Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Abbreviations
1
DCU
2
The support of the Jesuit Centre for Faith and Justice, in the form of the Jesuit Solidarity Scholarship,
is gratefully acknowledged. The assistance of Trócaire and its staff in head office and West Africa has
also been of great help in furthering this research project.
1
in supporting the peace process. This study intends to look at the possible benefits of
taking a participatory approach to DDR, in which all the stakeholders are consulted
and involved in planning, implementing and reviewing the process.
The term ‘participation’ in this study is taken from the development context, as
explained by Robert Chambers (1997, 1998), and as promoted by those agencies
committed to a partnership approach to development work through nationally-based
non-governmental organisations (NGOs). This requires, among other things, that the
beneficiaries and implementers of a development programme are genuinely involved
in, consulted on, and make input to, the main stages of its planning, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation. The objective is not only that a better and more relevant
programme is developed; it also aims to engender a higher level of ‘ownership’ of it
by community, building of capacity among actors in the country, and greater
sustainability of the programme’s outputs. The importance of these factors in DDR is
that reintegration of ex-combatants can be a difficult process for all parties, including
the communities which are being asked to accept them, which requires political buy-
in at several levels, if it is to be sustainable. A badly conceived or managed process, in
which there is inadequate participation can lead to resentment, unfulfilled
expectations, and a perception of unfair rewards for militia members. All these factors
can in turn affect the outcome negatively.
The hypothesis for this study is that genuine participation by all the stakeholders is a
significant element in designing successful DDR programmes. It is a necessary
condition for ensuring that the issues being addressed reflect the genuine needs of ex-
combatants, and also of the communities which are being asked to receive them.
Meaningful participation is also important in ensuring effective implementation of
programmes, which will in any case face unexpected challenges, and which rely on
the goodwill of many local actors.
2
impact? The indicators for measuring these variables are being devised, as the next
stage in this research project.
3
sense of ownership among stakeholders, and their belief in the process. This can be
fostered by a participatory approach, or destroyed by one which excludes or alienates
them. Such exclusion can arise quite unintentionally, and it can have repercussions for
various groups’ attitudes to the peace process and reconciliation. Civil society groups
are a rich source of expertise, with access to informal networks and information at
national, local and community level. Nevertheless, they are easily overlooked by
international NGOs and intergovernmental organisations (IGOs). This exclusion can
arise even when the international agency concerned is openly committed to working
in partnership with national actors and civil society.
Definitions
The conceptualisation and practice of DDR has evolved since the early 1990s, as it
became accepted as a standard tool to be included in comprehensive peace
agreements. While it may still contend with a lingering perception that it is a ‘cash for
guns’ deal, DDR has become a sophisticated and multi-faceted operation, often
involving a dozen or more agencies.
The accepted definition of DDR within the UN system was produced by the UN
Secretary General in 2005, adopted by the General Assembly, and reiterated since
then as:
4
Disarmament is the collection, documentation, control and
disposal of small arms, ammunition, explosives and light and
heavy weapons of combatants and often also of the civilian
population. Disarmament also includes the development of
responsible arms management programmes.
This definition has also been adopted in the Integrated DDR Standards (IDDRS)
(2006).
DDR is best viewed as an integrated set of processes, which are themselves a part of
the wider peace process. It arises from the peace processes, and has the capacity to
provide positive or negative feedback into it. The possible feedbacks arise from
confidence building between parties, opening lines of communication, addressing
interests, and providing incentives at a number of levels. It can also bring tensions to
5
the surface, especially when resources from jobs are to be divided up, or where local
commanders’ interests diverge from those of their leaders or the combatants. DDR
cannot bring political agreement on its own, and a peace process which collapses will
leave a DDR programme in an untenable position, as seen in the failure of the first
DDR programme in Angola (Gomes Porto and Parsons, 2003).
