 300 200 Ninn? 100 © 4.7.8 Hybrid sections In struts containing parent materials of different strengths each element should be classified according to its particular value of 2o ‘The resistance Pp to overall column or torsional Duckling may be found assuming a uniform value of po, equal to the weighted average of the p, values for the various parts (weighted according to the gross areas thereof). ‘The resistance Pys to local squashing may be found by ‘summing the resistance of the various parts. 4.7.9 Certain cases of eccentrically connected struts 4.7.9.1 Single-bay struts ‘The following types of eccentrically connected strut may be treated using a simple method, instead of the interaction procedure given in 4.8, provided the attachment is sufficient to prevent rotation in the plane 100 Figure 4.12 Torsional buckling stress p, for struts (concluded) of the connected element, and if no deliberate bending is applied: (@) single angle connected through one leg only; (b) back-to-back angles connected one side of a gusset; (©) single channel connected by its web only; single tee connected by its table only. For these it is permissible, in making the check for column buckling out of the plane of the attached element or elements, to ignore the eccentricity of loading, and instead take a reduced axial conipression resistanice equal to 40% of the value that would be obtained for centroidal loading using the radius of gyration about the axis parallel to the gusset. ‘The torsional buckling resistance is assumed unaffected by the eccentricity © BSI 07.1000)BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 4.7.9.2 Struts of two components back-to-back Such struts of double angle, channel or tee construction, connected either side of end-gussets, may be designed as monolithic centroidally loaded members provided that the following occur: (@) the two components are securely connected together at their ends; and (b) they are connected also at the third points, using spacers equal to the gusset thickness. 4.7.10 Battened struts 4.7.10.1 The general rules for struts given in 4.7.3 to 4.7.7 do not generally apply to battened members, which should be the subject of special study, However, iff a battened strut complies with 4.7.10., it is permissible to regard it as monolithic and obtain its resistance in the normal way. 4.7.10.2. To be treated as a monolithic member a battened strut should satisfy the following. (@) It should be axially loaded, (b) It should comprise two main components joined by equally spaced battens, the cross-section being symmetrical about an axis normal to the battens. (©) Battens should generally be in pairs. However, if the main components are toe-to-toe tees or angles, single battens are allowed. (@) Ay 508A, where Ay and 22 are the slendemess parameters for column buckling of the complete miber about axes parallel to and normal to the battens, respectively. (© Ag 07 where as is the slendemess parameter for buckling of one main component between battens, based on colunin or torsional buckling whichever is the more critical (©) The batten system should be designed to resist a total shear force V in the plane of the battens, taken as 2.5% of the axial force in the whole member under factored loading. (g) The connection of each batten to each main ‘component should be designed to transmit the following simultaneous actions under factored loading: (2) longitudinal shear of Vu/Na. (2) moment of Va/2N acting in the plane of the batten; where: dis the longitudinal spacing between centres of battens; @ is the spacing of main components measured to the centroids of the connections to each batten; N 1s the number of battens at each position (or 2). In designing the battens it is important to consider the possible weakening effeets of local buckling and HAZ softening (if welded). 4.8 Bending with axial force and biaxial wulae for checking members subjected to the following cases of, combined action effect: (@) case A, major axis bending with axial force (Oy + Ph; (b) case B, minor axis bending with axial force Gt, +P); (©) case C, biaxial bending (My +My); (@) case D, biaxial bending with axial force (+My + P) where P is the axial force arising under factored loading; My and My are the uniaxial moments about major and minor axes respectively arising under factored loading, 4.8.1.2 ‘Two checks are in general needed, as follows: (@) section check (see 4.8.3); (b) overall buckling check (see 4.8.4), ‘The section check is always needed. The overall buckling check may be waived for the following. circumstances: 2) in case A, when P is tensile and also the member is exempt from lateral torsional buckling (see 4.5.6.2); @) in case B, when P is tensile. In making the section check the values taken for Pes, ‘Mggx and Mrsy should take due account of the presence of holes and of HAZ softening where Pes, is the factored axial resistance of the cross-section, see 4.6.2 (tension) or 4.7.7 (compression); Mrs and Mzsy_ are the factored uniaxial moment resistances of the cross-section (see 4.5.2), adjusted to allow for coincident shear if necessary (Gee 4.5.4), about major and minor axes respectively. © BSI 07.1000BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 In making the overall buckling check the values of ‘Mrsx and Mrsy should generally refer to the most unfavourable section in the bay considered, taking. account of local buckling and HAZ softening, but ignoring holes. HAZ softening may be ignored when it ‘occurs at the extreme ends of a spanning, ie. non-cantilever, bay. For sections exempt from lateral torsional buckling 6.2), Mr should be taken equal to Mjsx ‘Ms. is the factored moment resistance to lateral torsional buckling (see 4.5.6.3) 4.8.2 Section classification and local buckling under combined actions 482.1 Section classification ‘The section should be given a single classification (fully compact, semi-compact or slender) generally in accordance with 4.3.3.2 and 4.3.3.4 (a). In so doing, the value of B for any given element should be based on a value of g (see figure 4.2) corresponding to the stress pattern produced in that element when all the actions (P M,, My) are applied simultaneously. The quantities y, and yc, needed for figure 42, should generally be found using the elastic neutral axis of the gross section under the combined actions, although in checking whether a section is fully, ‘compact it is permitted to use the plastic one, Note that it is possible for the elastic neutral axis to lie ‘outside the section, in which case yo and ye will be of the same sign, The method given in 4.3.3.5 for determining a more favourable classification for under stressed flange elements, is still valid provided 4) and ‘Ye again relate to the stress pattem under the ‘combined actions. Any section found to be fully compact or semi-compact under the above procedure is counted as compact When obtaining the axial resistance, no reduction being made for local buckling. 48.2.2 Eifective section For a member classed as slender (see 4.8.2.1) each individual resistance should be found using an effective section that relates specifically to the action concemed (P.M, of My), this being generally different for the different actions. Thus when obtaining axial resistance, the factor hy, (see figure 45) for each element is based ‘on a f value for that element corresponding to uniform stress (9 = 1). While for finding moment resistance, a 8 value is taken that relates to the stress pattem in the element when the section is under pure bending, 4.8.3 Section check 4.83.1 General formula (case D) ‘The cross-section is adequate ifthe following is satisfied at every position along the length, all six quantities being taken as positive: P M Py Me My Ps * mss * sy = 1° When the axial force, F, is tensile, the factored resistance, Pps, should be found from clause 4.6.2.3 (local faitre) 4.8.3.2. Other cases For cases A, B or C (see 4.8.1.1) the formula given ‘in 4.8.3.1 should be used, with the appropriate ‘numerator quantity put equal to zero. 4.84 Overall buckling check 484.1 General For members subject to axial tension coniined with bending the presence of te axial force should be ignored in checking against overall buckling, For members subject to axial compression with bending, oF to biaxial bending, the appropriate interaction formulae (see 4.8.4.2 to 4.8.4.5) should be satisfied on any. unsupported length ible to buckle. ‘All quantities in the interaction formulae should be taken a8 postive 4842 Case A (major axis bending with axial compression) For case A both conditions (a) and (b) as follows: Shot be suse {@) prevention of major axis buckling PT, Pily Pex ” Mrsx ~ 2PrMrsx (©) prevention of minor as bueKing: Pt 10 Ry” Mx ~ where My is the equivalent uniform moment, about the major axis obtained as in 45.6.4; Phx and Pry are the factored axial resistances to overall column major and minor axes respectively, see 4.7.3 and 4.7.4, If the axial force P causes torsional buekling (see 4.7.5), the factored axial resistances to torsional buckling should be used in (a) and (). 48.43 Case B (minor axis bending with axial compression) For case B following single condition should be satisfied (prevention of minor axis buckling): P pe me Py Pry” Mpsy © 2PayMrsy 51.0 where ‘My _ is the equivalent uniform moment about the minor axis obtained as in 4.5.6.4 © BSL o7-1900BS 8118 : Part 1 : 1991 Section 4 ————————— 484.4 Case C (biaxial bending) For case C the following single condition should be satisfied (prevention of minor axis buckling): My. OM, Me, My 10 Max * Mesy 484.5 Case D (biaxial bending with axial force) For case D the condition should be satisfied: Mm, ih Me iy Mex * Mery ~ where -Mppx is the value of Mh, that would be acceptable in combination with P but in the absence of minor axis bending, as given in 4.8.4.3 (lesser value); Mpey _ is the similar value for My in the absence of major axis bending, as given in 4.8.4.4 4.9 Deformation (serviceability limit state) 4.9.1 General The recoverable elastic deflection (see 4.9.2) under nominal loading (unfactored) should not exceed the limiting value (See 3.4). If the ultimate limit state (static strength) has been satisfied, using 4.2 to 4.8, it may be assumed that permanent inelastic deformation in service will be negligible, No separate check for this is generally needed 4.9.2 Recoverable elastic deflection 4.92.1 Compact sections The elastic deflection of these may be calculated using gross section properties, ignoring holes or HAZ effects. For beams this applies both to fully and to compact sections and semi-compact sections. 4.9.2.2 Stender sections Deflection calculations should generally be performed using section properties calculated for an effective section that allows for local buekling, but ignores any effects of HAZ softening or holes. ‘The assumed effective section may be conservatively based on. reduced thicknesses as given in 4.5.2.3(1) for bending, or 4.7.6.3(1) for axial compression, or the following more favourable procedure may be adopted (a) Reclassify and slender element using a modi value for ¢ in 4.3.3.4, obtained by taking py equal to ‘two-thirds of the normal value given in tables 4.1 and 4.2 (b) If the section is then found to be no longer slender, the gross section properties are taken. (© Mas reclassified, itis still slender, a new effective section is assumed, based on ky, values found by using the modified value of ¢ from (a) for figure 4.5. © BSI 71000Section 5 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 5. Plates and plate girders 5.1 General ‘This section covers the static strength (ultimate limit State) of the following structural components: (@) unstiffened plates (see 5.2 and figure 5.1); (b) multi-stiffened plating (see 5.3 and figure 5.2); (©) plate-girders (see 5.4 and figure 5.3). For (a) and (c) the resistance obtained will tend to be more favourable than that based on the simpler rules of section 4, especially when considering slender plates, or webs of low aspect ratio (a/d). Multi-stiffened plating is not covered in section 4 a Figure 5.1 Unstiffened plate Figure 5.2 Multi-stiffened plate 5.2 Unstiffened plates 5.2.1 General Unstiffened plates subject to direct stress may be designed in accordance with 5.2.2 to 5.2.4, and those loaded in shear in accordance with 5.2.5. Interaction effects are covered in 5.2.6. ‘The plate thickness is denoted by 1 throughout. End panel End post f Figure 5.3 Plate girder © BSL OT 9BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 5 —— — eee 5.2.2 Unstiffened plates under direct stress 5221 General ‘The resistance of a plate to uniform in-plane compression, P acting in the direction shown in figure 5.1 is described in 5.2.2.2 to 5.2.2. 5.2.2.2 Classification ‘The plate should be classified as follows: @b=h, fully-compact; () i Bo slender where B=dtt Bo and fy are as given in table 43, 5.22.3 Fully and semi-compact plates ‘The factored axial resistance Pps to uniform compression should be based on the least favourable cross-section as follows: PRs = PaAne!¥in PRs = PoAne/Fm (@) fully-compact (b) semi-compact where Pa and Po are limiting stresses (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); is the net effective area for allowing for holes, and taking a reduced thickness kat in any region affected by HAZ softening (see 4.4.4 and 4.4.3); Yn is the material factor (see table 33). 24 Slender plates A yielding check and a buckling check should be performed, taking values as follows for the factored axial resistance Pas, (a) Yielding check. Pas is obtained as in 5.2.2.8 for a semi-compact plate, ignoring buckling (b) Buckling check. Pas = PoAe!Ym where Po Is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); Ac is the effective area, obtained by taking reduced thickness to allow for buckling as well as HAZ softening, but with holes ignored. In () the effective area should generally be based on the least favourable cross-section, taking a thickness equal to the lesser of kt and kyf in HAZ, regions, and kf elsewhere. However, HAZ softening due to welds at the loaded edges may be ignored in this check, The factor kj, may be determined by the more favourable of the treatments (1) and (2) as follows. ) Plate treatment. hy, is read from curve C or D in figure 45, taking = d/ and e = (250¥p)" 2) Column treatment. fy, is taken equal to the ratio p4/Po, where pis the column buckling stress read from figure 4.10 (a). The appropriate curve to use is that intersecting the stress axis at a value Po. The siendemess parameter 2 should normally be taken as follows: A=35at corresponding to simple support, although a lower value may be taken if this can be justified, 5.2.3 Unstiffened plates under in-plane moment 5.23.1 General ‘The resistance of a plate to pure in-plane moment acting on the sides of width d (see figure 5.1) is described in 5.2.3.2 t0 5.2.3.4. If the moment. varies in the direction parallel to dimension a, see also 5.2.4. 