Professional Documents
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Received March 3rd, 2010; revised March 9th, 2011; accepted April 23rd, 2011.
ABSTRACT
Radioactivity measurements were carried out around Maumba and Nguluku villages, two of the proposed sites for tita-
nium mining in the coastal area of Kenya. Samples of surface soils were analyzed using a HPGe gamma spectrometer.
The average activity concentrations for 226Ra, 232Th and 40K are 20.9 7.6, 27.6 9.1 and 69.5 16.5 Bqkg–1, respec-
tively. The absorbed dose rates in air, calculated on the basis of the measured activity concentrations, range from 9.8 to
50.0 nGyh–1, with an average of 29.2 nGyh–1. These values are below the global population-weighted mean, and they
should be considered when planning appropriate monitoring and surveillance programmes during the mining operation,
as well as the reclamation and restoration programmes after mining.
Keywords: Radioactivity Measurements, Titanium Mining, Absorbed Dose Rates, Natural Background Radiation
Figure 1. Location of Kwale Titanium Mines (KTM) and the sampling sites.
of the natural background radiation can arise from con- they are free from large stones or roots and relatively in
tamination of groundwater by liquid effluents and leach- the open. This is similar to the systemic/stratified random
ing radionuclides, contamination of land and agricultural sampling technique described in the IAEA technical
produce by atmospheric releases, re-use of tailings, etc. document [6]. The distance between neighbouring grid
The principal exposure pathways will be inhalation of centers is about 500 m. At each sampling point, dirt and
airborne radionuclides, ingestions of radionuclides with other extraneous (non-soil) materials were first removed
food, water, etc., and external exposures to gamma radia- to expose the soil. Soil was then collected with hand
tion from tailings, surface deposition, and submersion in trowels down to 5 - 10 cm depth within a 30 × 30 cm2
airborne radionuclides. area. The soil was homogenized and three samples, each
In order to assess the net radiological impact of the of about 1000 cm3, were packed in clean polythene bags
mining operations, it is necessary to establish baseline and labeled accordingly. Altogether 78 samples of sandy
concentrations of the naturally occurring radionuclides in soil were collected from 26 sampling points. The sample
relevant environmental matrices prior to the commence- preparation involve oven-drying at 110˚C, pulverizing to
ment of the mining operation. Soil is the ultimate sink for fine powder, and sealing aliquots in 450 ml bottles for a
various kinds of contaminants and it could be an impor- minimum of 4 weeks to establish secular equilibrium
tant indicator of environmental pollution [6]. This is the between 226Ra and the short-lived decay products of
report of an independent study carried out to establish the 222
Rn before gamma-ray spectrometric analysis.
baseline concentrations of radionucides in the surface
soil around the proposed mining sites. 2.2. Gamma-Ray Spectrometric Analysis
2. Materials and Methods The samples were analyzed using a high purity germa-
nium (HPGe) detector of 30% efficiency relative to the
2.1. Soil sampling and Preparations standard 3” × 3” NaI(Tl) detector and energy resolution
Soil sampling was carried out in an area of about 20 km2 of 1.8 keV (FWHM) at the 1.33 MeV gamma line of
60
and 10 km long surrounding the two mine sites (Figure Co. Detailed description of the gamma-ray spectrome-
1). The area was divided into large grids around the two ter setup as well as the detector calibration procedures
villages and along the adjoining path, but the sampling using the IAEA reference materials (RGU-1, RGTh-1,
points within each grid were chosen randomly provided and RGK-1) are presented in earlier reports [7-9].
Table 1. Comparison of mean activity concentrations of radionuclides in soils around the titanium mining sites to other areas.
Table 2. Absorbed dose-rate in air estimated from activity radionuclides are low in the area’s surface soils: means
concentrations of 40K, 226Ra and 232Th in soil. of 61.1, 21.2 and 27.0 (in Bq·kg–1) for 40K, 226Ra and
232
Th, respectively. The absorbed dose rates in air due to
Absorbed dose-rate in air (nGyh–1)
Location the observed radionucides concentrations in soils are also
Range Mean low, with a mean of 29.2 nGyh–1. These values are the
baseline on which the assessment of the impact of the
Proposed mining sites 9.8 - 50.0 29.2
mining operations should be based, instead of country or
Kenya (different parts) a
9.9 - 176.5 68.2 global averages. They will also be used in evaluating the
effectiveness of the land restoration program.
Global averagesb 18 - 93 59
a b
[7], [10].
5. Acknowledgements
4. Conclusions The authors than the following: Kenyatta University and
Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (University
Pre-operational environmental radioactivity measure- of Nairobi) for availing field and laboratory equipment;
ments carried out around the proposed sites for Kwale the government of Kenya (through the ministries of edu-
titanium mining project in the coastal area of Kenya re- cation and the office of the President) for authorising the
vealed that activity concentrations of naturally occurring study; and the United Nations Environmental Programme
(UNEP) – Nairobi for granting access to their library. meeting, Jaipur, 13-14 December 2001.
[6] IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), “Soil sam-
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