5.23.2 Classification ‘The plate should be classified as follows: Ash, fully compact; OA Bo slender; where B= 0.35d/t; Bo and f; are as given in table 4.3. 5233 Fully and semi-compact plates ‘The factored moment resistance Ms should be based on the least favourable cross-section, using the relevant expression in 4.5.2.2 (a) to (@, and taking an assumed section as defined in 4.5.2.3 (a) ot (b). 5.2.34 Stender plates ‘The factored moment resistance should be taken as the lesser of two values found as in (a) and (b) as follows. (@) Yielding check. Mas is obtained as in a semiiconipact plate ignoring buckling (b) Buckling check. Mys if found as follows: Mss = PoZelen where 3.3 for Zq is the clastic modulus of the effective section. ‘The calculation in (b) should generally be based on the effective section at the least favourable position, with no deduction for holes, taking a thickness equal to the lesser of kyt and ky! in HAZ regions, and kz, elsewhere. However, H1AZ softening due to welds at the loaded ‘edges may be ignored in this check. ‘The factor ky, should be read from curve C or D in figure 4.5, taking f = 0:364/ and e = (2504p)”. © BSI o7-1009Section BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 —————— 5.2.4 Longitudinal stress gradient on unstiffened plates Al General Cases where the applied action P or M on an. unstiffened plate varies longitudinally in the direction shown in figure 5.1, are given in 5.2.4.2 and 5.2.4.3, 5.2.4.2 Fully and semi-compact plates ‘The factored resistance at any cross-section should not be less than the action arising at that section under factored loading. 5.24.3 Stender plates The yielding check should again be satisfied at every cross-section. But for the buckling check it is sufficient, fo compare the factored resistance with the action arising at a distance.x from the more heavily loaded end of the panel, where 2 is 0.4 times the elastic plate buckling half-wavelength. 5.2.5 Unstiffened plates 5.2.5.1 General Unstiffened plates under shear should be classified as compact or slender, as in 4.5.3.1 ‘The presence of small holes may be ignored when finding the shear resistance, provided they do not ‘occupy more than 20% of the cross-section area on the width d. 5.2.5.2 Compact shear web ‘The factored shear force resistance Vgs should be found as follows: Vis = PAu! where ‘By is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); Yo is the material factor (see table 3.3). Ay is the effective shear area, taken as follows; she: (@) for unwelded plates Ay = dt; (b) for plates fully welded along one or more edges Ay = kell; (©) for partially welded plates, Ay is the effective area on the width d, found by taking a reduced thickness k,¢ in softened zones (see 4.4.2 and 4.4.3). 5.2.5.3 Slender shear web The factored shear force resistance Vig should be taken as the lesser of the two values obtained from (a) and (b) as follows. (@) Yielding check. The resistance is found as for a compact plate, using 5.2.5.2. (b) Buckling check. The resistance may be safely found as in 4.5.3.3 (b). Altematively the following expression may be used, which is more favourable when ais less than 2.54: Vies = ripvil/ym where 0; is the elastic critical shear buckling factor read from figure 5.4 taking c = (150/p,)"* ‘The expression in 4.5.3.3 (b) still fails to take advantage of tension field action. If it is believed that the edge conditions are such that a tension field is sustainable, the designer may refer to the even more favourable treatment available for type 1 panels in plate girder webs (see 5.4.3.4), 5.2.6 Combined actions 5.2.6.1 Classification A plate, subjected to conibined axial force P and moment M under factored loading should be given a single classification (fully compact, semi-compact or slender) generally in accordance with 4.8.2.1. In so doing, the value taken for B should be based on the stress pattem produced in the plate when P and A act together, based on an appropriate value of g (see figure 4.2), Where the plate is classed as slender, each individual resistance (Pgs and Mys) should be based on the specific type of action considered, as in 4.8.2.2. 5.2.6.2 Axial force with moment ‘The following condition should be satisfied for a plate subjected to axial force with moment: pom iy Pas * Mrs = where: Pand M are the axial force and in-plane momient respectively arising under factored loading. Pps and Mpg are the factored resistances to axial force and in-plane moment respectively, each reduced to allow for coincident high shear if necessary (see 5.2.6.4), 5.2.6.3 Direct stress with low shear It may be assumed that a coincident shear force V (under factored loading) has no effect on the longitudinal resistance of a plate, provided V does not exceed half its factored shear force resistance Vis 5.2.64 Direct stress with high shear If Vexceeds 0.5Vgs, the longitudinal resistance (axial force, moment) should be reduced by a factor ky where: ky = 16 — 12 VN, © Bt 07-1990 aBS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 53 Multi-stiffened plating 5.3.1 General The following rules concer plating, supported on all four edges (see figure 52), that is reinforced with three or more equally spaced longitudinal stiffeners or comugations. These may be unsupported on their whole length or else be continuous over intermediate transverse stiffeners. The dimension L should be taken as the spacing of the supports when fitted. An essential feature of the design is that the longitudinal reinforcement, but not transverse stiffening, is ‘sub-critcal, ie. it ean deform with the plating in an overall buckling mode. The resistance of such plating to longitudinal direct. stress in the direction of the reinforcement is given in 5.3.2 105.344, and to shear in 5.3.5, Interaction between different effects may be allowed for in the same way as for unstiffened plates (see 5.2.6) ‘The treatments given become invalid if the cross-section contains any outstand elements that are classified as slender When the construction consists of flat plating with applied stiffeners, the resistance to transverse direct siress may be taken the same as for an unstiffened plate, With corrugated construction itis negligible. 5.3.2 Multi-stiffened plating under uniform compression 5.3.2.1 General ‘Two checks should be performed, a yielding check (See 5.3.2.2) and a column check (see 5.3.2.3). The cross-section should be classified as compact or slender in accordance with 4.3.3, considering all the component elements before carrying out either check. Slender outstand elements are not permitted. 5.3.2.2 Yielding check ‘The entire section should be checked for local squashing in the same way as for a strut (see 4.7.7), The resistance Pps should be based on the least favourable cross-section, taking account of local buekling and HAZ softening if necessary, and also any unfilled holes. 53.2.3 Column check ‘The plating is regarded as an assemblage of identical column sub-units, each containing one centrally located stiffener or corrugation and with a width equal to the pitch w. The factored axial resistance Pps is then taken as: Ps = PAM, where Ps is the buckling stress for a column sub- unit; Ais the gross area of the entire cross section of the plating; Ym Material factor (see table 33) The stress p, should be read from the appropriate curve in figure 4.10 relevant to column buekling of the sub-unit as a simple strut out of the plane of the plating The slendemess parameter 2 needed for figure 4.10 ay be based on an effective length equal to the lesser of (a) and (b) as follows () the distance between positions of effective lateral support, such as end supports or effective transverse stiffeners (0) the elastic orthotropic buckling half-wavelengt. The part of figure 4.10 (a), (b) or (c) used depends on the section shape of the sub-unit and whether it contains longitudinal welding (see table 4.10), te actual curve being that which intercepts the stress axis at a value p, as defined in 4.7.6.2. The following should be noted when determining the effective area Ae (needed for finding p;). (1) The value of hy, for elements such as E in figure 52 should be based on their full dimensions, even though they are cut in two for the formation of subunits. (2) HAZ softening due to welds at the loaded ‘edges or at transverse stiffeners may be ignored! in finding A. 5.3.3 Multi-stiffened plating under in-plane moment. 5.3.3.1 General ‘Iwo checks should be performed, a yielding check (See 5.3.3.3) and a column check (see 5.3.3.4), 3.32 Section classification and local buckling ‘The cross-section should be classified as compact or slender (see 4.3.3) when carrying out either check, For the purpose of classifying individual elements, and also when determining ky, for slender elements, it may generally be assumed that each element is under uniform compression taking g = 1 in 4.3.2.2. However, in the case of the yielding check only, it is permissible to base g on the actual stress pattern in elements comprising the outermost region of the plating, and to repeat this value for the corresponding elements further in. This may be favourable when the number of stiffeners or cormugations is small. Slender outstand elements should not be allowed, 5.3.33 Yielding check The entire cross-section of the plating should be treated as a beam under in-plane bending (see 4.5.2.2). ‘The factored moment resistance Mps should be based on the least favourable cross-section, taking account of local buckling and HAZ softening if necessary, and also any holes. constrSection 5 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 5.3.34 Column check The plating is regarded as an assemblage of column sub-units in the same general way as for axial compression (see 5.3.2.3), the factored moment resistance Mgs being taken as follows: Mps = PsZBRUY where Ps is the buckling stress for column sub-unit; Z is the elastic section modulus of the full cross section of the plating for in-plane bending; B is the overall width of plating; _y is the distance from centre of plating to centre of outermost stiffener, Ym is the material factor (see table 3.3). ‘The stress p, should be read from figure 4.10 in the same way as for uniform compression (see 5.3.2.3), 5.3.4 Longitudinal stress gradient on multi-stiffened plates 53.4.1 General Cases where the applied action P or M on a ‘ulti-stiffened plate varies in the direction of the stiffeners or corrugations are described in 5.3.4.2 and 5.3.4.3. 53.4.2 Yielding check ‘The factored resistance at any cross-section should be not less than the action arising at that section under factored loading. 53.43 Column check For the column check itis sufficient to compare the factored resistance with the action arising at a distance x from the more heavily loaded end of a panel, where « is 0.4 times the effective buckling length 5.3.5 Multi-stiffened plating in shear 53.5.1 General yielding check (see 5.8.5.2) and a buckling check (see 5.3.5.3) should be performed. The methods given in5.3.5.2 (0 5.3.53 are valid provided the following oceur, (a) The pitch w of the stiffeners or cormugations does not exceed 0.3L, (see figure 5.2). (b) Any outstand element of the section is classified as comipact in terms of axial resistance (see 4.3.3.4) (©) Any intemal element is classified as compact in terms of shear resistancé (see 4.5.8.1) (@) Stiffeners or corrugations, as well as the actual plating, are as follows: ) effectively connected to the transverse framing at either end 2) continuous at any transverse stiffener position, 2 Yielding check ‘The factored shear force resistance Viyg is taken as the same as that for a flat unstiffened plate of the sam overall aspect (LB) and the same general thickness t, found in accordance with 5.2.5.2. 5.3.5.3 Buckling check ‘The factored shear force resistance is found from the following: Vass = DiPBUm where py Bs the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and Bis the width of plating (see figure 5.2); 1 is the general plate thickness; Yy Is the material factor (see table 3:3); 1 is the elastic critical shear buckling factor (ee figure 5.4), In order to cale used: late vy the following values should be B Bowe Is) 1 isthe effective length of plating w is the piteh of stiffeners or cormugations; Igy is the second moment of area of one sub-unit of the plating (as defined in 5.3.2.3) about a ‘centroidal axis parallel to the plane of the plating; 1504p)" The effective length ! may be safely taken as the unsupported length L (see figure 52). When L. greatly exceeds B, a more favourable result may be obtained by putting / equal to the elastic orthotropic shear buckling half-wavelength. No allowance for HAZ softening need be made in performing the buckling check 5.4 Plate girders 5.4.1 General A plate girder is a fabricated beam comprising tension flange, compression flange and web plate. The web is ‘ypically of slender proportions and reinforced transversely with bearing and intermediate stiffeners (Gee figure 5.3). It may have longitudinal stiffeners too. Abasie feature is that the web stiffeners are designed! to provide supported edges for the panels of the web, staying essentially straight as buckling proceeds ‘The moment and shear resistances of plate girders having transversely stiffened webs are covered in 5.4.2 and 5.4.3, while 5.4.4 gives the modifications needed ‘when longitudinal stiffeners are added. In considering ‘moment resistance it is permissible to follow appendix E instead of 5.4.2 if desired, and economies may result © BSI 07-1000BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 5 ———————— ‘The methods given in 5.4.2, 5.4.3 and 5.4.4 are valid provided the following occur. (a) The stiffeners comply with 5.4.5. (b) The spacing a of transverse stiffeners is not less than half the clear depth of the web between flange plates (but see 5.4.6 for comugated or closely stiffened webs). It may be beneficial to provide a tongue-plate, to one or both flanges. To be effective this should comply with 54.5.8, Interaction between moment and shear is dealt with in 547. If web bearing or lateral torsional buckling is thought to be a factor, the designer should refer to 4.5.5 or 4.5.6. For girders subject to axial load, as well as bending, 4.8 is relevant. ‘The treatment of plate girders given in 5.4.2 to 5.4.7 is also generally applicable to box section girders provided the webs are similar in form, |.2 Moment resistance of transversely, fened plate girders 54.2.1 General In order to determine the factored moment resistance a yielding check (see 5.4.2.2) and a buckling check (see 5.4.2.3) should be performed. For hybrid girders, with difering flange and web raterial, the designer should refer also 10 4.5.2.4. 54.2.2 Yielding check ‘The moment arising at any cross-section under factored load should not exceed the factored moment resistance Mrs that would apply ifthe section were treated as semi-compact. The value of Ms is obtained from 4.5.2.2 (b) or (@) as appropriate, taking account of any holes or HAZ effects, but ignoring local buckling 5.4.2.3 Buckling check ‘The following treatment applies to plate girders with transverse stiffeners, but no longitudinal stiffeners. For each bay of the girder between transverse stiffeners the moment arising under factored load, at a distance 0.4a from its more heavily stressed end, should not exceed the factored moment resistance Migs for that bay based on ultimate failure by buckling. The value of Mps is obtained in accordance with 4.5.2.2 (e), allowing for local buckling and HAZ softening, but ignoring holes. However, it is permissible for the purpose of this check to ignore HAZ effects caused by the welding on of transverse stiffeners. In considering web buckling, the effective thickness factor ky, should generally be found in accordance with 43-4, taking f as in 4.3.2.2. However, if the compressed edge of the web is nearer to the neutral axis than is the edge in tension, it is permissible instead to proceed as in 5.4.2.4, which will tend to be more favourable. It may be assumed that any tongue-plate, if fitted, provides effective edge support to the slender web plate to which itis joined, provided it complies ‘with 5.4.5.8. Thns to find ky, for the web plate from figure 4.5 (b), 6 may be based on a value of d measured to the tip of the tongue or tongues. 5A2A4 Alternative treatment of web buckling If the neutral axis is located so that it is nearer to the ‘edge of the web in compression than it is to the one in tension, itis permissible to treat the web as composed of two zones with differing values of ky, obtained as follows. (a) Zone 1, extending a distance y; either side of neutral axis: kj, is read from figure 4.5 (b) taking £B-0.7yn/t where y; is the distance from the gross neutral axis to the compressed edge. (b) Zone 2, occupying the rest of the web: ky, = 1.0. 5.4.3 Shear resistance of transversely stiffened plate girders 543.1 General A yielding check (see 5.4.3.2) and a buckling check (ee 5.4.3.3) should be carried out. For webs with continuous longitudinal welds it is also necessary to ‘any out a HAZ check (see 5.4.3.5). The presence of small holes in the web plate may be ignored for either check, provided they do not occupy more than 20% of its section area. 5.4.3.2 Yielding check At any cross-section the shear force V arising under factored load should not exceed a value Vs found as follows: (a) no tongueplate Vas = Pave Ave! (©) with tongueplate or Ves = Grwdue + Plates + Paden where Pow and py, are limiting stresses for the web and tongueplate materials respectively (equivalent to py in tables 4.1 and 42); Ave is the effective section area of web plate between flanges, or to tongue-plate tips; Ae is the effective section area of tongueplate, or total area for two such; Ym is the material factor (see table 33) ‘The effective areas are obtained taking reduced thicknesses equal to k, times the true thickness in any HAZ region (see 4.4.2 and 4.4.3) 1” © RSI O7-1900Section 5 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 el 5.4.3.3 Buckling check 5.4.34 Tension field action In any bay between transverse stiffeners the shear ‘Two types of web panel are identified as follows force Varising under factored loading should not (a) Type 1: Panels able to sustain a tension field, exceed the limiting value Ves for that bay, based on. namely. ultimate failure by buckling. The value of Vg should ayaa eee be found using the appropriate expression (a) or (b) as dad follows, which take due advantage of post-buckled @ a panel in an end-bay provided with an behaviour: adequate end-post complying with 5.4.5.6. (b) Type 2: a panel in an end-bay lacking an (a) no + Do PrwAltes adequate end:post. tongue-plate ‘There is negligible tension field action in type 2 panels, (b) with Vrs =((01 + %iPywilt + and for these vy in 5.4.3.3 should be taken as zero. tongueplate or + PuAtelai ‘Type | panels are generally able to develop further plates shear resistance after the initial onset of buckling, due to tension field action. For these rr should be taken as where follows: dis the depth of web measured between flanges, or to tongue-plate tips; @ unwelded panel bye = by + my, 1 Is the unreduced thickness of web plate; i) panel with edge welds yy, = &3 (xy + mvs); Is the initial shear buekling factor read from figure 5.4 taking e = (1500p,); where m is the lesser of my and my bye Is the tension fleld factor (see 5.4.3.4). ‘The other quantities are as defined in 5.4.3.2. Os: 0.4 03 0.2 or 0 ° 40 80 20 160 200 240 280 ate NOTE. For longitudinally suffened panels d should be taken a the depth of the largest sub-panel Figure 5.4 Elastic critical shear buckling factor © BSI 07-1990BS 8118 : Part 1 : 1991 Section 5 —————— — shouldbe suably shared in obtsnig foreach web SARS HAZ cheek & Seamer 2 i the shar buckling ato, Por webs wih edna welds che eas fore ¥ - arising under factored load, should not exceed the % a Pe een Gutnaed Rent gee 3 factored shear fore recta a Sar ene eae cee ‘mj, and my are shear buckling factors G K,Powlt where Am ‘my is the determined from figure 5.7; possfPowl’t) where 1 is the second moment of area of the gross cross section; is the first moment of gross excluded area outside the weld; where oc and Pow are limiting stresses po for Mange and web material (see figure 4.1); S is the plastic modulus of effeetive flange section about its own equal where area axis, in the plane of the web (the lower value is taken if the Ay isthe section area Manges are different) a is the distance of the centroid of the neutral axis to this area and Ky Diy and yy are as defined in 5.4.3.2 In determining S; the section considered should include the flange plate together with tongue plate if present, with suitable thickness reduction to allow for and 5.4.3.4. local buckling and HAZ softening (see 4.5.2.3), but with no deduction for holes. If the girder has two or more webs, the plastic modulus of the whole flange o/d H 0.50 0.75 2.0 225 0 40 80 120 60 200 240 280 a/te NOTE. The figure should not be used for panels with Iongtudina stiffeners. Figure 5.5 Basic tension field shear buckling factor 1 | 76 © pst 071909Section 5 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 od 0.50 0.75 2.0 | 22.5 9 40 80 120 160 200240 280 a/te | NOTE, This figure should not be used for panels with longitudinal stiffeners Figure 5.6 Flange assisted tension field shear buckling factor 0 od 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 a/te NOTE: This figure should not be used for panels with longitudinal stifeners, Figure 5.7 Shear buckling factor m, © BSI 07.1000BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 5 ——————————————————— 5.44 Longitudinally and transversely stiffened girders 544.1 Moment resistance ‘The procedure for determining the moment resistance is basically as for girders having transverse stiffeners only, and involves a yielding check and a buckling check. The yielding check is as given in 5.4.2.2 In making the buckling check (see 6.4.2.3) it is assumed that each longitudinal stiffener provides a line of support to the web, thus dividing it into separate sub-panels from the point of view of local buckling, In determining the effective section of the girder, improved values of kj, may be used for the sub-panels. ‘These are obtained by taking the correct width and stress pattem for each sub-panel in determining its value. 5442 Shear resistance ‘The yielding check (see 5.4.3.2) and the HAZ check (see 5.4.3.5) are unaffected by the presence of Tongitudinal stiffeners. ‘The buckling check should be carried out generally in accordance with 5.4.3.3, but with v and vy found as follows: (a) the value of vy is determined from figure 5.4, taking d equal to the depth of the largest sub-panel (instead of the full web depth); (b) the value of vi i calculated using equation (i) oF Gi) in 5.4.3.4 as appropriate, with factors vy, vy and 1m obtained as follows: G) the value of m is taken as the lesser of my and my: 2) the values v, vg and m are calculated using the formulae in appendix K that relate to figures 5.5 t0 5.7 respectively, taking d as the full depth as defined in 5.4.3.3, and v as the value found in (a) above. NOTE. Figutes 5.5 t0 5:7 should not be used for web panels ‘wth Tongitudinal stiffeners (8) my is calculated as in 5.4.3.4, taking d as defined in 5.4.3.3. 5.4.5 Web stiffeners and tongue-plates 5.4.5.1 General ‘The following types of web stiffener are considered (See figure 5.3). They may be single- or double-sided: (@) type A, intermediate stiffener: transverse stiffener other than that covered by type B; (b) type B, bearing stiffener: transverse stiffener at point of concentrated load or reaction; (©) type C, longitudinal stiffener: spanning Tongitudinally between transverse stiffeners. In order that predicted resistances may be achieved, it is generally necessary that web stiffeners comply with the following: (2) types A,B,C: compactness (see 5.4.5.2); (2) types A,B,C: stifness (see 5.4.5.4); (8) types AB only: stability (see 5.4.5.5). ‘A transverse stiffener should extend without break from flange to flange, even when tongue, plates are fitted. Where a bearing stiffener, proper provision should be made at the flange for transferring the applied force into the stiffener. It is not essential for the stiffener to be connected to the flanges. ‘Where possible longitudinal stiffeners should be made continuous from one web bay to the next. Where this {s not possible, the separate lengths should abut on to the transverse stiffener dividing them. 54.5.2 Compactness Al stiffeners should be of compact section in terms of resistance to axial compression (see 4.3.8.4). 5453 Effective stiffener section The effective stiffener section is used in checking the stiffness and stability requirements. It consists of the actual stiffener, or pair of stiffeners if double-sided, together with an effective width b, of web plate (see figure 5.8). The latter extends a distance by either side of the stiffener attachment or attachments as shown, and is given generally by the following: lesser of 0,130 and (@) fora transverse by stiffener, 1et NOTE: For a transverse stiffener located at an end ofthe ger the value of by on the outboard sie only) should be taken as Follows, instead ofthe value given In (3) by = lesser of a, and 7et where a, s the distance from the stiffener to the fee edge of the web plate, (b) For a longitudinal stiffener, by = lesser of 0.13day and et f Figure 5.8 Effective stiffener section © BSI 07-1900)Section 5 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 where e = (150P,)"; Py is the limiting stress for web material (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); day is the average depth of the two subypanels lying either side of the longitudinal stiffener, 545A Stiffness For the panel proportions given, the second moment of area [, of the full section of the effective stiffener (see 5.4.5.3) about a centroidal axis parallel to the web should satisfy the following: (@) for a transverse stiffener (a/d = 2.5), (b) for a longitudinal stiffener (daa = 2.5), Is = d®Qd/a — 0.7); Ix = ab\Qalilyy ~ 0.7), ‘The stiffness condition may be waived when the panel proportions lie outside the range indicated, 5.4.5.5 Stability (Transverse stiffeners only) ‘The effective stiffener section (see 5.4.5.8) is considered as a strut carrying a thrust P under factored loading given by the following: (a) for a intermediate P = Vi; stiffener, (b) for a bearing PHP + VR stiffener, where Vis the average value of the shear force arising in the web panels either side of the stiffener considered; P, is the concentrated load or reaction acting at stiffener. ‘The value of P should not exceed the factored ai resistance of the strut, as determined from 4.7 taking account of column buckling (out of the plane of the web) and local squashing, but ignoring torsional buckling. In considering column buckling an effective strut length I should be taken as follows: (1) for afd = 15, 2) for ait < 15 led; di(1.6 ~ 0.4 aidy* When the panel dimension a is different on opposite sides of the stiffener, an average value should be taken for it in the expressions in (1) and (2). For any end stiffener 1 = d. tis important to allow for the bending effects that will be introduced, if there is eccentricity between the line of action of P and the centroidal axis of the effective section. This may be undertaken using the interaction formulae given in 4.8.3 and 4.8.4.4 where My is the ‘moment due to the action and My = 0. Such’ eccentricity occurs especially when single-sided stiffeners are used. 5.4.5.6 End posts required to resist tension field ‘When determining the shear force resistance of an end bay of a plate girder, it is only permitted to take advantage of tension field action if an adequate end-post is provided at the outer end of the web panel ‘This should be designed to perform two functions as follows, although interaction between the two effects may be ignored: (@) to act as a bearing stiffener, resisting the reaction at the girder support; (b) to act as a short beam spanning between the girder flanges, resisting the tension field in the plane of the web. An end-post may be either of the following forms, in either case securely connected to both of the girder flanges. (1) It may comprise two double-sided transverse stiffeners, forming the flanges of the short beam, together with a strip of web plate between them. One of the transverse stiffeners should be suitably Tocated so as to fulfil the bearing role. (2) It may be in the form of inserted material, connected to the end of the web plate. In performing function (b), the end-post has to resist a shear force Yop together with a moment Mep acting in the plane of the web plate (under factored loading), given by the following: = O.6pydt{1 — vi{(glpy — viyo"* Mep = 01 dVep where q is the mean shear stress arising in end- panel of web under factored loading, based on unreduced thickness; »% is the limiting stress for web material (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); are factors relating to end-panels found from figures 5.4 and 55, or from 5.4.4.3 (if longitudinally stiffened vy and wy In calculating q it is permissible to assume that part of the shear force on the girder is carried by the tongue-plates, if fitted. © BSI 07-1090BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 5 5.4.5.7 End-posts required to resist torsion If an enc:post is the sole means of providing resistance against twist at the end of a girder, the following should be met: ay ten = 3508 where Jey isthe second moment of area of the end:-post section about the centreine of the web, 4 is the depth of web measured between flanges, OF to tongue pate tips; tis the flange thickness (taken as the ‘maximum value when the thickness varies along the girder); Ris the reaction at the end of the girder considered, under factored loading; W Is the total factored loading on the adjacent span, 5.45.8 Tongue-plates A tongue-plate comprises material extending in from a flange to form a thickened outer part to the web, To be effective its dimensions should be such that it is compact when considered as a plain outstand in axial compression (see 4.3.3). When a tongue is of two- or three-ply construction, comprising the web-plate connected to an element or elements integral with the flange, the thickness ¢ required for checking its compactness may be taken as the total thickness. However, in riveted or bolted construction, it is also necessary to check that any outstand beyond the last line of rivets or bolts is in itself compact. 5.4.6 Use of corrugated or closely stiffened webs 5.4.6.1 General Girders having transverse web reinforcement in the form of corrugations or closely:-spaced stiffeners, at a pitch less than 0.3 times the depth between flanges, Le. failing to satisfy 5.4.1(b), are described in 5.4.6.2 and 5.4.6.3. This transverse reinforcement is treated as sub-critical, in that it may deform with the web in an overall, buckling mode and hence not necessarily satisfy 5.4.5.4 and 5.4.5.5. 5.4.6.2 Moment resistance When the web consists of a flat plate with applied stiffeners, the moment resistance should be found as in 5.4.2. But with a corrugated web it should be assumed that the web contribution is zero, the mome resistance being provided solely by the flanges. 5.4.63 Shear force resistance ‘The factored shear force resistance Vigs should be determined as in 5.3.5 for multistiffened plating in shear. 5.4.7 Girders under combined moment and shear Figures 5.9(a) and (b) show schematically the form of ‘the moment-shear interaction diagram for plate girders, covering (a) bays unable to sustain a tension field; (b) bays with tension field action, Such a diagram may be constructed, for any given bay between transverse stiffeners, in order to determine the factored moment resistance Msc in the presence of a coincident shear force V (arising under factored loading). The notation is as follows: ‘Ms is the factored moment resistance in the absence of shear (see 5.4.2 and 5.4.4.2); Mpg is the reduced value of Mpg for the flanges on their own, with web omitted; Vig is the factored shear force resistance (see 5.4.3 and 5.4.4.3); Viqw is the reduced value for Vs obtained by putting m =0 (see 5.4.3.4, and 5.4.4.3).Section 5 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ——————————— Maso Meso Mas Mas Mer Mae O5Map v v ° 0.5¥a Ves 0 0.5Vay Vew Yas (@) No tension Held (©) With tension fet Figure 5.9 Schematic interaction diagrams for plate girdersBS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 6 Section 6. Static design of joints 6.1 General ‘This section deals with the design of joints made by using fasteners, adhesives, or by welding. The following types of fastener are discussed: rivets, black bolts, close tolerance bolts, high strength friction grip bolts (HSFG bolts), special fasteners and pins. For Joints made by welding, the design resistance of butt and fillet welds is defined. The design of joints between cast or forged elements should be carried out in conjunction with the manufacturers. The following types of connection are called joints: (a) connections between structural members, ¢ ‘beam to column; (b) connections between the elements of a ‘buil-up" member, eg. webs to flanges, splices; (©) connections between localized details and structural members, eg. bracket to beam, Ing and levis in a tension member. Al types of connection should be designed to meet the limit states of static strength and fatigue. No checks for serviceability limit states are required, except for pin Joints in structures that are frequently assembled and disassembled, for joints where deflections are critical or, for friction grip bolted joints, where slip is to be prevented. The factored loading on a joint should be calculated using the load factors given in section 3. Fasteners subject to reversal of load should be either close tolerance or tumed barrel bolts, solid rivets, HSFG bolts, or special fasteners that prevent movement, Hollow rivets and other special fasteners which do not comply with British Standards may be used provided their performance has been demonstrated to the satisfaction of the designer by testing or other means, ‘They should be spaced and designed by liaison between the designer and the manufacturer. In ‘demountable joints with stee! fasteners thread inserts should be used in any threaded aluminium element of the joint. Their performance should be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the designer by testing or other means. 62 Riveted and bolted joints: design considerations 62.1 General Joints using rivets or bolts should be designed so that under the factored load the loading action at any fastener position does not exceed the factored resistance of the fastener there. 6.2.2 Groups of fasteners Groups of rivets, bolts or special fasteners, known collectively as ‘fasteners’, forming a connection, should be designed on the basis of a realistic assumption of the distribution of intemal forces, having regard to relative stiffness. It is essential that equilibrium with the external factored loads be maintained, 6.2.3 Effect of cross-sectional areas of plies ‘The design of the plies at sections containing holes for fasteners should be based on minimum net areas, except for rivets in compression. In certain friction grip bolted joints the limit state is met by the friction capacity of the joint, and in these circumstances the design should be based on minimum gross areas. 62.4 Long joints ‘When the length of a joint, measured between centres of end fasteners in the direction of transmission of the load, is more than I5ds (where ds is the nominal diameter of the fastener), or when the number of fasteners in this direction exceeds five, the designer should take account of the reduction in the average strength of individual fasteners due to uneven distribution of the load between them. 63 Riveted and bolted joints: geometrical and other general considerations 6.3.1 Minimum spacing ‘The spacing between centres of bolts and rivets should bbe not less than 2.5 times the bolt or rivet diameter. Closer spacing is permitted for HSFG bolts, limited by the size of the washer, bolt heads or spanners, and the need to meet the limit states. 6.3.2 Maximum spacing In tension memibers the spacing of adjacent bolts or rivets on a line in the direction of stress should not exceed 161 or 200 mm, where £ is the thickness of the thinnest outside ply. In compression or shear members it should not exceed 8, or 200 mm. In addition, the spacing of adjacent bolts or rivets on a line adjacent and parallel to an edge of an outside ply should not ‘exceed 8 or 100 mum. Where rivets and bolts are ‘staggered on adjacent lines, and the lines are not more than 75 mm apart, the above limits may be increased by 50% In any event, the spacing of adjacent rivets and bolts, whether staggered or not, should not exceed 32 or 300 mm in tension members, and 20r or 300 mm in compression and shear members. © BSI 07-1909Section 6 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ———————————— ‘These recommendations apply only to lap and cover plate joints between flat plates. The spacing of bolts and rivets in spigot joints, joints between tubular members and between parts of very dissimilar thicknesses should be determined from consideration of the local geometry and the loading on the joint. 6.33 Edge distance ‘The edge dlistance, measured from the centre of the rivet or bolt, for extruded, rolled or machined edges, should be not less than 1.5 times the rivet or bolt diameter, If, on the bearing side, the edge distance is less than twice the diameter, the bearing capacity should be reduced (see 6.4.4). If the edges are sheared, the above limits should be increased by 3 mm. 63.4 Hole clearance ‘The hole clearance can be slightly greater than allowed in table 3.1 of BS 8118 : Part 2 : 1991. A clearance of 16 mun is allowable. Bolts that transmit fluctuating loads, other than wind loads, should be close-fitting, or SFG. 6.3.5 Packing Where fasteners are carying shear through a packing, a reduction of the factored design resistance should be taken into account if the thickness of packing exceeds 25 % of the fastener diameter, or 50 % of the ply thickness. 63.6 Countersinking One-half of the depth of any countersinking of a rivet or bolt should be neglected when calculating its length in bearing, No reduction is necessary for rivets or bolts, in shear. The factored design resistance in axial tension of a countersunk rivet or bolt should be taken as ‘two-thirds of that of a plain rivet or bolt of the same diameter, The depth of countersinking should not exceed the thickness of the countersunk part less 4 num, otherwise performance should be demonstrated by testing. 6.3.7 Long grip rivets ‘The grip length of rivets should not exceed five times the hole diameter. 6.3.8 Washers and locking devices Washers should be used in accordance with 2.3 of BS 8116 : Part 2: 1991. Locking devices approved by the engineer should be used on nuts liable to work loose because of vibration or stress fluctuation. 6.3.9 Intersections Members meeting at a joint should normally be arranged with their centroidal axes meeting at a point. Tithe case of bolted framing of angles and tees, the setting out lines of the bolts may be used instead of the centroidal axis. 6.4 Factored resistance of individual rivets and bolts other than HSFG bolts complying with British Standards 6.4.1 Limiting stresses ‘The limiting stress py for solid rivets and bolts is defined as follows. (@) Steel fasteners: pr is the guaranteed minimum, yield stress for the bolt or rivet stock. (b) Stainless steel bolts and stainless steel rivets: pris the lesser of 0. 5{fy2 + Jy) and 1. 22: (©) Aluminium bolts and rivets: values of pe for the aluminium alloys in table 23 are given in table 6. 1. Where the shear strength value is available, derived from tests on the bolt or on the rivet in the as-driven, condition (see BS 1974!) for large diameter rivets), this may be used. In this case, ag, in the expression for Vg in 6.4.2 should be reduced from 0.6 to 0:33, ‘Table 6.1 Limiting stress p; for aluminium fasteners Fastener type | Alloy Condition supplied] Method of driving [ Diameter Pe mnt Ninn Bots 6082 6 = =6 165 - 6t0 2 1% | coo TB = <2 15 | 50568 Ha = 1% Rivets BIBIA, OF Cold oF hot 120 BIB4A 2 Cold 140 6082 ™ Cold 110 6082 6 Cold 165 50568, OF Cold or hot 145 50564, 22 Cola 155, | ' Opsotescent standart © nst 07-1900BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 64.2 Shear ‘The factored resistance (Vis) of a single rivet or bolt in single shear is taken as: Vass = aspesk Yn where pe is as defined in 6.4.1; ay = 06 for aluminium bolts ot rivets; y= 07 for steel bolts or rivets; Ym is the material factor, and és equal to 12 forall bolts and rivets, ie, aluminium, steel and stainless steel (See table 3.3), For bolts ‘Aes = Ayp, the stress area of the threaded part of the bolt, when the shear plane passes through that area; or ‘Acs = Asi, the area of the shank, when the shear Plane passes through the shank. For rivets: Aes = Any the area of the hole; Ky = 10 for rivets; = 0.95 for close tolerance bolts; 0.85 for normal clearance bolts, 6.4.3 Axial tension ‘The factored resistance, Pier for a single fastener in axial tension is taken as Pa = ap Atel? where Ps Aw and yy are as defined in 6.4.1 and 6.4. a = 10 for steel and stainless steel bolts and rivets; 6 for aluminium bolts. ‘The use of aluminium rivets in tension is not recommended. 6.44 Bearing The effective factored resistance in bearing for a rivet or bolt is the lesser of the factored resistance in bearing of the single fastener Bgp and the bearing capacity of the connected ply Ban ‘The factored resistance in bearing, Bgp, for a single fastener is taken as d; is the nominal diameter of fastener; tis the thickness of connected ply; Pr is defined for steel and aluminium fasteners in 6.4.1; Yny i the material factor (see table 333). ‘The bearing capacity of the connected ply is given by either of the following, whichever is the lesser: Bap = odetPal Yi OF Bap = etpal yn where € is the distance from centre of hole to the adjacent edge in the direction the fastener bears; ¢ = 2.when dyt < 10; = 20Uide when 10 < dt < 13; = 15 when det < 13; Py for the material of the connected ply is the lesser Of O.5(fy2 + fu) and 1.2/2 (see tables 4.1 and 42), 6.4.5 Combined shear and tension When bolts or rivets (except aluminium rivets see 6.4.3) are subjected to both shear and tension the following condition should be satisfied (in addition to 6.4.2 and 6.4.3): (PP any + (VVpsP = 1 where P 1s the axial tensile load arising under factored loading: Vis the shear load arising under factored loading: Pier is the factored resistance in axial tension; Vgs_ is the factored resistance in shear, 6.5 High strength friction grip (HSFG) 65.1 General Only pre-loaded general grade HSFG bolts in accordance with BS 4395 : Part 1 should be used for aluminium structures. Design may be based on calculations for joints where the proof strength of the material of the connected parts exceeds 230 N/ For connected parts manufactured from material with a proof strength less than 230 N/mm, the strength of Joints using general grade HSFG bolts should be proved to the satisfaction of the engineer by testing, In aluminium structures the relaxation of bolt pre-load due to tension in the joined material cannot be ignored. ‘The thermal expansion of aluminium exceeds that of steel and the variation in bolt tension due to change of, temperature cannot be ignored. Reduced temperature reduces friction capacity and increased temperature increases the tensile stress in the bolt and the bearing stress under the washers. These effects are only significant for extremes of temperature change and long grip lengths. © BSL 07-1000Section 6 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ————————————————— 6.5.2 Ultimate limit state (statie strength) For HSFG bolts in normal clearance holes, as specified in table 3.1 of BS 8118 : Part 2 : 1991, the ultimate capacity is the lesser of the shear capacity as determined in 6.4.2 or the bearing capacity as determined in 6.4.4. 6.5.3 Friction capacity ‘The factored resistance in shear depends on the friction capacity of an HSFG bolt, where the fri Is given by the following: Py is the prestress load (see 6.5.5); Hs is the slip factor (see 6.5.6); Yon 1.93 if the value of yg is taken as 0.33; Ym 1. Lif the value of ui is found from tests; Ne is the number of friction interfaces. 6.5.4 Serviceability limit state (deformation) ‘The serviceability limit state for a connection made with HSFG bolts is reached when the shear load applied to any bolt equals its friction capacity, determined from 6.5.3. For the serviceability limit state check ym = 12 6.5.5 Prestress ‘The prestress load for a HSFG bolt should be taken as follows: Py= where "9 09S Py is the proof load of the bolt (see table 4 of BS 4395 : Part 1 : 1969); is the applied extemal tensile load in the axial direction of the bolt (if any). Sw 6.5.6 Slip factor ‘Where all the connected parts are of aluminium alloy and the friction interfaces have been treated to ensure consistent friction properties by blasting with aluminium oxide G38 grit complying with BS 2451, a value of #ig = 0:33 may be assumed provided the total thickness of the connected parts exceeds the bolt diameter, and the gross area stress in the parts does not exceed 0.6/2, (where fo2 is the 02 % tensile proof strength of the plate materia). If one or more of the above conditions are not complied with s1, should be determined from tests in accordance with BS 4604 : Part 1. ‘The number of bolts needed to obtain the friction capacity to satisfy 6.5.4, when taking 4g = 0.33, may be greater than the number needed to satisfy the ultimate limit state (see 6.5.2). In such cases it may be advantageous to develop a surface treatment for the interfaces which will increase the slip factot. 6.6 Pinned joints 66.1 General Ina pinned joint the parts are connected by a single pin, which allows rotation. There is no axial load in the pin, and therefore no clamping action on the parts to be connected. Pins may not be loaded in single shear, $0 one of the members to be joined should have. a fork end, or clevis, The pin retaining system, eg, a spring clip, should be designed to withstand a lateral load equal to 10 % of the total shear load on the pin. 6.6.2 Solid pins Consideration should be given to bending stresses in pins, and for this purpose the effective span is taken as the distance between centres of bearings. However, if the bearing plates have a thickness greater than half the pin diameter, consideration may be given to the variation of bearing pressure across the plate thickness, when determining the effective span. If the pin is to be removed to dismantle the structure, ‘and re-inserted to reassemble the structure, the cross-section of the pin should be checked for a serviceability limit associated with the linuit of elastic behaviour. The following stresses should not be exceeded under the factored load: (@) mean shear stress in pin: (b) bending stress in pin: 0. 6p PY: 12 pA Yxi where Pa is defined for stee! and aluminium pins in 6.4.1; Ym iS the material factor (see table 3.3). If the pin isin a permanent installation, a fully plastic distribution of bending stress may be assumed at the factored design load. 6.6.3 Members connected by pins ‘The following rules should not be used when the line of action of the load is in a direction other than the direction of the grain flow in the connected parts. ‘The net area across the pin hole, nomial to the axis of a pinconnected tension member should be at least 1.83Pyq/Pq, and the thickness of the connected member should be at least Pyqy/1.6padr for permanent installations or Pyn/1-4pad for demountable ones, where P is the axial factored load; Pa _ is defined in 4.2 for the material of the connected member, dz is the pin diameter, Ym is the material factor (see table 3.3). © nst 07-1900Section 6 The net area of any section on either side of the member, measured at an angle of 45 the axis of the member, WF the axis 5° oF less to) ould be at least OP Pa The net width of the bearing plate at the pin hole, nyeastred normal £0 the axis of the member, should not exceed eight times the thickness of the bearing plate, The dliameter of the pin hole should not exceed the pin diameter by more than 3% Pin plates. and any connections between them ancl the member. should be designed to carry a share of the total axial load in proportion to the plate’s share of the total bearing area of the pin. 6.7 Welded joints 6.7.1 General The design guidance given here applies only to welds made in accordance with 8.9 of BS 8118 : Part 2 : 1991 using the reconumended combinations of parent and filler material given in table 2.8 of this Part. The versatility of welding enables joints between members to be made in different ways. In selecting the type of joint to be used. the designer should consider the following: (2) the effect of the joint on the static strength of the member (see 4.4) (b) the effect of the joint on the fatigue strength of the member (see section 7); (c) the reduction of stress concentration by suitable choice of detail: ) the choice of detail that enables good welds to be made and properly inspected; (e) the choice of detail that avoids general corrosion, and local corrosion due to crevices (see 4.3 of BS S118 : Part 2 : 1991); (D) the effects of welding distortion. 6.7.2 Effect of welding on statie strength Welding can affect the strength of the parent metal in the vicinity of the weld, as described in detail in section 4. For non-heatreatable alloys in the O or F condition the softening effect is insignificant and HAZ effects can be ignored. The joint is therefore as strong as the unwelded parent meial. In heat-reatable alloys in most heat-treated conditions (6 * * * and 7** * series), and in non-heattreatable alloys in any work-hardened condition (5 * * * series), welding reduces strength. For exceptions to this general rule see table 4.5, kz = 1 In members made from material that suffers strength, reduction, the weld should preferably be parallel to the Girection of the applied load; welds transverse to the applied load should be avoided if possible, or Positioned in regions of low stress. ‘This recommendation includes welded attachments, whether or not they are required to transmit load from. the member: 6.73 Effect of welding on fatigue strength The fatigue strength of a joint depends on the severity of the stress concentration, which can arise from the overall geometry of the joint as well as the local geometry of the weld. Fatigue classifications of commonly used joint details are referred to in 7.3. The fatigue classification may be used to select the detail appropriate to the application that gives the best fatigue resistance. 6.7.4 Corrosion Joints should be detailed so that inaccessible pockets or crevices capable of retaining moisture or ditt are avoided. Where cavities are unavoidable, they should be sealed by welding or protective compounds, or made accessible for inspection and maintenance. 6.7.5 Edge preparations Badge preparations for welded joints, including butt and fillet welds, including the use of permanent or temporary backing bars, are given in BS 3019 : Part 1 and BS 3571 : Part 1. The actual preparation should be approved as part of the welding procedure. Welding positions are defined in BS 499 : Part 1. 6.7.6 Distortion Every weld causes shrinkage and distortion, and the effects are more marked in aluminium construction than in steel. Shrinkage and distortion should be ‘compensated or balanced so as to maintain the desired shape and dimension of the finished structure. The designer should consult the fabricator in the early stages of design about welding method, distortion and related aspects such as welding sequences and the use of jigs. 6.7.7 Information given to fabricator Drawings and specifications should be provided, giving the following information about every weld: (@) parent and filler material; () dimensions of weld (see BS 499 : Part 2 correct use of symbols); (© edge preparation and welding position; (@) welding process; (©) special requirements, such as smoothness of weld profile, and the preheat and interpass temperature; (© quality control requirements (see BS 8118 : Part 2) for: (1) weld procedure approval (@) welder approval; (3) weld quality class (see notes 1 to 3); for 86 © Bt 07.1900Section 6 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 a (A) levels of inspection of welded joints; (8) acceptance levels for weld quality; (6) weld repair procedure. NOTE 1 Where a weld quay class not speifed on the Gravwing normal weld quai is ase NOTE 2, Where the actions under factor loan do not exceed Gneshird ofthe factored resistance ofthe member or jon, © Stiffness may cat, lower quality al degeee of inspection is fcceptable. Tis should apply to bath sate and fatigue resistance Int cane mn? quali level maybe specie NOTE . Where joints are designed on fatigue strength requlrements, refer 7.83. 6.7.8 Butt welds Single sided partial penetration and intermittent butt ‘welds should not be used to transmit tensile forces, nor to transmit a bending moment about the longitudinal axis of the weld. ‘The effective throat thickness of a partial penetration butt weld (see figures 6.1(b) and (c)) should be taken, as (a) the depth of weld preparation where this is of the J or U type; () the depth of weld preparation minus 3 mm or 25 % whichever isthe less, where this is of the V or bevel type. It's also possible to determine throat thickness by procedure trials. If this is done the throat thickness Should not be taken as more than the penetration consistently achieved, ignoring weld reinforcement. Full penetration may be assumed in a single-sided butt weld if a backing plate is used, In a teejoint a iperimposed fillet weld may be taken into account. 6.7.9 Fillet welds Single sided filet welds should not be used to transmit moments about their own axes. Intermittent fillet welds may only be used if the distance between the ends of adjacent welds, whether inline or staggered on allemative sides of the part, does not exceed the lesser of the following (a) 10 times the thickness of the thinner parent ‘material or 300 mum, if itis in compression or shear, (b) 24 times that thickness or 300 mm, if it is in tension In a line of intermittent welds there should be a weld at each end of the part connected, ‘The design resistance of a filet welded joint is, given in 6.9.2 ‘Aillet weld should be continued around the comer at the end or side of a part for a length beyond the comer of not less than twice the leg length of the weld. See 4.4.3.6 for the effect of overlapping HAZs, If two longitudinal fillet welds alone are used in a lap;jointed end connection, the length of each should be not less than the distance between them. ‘The throat of a fillet weld (9), see figure 6.2 (a), is the hhelght of a triangle that can be inscribed within the weld and measured perpendicular to its outer side. Exceptionally a fillet weld throat can be taken to include any specified penetration, p,, provided procedure trials show to the satisfaction of the engineer that this penetration can be consistently achieved. A large throat may be assumed if procedure trials show that the necessary penetration beyond the nominal root can be consistently achieved, by automatic welding, for example (see figure 6.2(b)). ‘The effective area of a fillet weld is its throat dimension (g,) multiplied by its effective length, except that, for fillet welds in holes or slots, the effective area should not be greater than the area of the hole or slot. Effective length is defined in 6.9.2. 68 Design strength of welded joints 6.8.1 General In the design of welded joints consideration should be given both to the strength of the weld metal and to the strength of the material in the HAZ adjacent to the weld fusion boundary (see 4.4 and figure 6.3). Limiting stresses for the material in the HAZ are referred to in. 9. The deformation capacity of the joint is improved when the factored resistance of the weld is greater ‘than that of the adjacent material in the HAZ. Effective throat thickness Effective throat nares pac Throat thickness Root bead 0) © Figure 6.1 re butt weld throats © BSL OT1990 87BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 6 Xs Cy @ 29 the throat length of weld 2938 the leg length of weld 2,18 the penetration © Figure 6.2 Effective fillet weld throats 6.8.2 Groups of welds A welded joint consisting of a group of welds should be designed on the basis of a realistic distribution of forces amongst the welds having regard to their relative stiffnesses. It is essential that equilibrium with the extemal factored loads is maintained. 6.8.3 Limiting stress of weld metal The filler wire for use in welded construction should be chosen in accordance with 2.5.8.2 and table 28. Values of the limiting stress of the weld metal py (in ‘Nimum?) for the permitted combinations of filler and parent materials, shown in table 28, are shown in table 62 Higher values of limiting stress may be needed for particular filer materials by reference to appendix D. 6.84 Limiting stress in the HAZ Limiting stresses pg and py for the material in the HAZ are given in table 6.3, where pz and Py, are the limiting direct and shear stress respectively. 6.9 Factored resistance of welds 6.9.1 Butt weld metal AA butt weld subjected to shear and axial loading should be proportional such that the following applies (or? +332)! § Pwltm where isthe normal stress perpendicular to the throat section under factored loading; tis the shear stress acting on the throat section parallel to the axis of the weld under factored loading; ‘Pw is the limiting stress for the weld metal (see 6.8.3); Ym is the material factor for the weld metal (see table 3:3). For a butt weld with an oblique tensile toad (ee figure 6.4) the factored resistance Py is given by the following e(l + 2 cos%6) ~'* Fry = ae Yn ° where Je Is the effective length of the weld. NOTE 1. The effective length of the weld is the total ‘weld length when end imperfections are avoided by the Use of run‘on and run-off plates. Otherwise iti the total Jength minus rice the weld width (see figure 64); fe is the effective throat thi (see 6.7.8); is the angle between the line of the butt weld and the line of action of the extemal load (see figure 64). [NOTE 2. The design stress for the weld metal in compression may be taken equal to that in tension, except where buckling can [NOTE 8. Where the parent metal Is diferent in thickness on each -kness of the weld Side of the weld, the possibilty of a stress concentration fect Should be investigate NOTE 4. Where the weld is suhjected to in-plane bending the factored resistance per unit kenga Tut by ening the expression for Pg For a joint with no external shear forces and the line of the butt weld perpendicular to the line of action of the extemal load, @ = 90°, r» = 0 and the factored resistance is as follows: Prete Pra = SS For an external shear load, parallel to the line of the butt weld, the factored resistance is as follows: lel Pre = 3%, © pst ovSection 6 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Table 6.2 Limiting stresses of weld metal py Parent metal ‘Non heat-treatable alloys Heat-treatable alloys 1200 ‘103 ‘251 ase Basta | 5083 063 3105 Néwu Némum® ‘Némm? | Némam? ‘Nim? ‘Nim ‘Némm 55 80 200, 190 210 245, 150 ‘NOTE. When using dissiilar parent metals the lower of the two lnting stresses for the weld meal should be taken, When wells are ‘mage on parent meals not included in Table 62 or appendix D the value ofthe limiting stress forthe weld metal should be obsained experimentally. Table 6.3 Limiting stresses pu, and py, in the HAZ ‘Non heat-reatable alloys ee note 1) Heavreatable alloys Parent alloy [Par Pa Parent alloy [Condition | py, SS supplieg Ninn Nine Nine Ninn 1200 % 15 6061 6 145 85 3103 35 2 6063 85 50 3015 40 % 9% 55 5083 150 % % 55 S154 100 6 6082 140 8% 5251 70 40 150 % 554 95 55 7020 170(A) 100 210(8) 125 180A) 110 240(8) 145 (see note 2) | ‘Al eonditions ae supplied ace tale 4). For 7020 material reer to 4.4.2.2 forthe appicabily of the Aan B values 6.9.2 Fillet weld metal For a sinple longitudinal filet weld (load applied AA fillet weld should be proportioned such that the _—atallelto the length of the weld) o1 = t) = 0 and the following expression is satisfied: factored resistance depends only on t2 as follows: 12 + 2 + v1 = O85 pln . = 285p ule glo +? + AA = O88 Pp = Opal where {ris the effective length of the fillet weld. The Poo Ov Ty andl Po are a8 defined in 6.9.1; value of [ris influenced by the total length of the weld, 1, is the shear stress acting on the throat section as indicated in figure 6.6, which provides a guide to Perpendicular to the axis of the weld the variation of Ir with L, where Ls the total weld ‘The relationship between on and tps governed by lng Figure 6 is based on the results ofa sal the direction ofthe extemal loading action, Sat the numberof tess, weld (see figure 6.5). When the stress distribution along the weld For a simple transverse fet weld (load applied correspon to tat inthe adjacent parent material as, perpendicular to the length of the werd) oy 71, for example, in the ease ofa weld connecting the r= Oand the factored Felstance i as follows flange and web ofa pate ger the effective lenggh is ane as for but welds ifthe weld Is subjected to nrplane Pr = pee bending the factored resistance per unit length ean be where lp is the effective length of the weld (as for butt found by omitting /,, or fy in the expression for Pap. welds). © BSI 07.1990 89BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 Section 6 A (2) Intine butt (£) Potential fllure lines shown on a plan view atthe joint end Figure 6.3 Failure planes for static welded joint checks Key (see figures 61 and 62) W weld metal (See 6.9.1 and 6.9.2) FF: heavaffected zone (fusion boundary) ‘T heataffected zone (toe) for fillets the width of the zone is 1 —-~ is te fiture plane butts: plane is equal tothe plate thickness fillet: plane wid fs the wth of the le length of the weld “The shaded area's the heat affected zone 90 © BSI 07.1000Section 6 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 External loading action in plane of plates External loading action Weld throat Effective cross-sectional area 8 Figure 6.5 Fillet weld design © pst o7-1990BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 6 Ee 1.0 05 50 NOTE. Tis igure only applies if Lig, < 50. Figure 6.6 Effective length of longitudinal fillet welds 6.9.3 Heat-affected zones (HAZS) ‘The factored resistance of a HAZ adjacent to a weld (see figures 6.1, 62 and 6.3) is given by the following, {@) Direct tensile force normal to the failure plane (See figure 6.3) (butts: Prey = Pz He (atte fusion boundary) Para = 22 (at the toe, see figure 63) where Prey are the factored direct, and resistances of a HAZ adjacent Par to a butt weld; Pax is the limiting direct stress in the HAZ; Lis the total weld length. (2) fillets: Pave = Pt (a te fusion boundary) Pare =Palt (at the toe, see figure 63 and 6.9:3(4)) where rrp are the factored direct and resistances of a HAZ adjacent. Pere toa fillet weld. (b) Shear force in failure plane: () butts: Varn = Balt (at the fusion boundary) Plt Viern = PH (at the toe, see figure 6:3) where Vern are the factored shear and resistances of a HAZ adjacent Vera to a butt weld, @) fiers: Vere = Pala (at the fusion boundary) Pelt Vere = erm {at the toe, see figure 63 and 6.9.3(4)) where Varr are the factored shear and resistances of a HAZ adjacent Vere to a fillet weld, (© When there is a combined shear and direct force on the HAZ, these forces should be limited in accordance with the following equation: (SalPua) + (SV)? = 1 where ‘Syand Sj, are the external loading actions under factored loading on the HAZ, in the direct loading and shear, Pig, and Vig, are the factored resistances of the HAZ in direct loading and shear. (@ When checking the factored resistance of a filet, weld at its toe, note that for thicker sections the HAZ does not extend the full thickness and a smaller value of ¢ should be taken (see figure 4.6(i) and 4.4.3.1) (©) Where the faiture plane is subjected to in-plane bending, the factored resistance can be expressed in terms of resistance per unit length by omitting L from the above equations (O Where the failure plane is subjected to in-plane bending and shear, the factored resistance per unit length should be reduced to allow for the combined effects of shear and direct stress (see 6.9.3(0)) BSI 07.1900Section 6 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ———— 6.10 Bonded joints 6.10.1 General Structural joints in aluminium may be made by bonding with adhesive. Bonding needs an expert technique and should be used with great care (see BS 8118 : Part 2), Bonded joints are suitable for canying shear loads, but should riot be used in tension or where the loading ‘causes peeling or other forces tending to open the Joint. Loads should be cartied over as lange an area as possible, Increasing the width of joints usually increases the strength pro rata. Increasing the length is beneficial only for very short overlaps. ‘The performance of lange bonded joints can be improved by reducing peel and cleavage stresses, and reducing stress concentrations at the end of laps. It is helpful to taper off the ends of laps and introduce compensation pieces. Bonded joints need to be supported after assembly for the period necessary to allow the optimum bond strength of the adhesive to be developed. Entrained air pockets should be avoided, Many different adhesives are available each, generally, being suitable for a specified range of applications and service conditions only. The suitability of the adhesive in all respects for use on, and for the life of, a particular structure, should be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the designer, who should obtain specialist advice at all stages of the design and construction. A specified jointing system, comprising preparation of the adherend surfaces, the adhesive, bonding and curing processes, should be strictly followed as variation of any step can severely affect the performance of the joint. 6.10.2 Factored resistance ‘The factored resistance of a bonded joint is influenced by the following factors: (a) the surface preparation procedures before bonding: () the direction of stresses in the joint; (©) the size and shape of the components to be joined; (@) the thickness of the glue line; (©) the assembly and curing procedures; (9 the service temperature and environment; @ design tite Unless validated test data are available the strength of the joint should be established by testing. Generally, ssamiple joints should be made at full scale, using the same manufacturing procedure as for production Joints. These should be tested with similar joint ‘construction and loading to that occurring in the actual structure, A minimum of five tests should be made to establish the mean and standard deviation of the failing Toads. The factored resistance of a bonded joint, Pic, is then given by (Rm ~ 28a), Rm is the mean of the failing loads; Sq is the standard deviation of the failing loads; ym is the material factor for bonded joints (see table 33) and is equal to 30. ‘The yin factor should be increased in relation to the loss of performance of adhesive at extremes of operating temperature and environment. 6.103 Tests Manufacturer’ test data may be used as the most optimistic values for initial design. These data are generally given for thick adherend shear test samples as shown in figure 6.7. When only mean strengths are quoted, Sq should be taken as 0.LRm (see appendix B), All dimensions are in nllimetres. Figure 6.7 Thick adhered shear test Thin sheet lap tests (see BS 5350 : Part C5) m used for comparative purposes, durability stud surface treatment assessment, curing conditions, etc. Strength values will be low due to the tendency of this Joint to peel and will be conservative if used for structural design calculations (see figure 6.8). © BSI OT-900 93BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 6 (a) single overlap joint (©) double overlap joint 100.0 + 1.5 5.99, o Thole 8 5.59 q | a a ud 82.53 82:56 () position of pin hole in joint specimens All dimensions are in millimetres Figure 6.8 Thin sheet test specimens © BSL 71990Section 7 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 7. Fatigue 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 General This section contains terms specific to fatigue assessment which are defined in 1.2. The data given in this section applies to elements formed from extrusions, plates, sheet and strip. The data should not be used for castings or forgings. Designers wishing to ‘employ castings or forgings under fatigue conditions should consult the manufacturers ‘This section gives recommendations for assessment by calculation alone. The data provided may not be adequate for all applications. In this case additional data may be obtained from test. Guidance on this is| given in section 8, Test data obtained in accordance with section 8 may be used as a substitute for the design data given in section 7. 7.1.2 Influence of fatigue on design Structures subjected to fluctuating service loads may be liable to fail by fatigue. The degree of compliance with the static limit state criteria given in sections 3 and 4 may not serve as any useful guide to the risk of fatigue failure. It is necessary to establish as early as possible the extent to which fatigue is likely to control the design, In doing this the following factors are important. (a) An accurate prediction of the full complete service loading sequence throughout the design life should be available. (b) The elastic response of the structure under these Toads should be accurately assessed. (©) Detail design, methods of manufacture and degree of quality control can have a major influence on fatigue strength, and should be defined more precisely than for statically controlled members. This ‘can have a significant influence on design and construction cost 7.1.3 Mechanism of failure Fatigue failure usually initiates at a point of high stress concentration, particularly if sharp crack-like discontinuities exist there. Fatigue cracks will extend inerementally under the action of cyclic stress change. ‘They normally remain stable under constant load, Ultimate failure occurs when the remaining cross-section is insufficient to carry the peak tensile load applied throughout. Fatigue cracks propagate approximately at right angles to the direction of maximum principal stress range. ‘The rate of propagation is proportional to at least the third power of the product of the stress range and the square root of the total crack length. For this reason crack growth is slow in the early stages, and fatigue cracks tend to be inconspicuous for the major part of their life. This may give rise to problems of detection 7.1.4 Potential sites for fatigue cracking Most common initiation sites for fatigue cracks are as follows: {@) toes and roots of fusion welds; (b) machined comers and drilled holes; (©) surfaces under high contact pressure (fretting); (@) roots of fastener threads. 7.1.5 Conditions for fatigue susceptibility ‘The main conditions affecting fatigue performance are as follows: (a) High ratio of dynamic to static load. Moving or lifting structures, such as land or sea transport vehicles, cranes, etc. are more likely to be prone to fatigue problems than fixed structures, unless the latter are predominantly carrying moving loads, as in the case of bridges, (0) Frequent applications of toad. This results in a high number of cycles in the design life, Slender structures or members with low natural frequencies are particularly prone to resonance and hence magnification of dynamic stress, even though the static design stresses are low. Structures subjected predominantly to fhuid loading, such as wind and structures supporting machinery, should be carefully checked for resonant effects. (©) Use of welding. Some commonly used welded details have low fatigue strength. This applies not only to joints between members, but also to any attachment to a loaded member, whether or not the resulting connection is considered to be ‘structural (@) Complexity of joint detail. Complex joints frequently result in high stress concentrations due to local variations in stiffness of the load path. Whilst these may have litte effect on the ultimate static capacity of the joint they can have a severe effect on fatigue resistance. If fatigue is dominant the memiber cross-sectional shape should be selected to ensure smoothness and simplicity of joint design, so that stresses can be calculated and adequate standards of fabrication and inspection can be assured. (©) Environment, In certain thermal and chemical environments fatigue strength may be reduced. 72 Fatigue design criteria 7.2.1 Design philosophy Itis recommenced that, wherever possible, aluminium structures are designed on the basis of providing a safe life. The assessment method in this section is designed to ensure that the probability of failure by fatigue during the structures life is comparable with that for other ultimate limit state modes of failure. © BSI 07.1900BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 7 ‘There may be circumstances where the severity of loading, degree of redundancy and the ease of inspection and repair are such that a fail safe or ‘damage tolerant approach may be justified in economic terms. In this case the safety margins may be reduced from those required for a safe life design, Guidance on this is given in section 3. 7.2.2 Fatigue failure criterion ‘The basis of fatigue design used here is that the required life will be achieved provided that BIN = Ke where N is the predicted number of cycles to failure of a stress range Jr; Ky isa constant depending on the class of detail, and ensures a high probability of survival (see 7.8.1); Je is the principal stress range at the detail and is constant for all eycles; ‘m is the inverse slope of the f; ~ N curves and is a constant for most detail classes, For most practical purposes structural details do not experience constant amplitude stress histories. The treatment for general loading is given in 7.3. ‘The method of deriving the appropriate stress range(s) fris given in 74 and 7.6. Classifications for more ‘commonly used detail types are given in 7.7, Values of Hy and m are given in 7.8, Provided that the fatigue strength data in 7.8, and the loading, complies with 7.4, then the overall load factor ‘ye should be taken to be unity, 73 Fatigue assessment procedure A structural member may contain a number of potential fatigue crack initiation sites. Regions of the structure containing the highest stress fluctuations and/or the severest stress concentrations would normally be checked first. The basic procedure is as follows (see figure 7.1) (@ Obtain an upper bound estimate of the service loading sequence for the structure's design life (see 74 and appendix C). (b) Estimate the resulting stress history at the detail being checked (see 7.5). (© Reduce the stress history to an equivalent number of cycles (7) of different stress ranges f; using a cycle counting technique (see 7.6.1), (@) Rank the cycles in descending order of amplitude, fi, fez ~ to form a stress spectrum (see 7.6.2). (©) Classify the detail in accordance with tables 7.1 ‘o 73, and 7.7, For the appropriate classification and design stress range (f;1, etc.), find the permissible endurance (Nj, etc.) from 7.8.1. Where it has been decided to use a value of ym other than unity, this should be taken into account in setting the values of the design stress ranges (see 3.6.2). ( Sum the total damage for all cycles using Miner's ‘summation: factored design life x ISR exces uni ether the stess ranges should be reduced at that point or the detail should be changed to a higher class (see 7.7), ‘The estimated life 74 Fatigue loading All sources of fluctuating stress in the structure should be identified. These may arise as a result of the following: (@) superimposed moving loads, including vibrations from machinery in stationary structures, (b) environmental loads such as wind, waves, etc, (©) acceleration forces in moving structures; (@) temperature changes, Loading for fatigue is normally described in terms of a design load spectrum, which defines a range of intensities of a specific live load event and the number of times that each intensity level is applied during the structure's design life. If two or more independent live load events are likely to occur then it will be necessary to specify the phasing between them, Guidance on loading specifically for fatigue assessment may be obtained from BS 2573 (cranes), BS 5400 : Part 10 (highway and railway bridges) and BS 8100 (lattice towers), Realistic assessment of the fatigue loading is crucial to the calculation of the life of the structure, Where no published data for live loading exist, resort may have to be made to obtaining data from existing structures subjected to similar effects. By recording continuous strain or deflection measurements over a suitable sampling period, loading data may be inferred by subsequent analysis of the response, Particular care should be taken to assess dynantic ‘magnification effects where loading frequencies are close to one of the natural frequencies of the structure. Further guidance is given in 8.4.2, ‘The design load spectrum should be selected on the basis that it is an upper bound estimate of the accumulated service conditions over the full design life of the structure, Account should be taken of all likely operational and environmental effects arising from the foreseeable usage of the structure during that period. The confidence limit on the design load spectrum should be based on mean phis 2 standard deviation limits on both amplitude and frequency. © BSI 07.1900Section 7 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 OT Typical load cycle (repeated nm times Load indesign life} | fo A {oo 7 — beroinex | % Te G | () Stress history at XX. (reservoir method | (6) Cycle counting f re yf baa F enilow Ue Tora ees in factored life (4) Stress spectrum f,-N Line for detail X- mlm ym mm UNM TNT NTN (0 Damage summation (Patmagren-Miner rule) h N,N,N, Cycles (©) Cyees to Faure Figure 7.1 Fatigue assessment procedure © BSI OT-1909 ”BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 7 75 Stresses 7.5.1 Derivation of stresses Where the stress response is to be calculated from specified load events, elastic theory should be used to ‘model the structure. Section properties should not be reduced for HAZ or local buckling effects, but see 7.5.2(a)(4). Modelling of the elastic stiffnesses of members and joints should be accurate and should include the effects of any permanent non-structural ‘material which may modify the stiffness, No plastic redistribution of stresses should be allowed, Where stress response data are to be obtained from strain measurements on a similar structure, care should be taken in siting strain transducers to ensure that the correct stress parameter is being measured (see 7.5.2). Further guidance on the measurement of strain data is given in 8.4 7.5.2 Stress parameters ‘The stresses to be used in the fatigue assessment procedures in 7.3 depend on the crack initiation site and propagation path, as follows. (@) Parent material and full penetration butt welds. Cracks initiating from weld toes, fastener holes, faying surfaces, etc. and propagating through parent material or fully penetrated weld metal should be assessed using the nominal principal stress range in the member at that point. The local stress concentration effects of weld profile, bolt and rivet holes, etc. should be ignored as these are taken into account in the fy ~ N’ strength data for the appropriate detail class. They do not therefore need to be calculated (see tables 7.1 to 7:3). If detailed finite element models of joints are caleulated the mesh should not be so fine that local stresses are used (see also 8.4.4.1), Other larger geometrical effects which may give rise to the nomlinear stress distributions in certain circumstances should be taken into account (see figure 72). Examples of these are as follows (2) gross changes in cross-section shape, eg, at cut-outs; (2) gross changes in cross-section stiffness, eg. at angled junctions between thin wall members; (@) changes in direction or alignment beyond those permitted in tables 7.1 to 7.3; @) secondary bending stresses arising from joint fixity in lattice structures; (6) shear lag, distortion and warping in wide plated or hollow members; (©) nonlinear out-of-plane bending effects in slender components such as flat plates where the static stress is close to the elastic critical stress, eg. tension field in webs. The presence of residual stresses may be ignored for ‘welded joints as these are already included in the Je — N data. In mechanical joints, provided any tensile residual stresses are allowed for, that part of the stress range which is in overall compression may be reduced by 40 % (©) Filet and partial penetration butt welds. Cracks Initiating from weld roots and propagating through the weld throat should be assessed using the vector sum of the shear stresses in the weld metal based on an effective throat dimension (see figure 7.3). 1m lapped joints in one plane the stress per unit Jength of weld may be calculated on the basis of the average area for axial forces and an elastic polar modulus of the weld group for in-plane moments (Gee figure 7.4), In tee joints any effect of different axial stiffness along the joint should be taken into account. Where single filets or incompletely penetrated butt welds are subjected to out-of-plane bending ‘moments the stresses at the root should be calculated using a linear stress distribution through the throat (see figure 7.5), No allowance should be made for bearing contact (on the root face in partially penetrated welded Joints (©) Threaded fasteners under axial load. Cracks Initiating at thread roots should be assessed using the mean axial stress on the core area of the thread, ‘Where bending is also present the peak stress should be used, calculated on the elastic modulus of the 76 Derivation of stress spectra 7.6.1 Cycle counting Cycle counting is a procedure for breaking down a complex stress history into a convenient spectrum of, cycles in terms of amplitude Jf, and frequency » (see figure 7.1). There are various methods in use. For short stress histories where simple loading events are repeated a number of times, the reservoir method is, recommended. It is easy to visualize and simple to use (See figure 7.6). Where long stress histories have to be used, such as those obtained from measured strains in actual structures (see 8.4) the rain-low method is recommended. Both methods are suitable for computer analysis. © BSI 07.1000© | [ible 71 7pe I classifications: non-welded details | E | [Premet torm Rolled or extruded sections 3 | [Reason or pata eck tiation [Away from all welding g ‘Away from al structural connections or paris ‘Ava lapped oF spliced connection fastened with On a member of [At any extemal or internal edge “Ata smal ote (may [Fiction pp bolts [Rivets [Bearing bos constant or smoothly contain bolt for minor | | varying eros section fixtures) | | Dimensional reaurements No holes oF “Any apertre or reentrant comer rads =| Hole diameter =r | re-entrant comers I ‘Al surfaces rolled, extruded or machined to [Surfaces machiined or | Holes drilled or removed | a smooth finish in direction of f, ‘ground in direc:tion ‘Torqued to proof load | Cold driven | Nuts secured othe of bolt mechanically or by sealant ‘Surfaces proved free of defects by penetrant dye testing Design stress area Net cross-sectional area ‘Special design ives parameter Use stress concentration factor for apertures for re-entrant corners Type nanbor 12. ‘Maximum permed dass ey: Typical crac loaton —— cotedge sam, rastener © Direction ofa uctution egy 1 uoRBag 8118 Sa 66: 1 ea100 blank‘bie 7.2 Type 2 classifications: welded details on surface of member Fosstrm" "| Reo ae eins a al pene — gS Aca wed atch dt 7) Aviat ied atime’ [nay “Away from wel end ‘Avan [Ava cope hole [Ava weld end — intermediate sp [grr attachment Wide atachoent On edge of ng ince none side nly On bah ses ember _ : reese | Saget — Ra wa rie we a naan aero — Taare — penetration intermittent ‘Weld length (parallel to f,) 1 > 60 mm 5 edge Beas i | ee a apa erase: " | Part 2) ‘Dress overfill ‘Automatic no | Stop-starts free of| Avoid weld | rk opmans”” — [eberen reas tard | nes ton ac ove ee i dt Ton pene SN SST |Radpapty design vires ‘Stress dispersal angle 1 in 2 bot = Ea eee — [ET a a ea oo a af ea a a aman reas Jd fe = = 7 = 7 iz a a 7 piatcnek can —— Sateen EEStor cation102 blankLo1sa@ 60 £01 (ibie 7. Type 3 dasfcations welded details at end connections of wemier ec tore Plates o fiat exons [fates formed or ered apes [fea a eos wed jong Tn wed oat wo singe plates end to end vo meniban end wend Eno member tose af wther | ary parcaly Cease et aaa —| use [Rul peneraion | Pata penton Bato et wal] Beene, [Hongda ars feton ween ul penetration belt wold Fara Equal wt ary wid ange 51 4 ope regan at gal ences ay Gina ange =T in Bape Saar wotie [ie pp T Wi ene arrow and os bough fo) amg] Weidd from bth ier Welded from one side oly eee | Reserve i ln pl ere Sind wo ene Eco Tiatigamene erasing vestictons on prof and [No permanent tac witin 10 nan of edge Maina masligenent of wait Moyet int [ote wed eaconsasica with renters 08 Dre ash] EAS Cass [on permanant] Wahoatbading [Drew fash ower bec enforcement Teper ranom a coll pate wd, weld ends pound mode Pie or gd sooth ary undercut, partearly on exter comers peaminmeare | nereatng use of penetrant dyes, radigraphy and wlzwonis with Gato eure ance f detest Gaconinalies Sao i ‘Al regions pressed tn ough thickness direction to be free from larunar rong or extrusion ea discontinuities ‘Beco nrar ana Nama anoveee Garton of tener a ocn of pla ack won Eee ea aaa [Use area concenttin acar | Sires concerning factor al ree fear remember spate or has | snd only ates Pena [ST EA aa a ae ae a7 EC sa 0 en Reaoan rr | = me 7 Ey Ey 0 ee Ey Longitudinal direction See ptng mS Diecont see cee AGN ‘emirate meminremens ee 1 wonpag, :] utd : S118 Sa 1661104 blankSection 7 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Prope Desion stress range = B+ W AZ i Linear stress distribution Crack initiation site ossumed Weld toe stress concentration factor not calculated Pan (2) Local stress concentrator Meannet stress, f pee ! Welded attachment ' Non-linear stress distribution \ - Design stress at - initiation site,X a Large aperture or pi re-entrant corner t (©) Lange stress concentrator (large opening) Figure 7.2 Stress parameter for parent material Brand Hare forces per unit length os eC] | Vector stress \ \ f aN . |B l29% 4129, Figure 7.3 Stresses in weld throats © BSL 07-1900 105BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 7 Fillet Stress distribution due to direct load P where rou the centroid NOTE. Maximum shear Nux along welds = Md, J,‘ polar second moment of area about centroid of weld 4 the maximum distance of a point in the weld group from Figure 7.4 Stress in lapped joints Stress distribution due to moment M m rN Figure 7.5 Stresses in root of fillet 7.6.2 Derivation of stress spectrum ‘The listing of cycles in descending order of amplitude Ja results in a stress spectrum. For ease of calculation it may be required to simplify the spectrum into fewer bands, A conservative method is to group bands together into larger groups containing the same total number of eycles, but whose amplitude is equal to that of the highest band in the group. More accurately, the ‘weighted average of all the bands in one group can be calculated using the power m, where m is the inverse slope of the f; ~ NV curve most likely to be used (See figure 7.7). The use of an arithmetic mean value will always be unconservative. 7.7 Classification of details ‘The fatigue strength of a detall is always dependent on the following factors: (@) the direction of the fluctuating stress relative to the detall; (b) the location of the initiating crack in the detail; (©) the geometrical arrangement and relative proportion of the detail It may also depend on the following: (1) the produet form; (2) the material (unless welded); (B) the method of fabrication; (@) the degree of inspection after fabrication. Tables 7.1 to 73 show the classifications for more commonly used details. For convenience they have been divided into three basic groups, namely: @ type 1, non-welded details, see table 7.1; Gil) type 2, welded details on surface of loaded member, see table 7.2; il) type 3, welded details at end connections, see table 73, ‘The tables are used by identifying the detail in the figure closest to the one in the structure being assessed, The classes for the particular crack initiation sites associated with that are then checked in the relevant table. In some cases particular manufacturing ‘or inspection operations may be needed which are outside those required in BS 8118 : Part 2 106 © BSI O7-1900Section 7 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ‘Step 1. Determine stress history for Toading event. Identify peak (B) Step 2. Move stress history on let of peak to right Step 3, Fill resulting “eservolr with ‘water. Greatest dpi is major eyele p 4. Drain at groatest depth. Find ‘ew manu depth Ths fs second largest eycle ‘Step 5 onwards. Repeat until all ‘water drained. Sum ofall eyes & stress spectrum for above history Figure 7.6 Reservoir cycle counting method © BSI 07.1900 107BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 7 Stress range f, Original bands Simplified band Lo Simplified spectrum I~ tor design Cumulative frequency 7 Figure 7.7 Simplified stress spectrum Eon IF in m= Inverse slope of the log f /l0g N curve (see 7.22 and figure 78 or 7.9) 78 Fatigue strength data 7.8.1 Classified details ‘The generalized form of the fz ~ N relationship is shown in figure 7.8, plotted on logarithmic scales. The design curve represents mean minus 2 standard deviation level below the mean line through experimental data. The constant amplitude cut-off stress, fac, OCCU at 107 cycles, below which constant amplitude stress cycles are assumed to be non-damaging, However, even if occasional eyeles occur above this level, they Any stress cycles below the variable amplitude cut-off Stress foy, Which occurs at 10° cycles, are assumed to be nondamaging It should be noted that the use of the 1/(m + 2) slope ‘may be conservative for some spectra. Where a design is critically dependent on this region and where maximum economy is sought it may be appropriate to consider using component testing (see 8.4.4.1) or applying fracture mechanics analysis. The values of Kp and m are given in table 7.4 for each detail class. Design f; —N curves are given in figure 7.9 will cause propagation which, as the crack extends, ‘Table 7-4 Values of K; and m in figure 7.9 will cause lower amplitude cycles to become Dera [or Ke oe ow ‘damaging, For this reason the slope of the fe ~ N class curves (see figure 7.8) is changed to 1(m +2) between Nim? | Naan 5 x 10° and 108 cycles for general spectrum loading conditions. 60 45 [201x104 [420 | 309 NOTE. Jy applies to all types of stress range, including Quctuating | 50 4 1.25 x 1018 2a ‘compressive stresses, yy eq ime ise) te 35 325 j2onx10 jaa | 149 29 3 483x100 i707 4 3 276x100 = |140 | 9.7 20 3 160x100 117 |84 17 3 983 x10 |99 |69 4 3 5.49 x 10° 82 57 108 © BSI 07.1900Section 7 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 7.8.2 Unclassified details Details not fully covered by tables 7.1 to 7.3 should be assessed by reference to published data where available. Alternatively fatigue acceptance tests may be carried out in accordance with 8.4.4.1 Guidance on the derivation of fz ~ N data, and on conditions where higher strengths might be expected, is given in appendix L. 7.8.3 Low endurance range In the endurance range between 108 and 105 a check should be made that the design stress range from figure 7.9 does not result in a maximum tensile stress that exceeds the static design stress for the detail. This possibilty is indicated by a note on figure 7:9. 7.84 Improvement techniques The fatigue strength of certain detail types shown in tables 7.1 to 7.3 may be improved by the application of special manufacturing techniques. These are generally expensive to apply and present quality control difficulties. They should not be relied upon for general design purposes, unless fatigue is particularly critical to the overall economy of the structure, in which case specialist advice should be sought. They are more commonly used to overcome existing design deficiencies. ‘The following techniques have been used on aluminium alloys and are most effective for high cycle applications. (a) Introduction of compressive residual stresses at the location of crack initiation, This may be carried out at transverse weld toes by pening. At bolt holes, the cold expansion method may be used, (b) Reduction of stress concentration effect at the location of erack initiation. This may be cared out by grinding transverse weld toes to a smooth profile 7.8.5 Workmanship ‘The maxintum permitted class for classified details in tables 7.1 to 7.3 represents the maxinium fatigue strength permitted by this code for the detail in ‘question without further substantiation by test (see section 8). Where the fatigue stressing at a classified detail is significantly below that permitted the required class will be less than the maximum permitted class, This will always occur when high class details are located close to low class details where both are ‘experiencing similar stress fluctuations. ‘The higher class details often require additional inspection and demand higher workmanship standards (Gee 3.9.9.3 and appendix B of BS 8118 : Part 2: 1991). Itis important to the economy of manufacture that inspection and workmanship standards are not dictated by the maximum permitted class of every detail, but by the required class. The required class at a detail is obtained by determining the lowest f — N curve from figure 7.9 where Miner's summation is less than unity (see 7.3(f). Where stress fluctuations occur in more than one direction at a detail different class requirements may be found for each direction.In order that inspection can be particularly concentrated on. those parts of the structure which are critical for fatigue the following actions should be taken, (a) Determine by calculation those regions of the structure where the class requirement exceeds class 20, (b) Indicate on the detailed drawings at all details in these regions the required class and the direction of stress fluctuation as shown in figure 7.10. (©) Any drawing which contains a detail with a required fatigue class greater than 20 should have the following general note added: ‘Details requiring quality above normal are indicated with a Fat number and an arrow (see appendix B of BS 8118: Part 2: 1991)” © BSI 07.1000 109BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 7 Scatter in test data B Mean line W fe" Design line N=K, K " N XS 1 cl I S 1 3 re foe . Reference life—ory g 1 2 1 on a I 1 ! 1 o Tne nF 7 10 ato’ Suto 10 0 Endurance W (cycles) (og scale) Nore Joc isthe constant amplitude cutoff stress; Joy 18 the variable amplitude eutof stress, Figure 7.8 Typical f, ~ N relationship u0 © BSI 07.1900Isto 666 nm Note: static requirements may limit f, inthis region Class (=reference strength in N/mm? at 2%10% cycles} 0? 10¢ 10° w ft 10" 10° 10” 00a P esate 3 sera” 2 9 2 serpy” 2 9 e seres 2 3 sere a igy z zg $rad 200 — Bind 0 & brco| 160 2 Fico 0 e 1 120 = a9 100 3 v0 “0 so 1 no ar) 60 E50 so = af] 60 so so 3 a 20 £ is a hs a he 19 10 3 5 ‘ 6 h ‘ le s s PSST Te SeTes 2 TSO ET SET FS CSTE aS tS ETE 10? 10° 0 10 107 10° 10? Endurance W (cycles) (log scale) Figure 7.9 Design /; ~ N curves (for variable amplitude stress histories) L uonpag S118 Sa T66T #1 eaBS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 7 View X-X Figure 7.10 Method of identification of required fatigue class on drawings ne je nstozimSection 8 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 OT Section 8. Testing 8.1 General A structure or structural component designed in accordance with sections 2 to 7 of this code need not be verified by testing but may be so verified at the ‘manufacturer’ discretion. Such testing may be under static loading (see 8.3), fatigue loading (see 8.4), or both Verification by testing is appropriate where the following occur: (@) the structure or component is not amenable to verification by analysis or such a procedure is deemed to be impracticable; (b) materials or design procedures other than those referred to in sections 2 to 7 were used; (© there is doubt or disagreement about the validity of the design method, the quality of material or the ‘quality of the workmanship. The method and extent of testing should be agreed between the designer (supplier), and the engineer responsible for acceptance (purchaser).The method of testing should be consistent with the service conditions for the structure or component and may comprise a statically or dynamically loaded resistance test andor a fatigue resistance test. Tests should be conducted! at a competent facility acceptable to both supplier and purchaser, The number of samples to be tested should be agreed between purchaser and supplier having regard to the numbers of components to be manufactured. Where the number of samples to be tested is to be large a sufficient number of samples should be tested to permit statistical analysis of the mean resistance and standard deviation for each condition of loading Where acceptance of the design depends upon verification by testing the purchaser or his agent should be afforded the facility of witnessing every test. ‘Where verification of the design depends upon testing a report should be issued deseribing in detail (or by reference to the appropriate British Standard) the method of testing and giving al the measured resistances in the form of a type test certificate containing at least the information listed in 8.5. 8.2 Preparation for test ‘The sample to be tested, if not the actual structure or component to be destined for service, should represent as accurately as possible the design in terms of 1material properties, dimensions, methods of jointing, and finishes where the latter may be sensitive to the effects of strain The test sample should be set up in a normal attitude so that the dead loads due to seleweight are operating normally. Where this is not possible the effects of dead load may be represented by equivalent imposed loads, ‘Where the tests are to be applied to a simulation of the actual structure or to a component the sample should be mounted in such a way that it will experience the normal restraints to the effects of the combination of applied loads. In the circumstances where the combination of applied loads, their directions, and orientation of the sample can produce permutations of the resistance of the sample, that combination which is expected to give the lowest resistance should be used. 8.3 Static tests 8.3.1 General Static tests are intended to show whether the structure ‘or component can carry the unfactored loads (known as the nominal loads, see 3.2.2) without exceeding the serviceability limit state, and also whether it can carry the factored loads (see 3.2.3) without exceeding the ultimate limit state, Itis sometimes appropriate to canty out an ultimate resistance test (see 8.3.5). 83.2 Application of loads Loading should be by means of dead weights, force generating devices, or displacement generating devices. ‘The method should include force measuring devices of known accuracy. Prior to the application of each combination of nominal loads the sample may be loaded and unloaded ‘once. The loading to be applied for this optional ‘settling down’ eycle should not exceed the nominal loads or such other lower level of loading relating to a limiting deformation criterion for acceptance. The loading should be maintained for at least 15 min. It is recommended that displacements be measured during the settling down cycle. Reloading should not occur within 15 min of removal of the settling load. Anchorages should be checked for tightness before proceeding with the main test. Loading up to the nominal loads should proceed in five approximately equal increments. Each inerentent should be maintained whilst deflection and/or strain readings are obtained and the sample is examined for signs of distress. At the fifth increment (serviceability limit) the deflection(s) and/or strains should be recorded immediately after application of the loads) and again after this load level has been maintained for 15 min The nominal loads should be removed and the structure inspected before the application of factored loads. Loading should then be applied incrementally up to the factored load (sometimes referred to as the ‘proof load), recording deflections and behaviour as before. The increase from nominal to factored load should be made in at least five increments. The factored load should be maintained for 15 min during which time the deflection(s) should be monitored and the sample examined for signs of distress, © BS107-1900 113