The Stockholm Initiative on DDR (SIDDR) has produced guiding principles on DDR
and recommendations for mediators and facilitators who are involved in brokering
peace negotiations (2006: 41-45). This practical contribution recognises the essential
connection between DDR and the entire peace process, and their ability to influence
each other. It also helps to ensure that good foundations for DDR are laid early on,
both in terms of the outline contained in the peace agreement, and the expectations
and level of ownership among the stakeholders from donors to combatants.
The importance of a holistic approach for DDR was recognised as early as the mid
90s, at the level of planning, funding, and ensuring that there is effective transition
from demobilisation to reintegration (Berdal, 1996: 74-75). However, the reality is
that while a holistic approach has often been advocated, putting this into practice
involves dealing with considerable challenges. The difficulties include:
The short time frame given for starting the implementation of DDR
programmes, since there is a desire to prevent spoilers emerging from the armed
groups and threatening the peace process.
6
The fact that many different actors are involved, sometimes with radically
different organisational cultures, capacities, and perspectives, each of which
brings their own interests and requirements for accountability.
The fact that different elements of the programme, which range from traditional
peacekeeping operations to community-based NGOs, require funding from
disparate donors, who themselves have a variety of perspectives. Resources for
disarmament are generally more readily available than funding for reintegration.
The need for a holistic view of DDR underlines the importance taking a participatory
approach: this recognises the complex relationships between all the actors, and the
long-term implications of how a programme is implemented. Such an approach has
implications for less tangible aspects of the process. Enduring perceptions are
established at this vital stage of post-conflict reconstruction, when beneficiaries
quickly understand about incentives, whether authorities can be trusted, and the way
in which others make decisions which will affect their lives.
7
they do best, and warned of them becoming ‘overloaded’ with other post-conflict
needs. These should be addressed instead by accompanying programmes for all war-
affected populations. The DDR programmes should however be linked to these
broader programmes, especially for reintegration (UN, 2005).
Wherever the lines of responsibility are drawn, coherence is required at least at the
level of objectives and of planning, even if implementation, monitoring and other
matters are done by different agencies. The actors which remain constant, however,
are the beneficiaries, and their involvement in the process and sense of ownership are
all the more important as different agencies enter and leave the stage.
A growing body of guides, manuals, and best practice has been developed on DDR in
recent years, and they have given increasing attention to the need for an integrated
view of DDR, national ownership of the process, and a participatory approach. One
project which brought together a wide range of practitioners, donors and researchers
to review best practice was the Stockholm Initiative on DDR (SIDDR, 2006).
An even more comprehensive guide and field manual which addresses many of these
issues is the Integrated DDR Standards (IDDRS) (2006) which was launched by the
UN Secretary General December 2006. It amounts to a significant initiative to
promote an integrated approach between UN agencies and other actors in the DDR
process.
8
Benefits which materialise for communities long after they have been seen to go to
ex-combatants can create resentment and undermine reconciliation. They should
therefore be seen by all stakeholders – from donors through to beneficiaries – as a
direct complement to the DDR programme. This means that funding gaps must be
avoided, by establishing a mechanism for community programming in parallel with
that for DDR.
Funding gaps like these indicate that a genuinely participatory needs assessment has
not taken place, or has not been taken on board by planners and donors. Gaps in
funding have affected many DDR programmes, and this disruption in the timing of its
implementation can undermine the peace process (Spear, 2006). Delay can lead to
unrest in demobilisation camps, when anticipated benefits are not available. Liberia’s
problems with funding arose when three times more people presented for DDR than
had been expected (Carroll, 2003), raising concerns that some of them had never been
combatants in the first place.
Delays were also seen to have significant consequences at later stages of the
programme. The socio-economic situation for ex-combatants who registered for the
Liberian DDR but had not received any vocational training have been exposed in one
of the few quantitative studies4 in this area:
4
Pugel’s study (2006) compared ex-fighters who had completed a DDR programme, those who were
registered but had not completed it, and those who never took part. It found that those who had
completed the programme were more advanced in the process of reintegration and in a better position
generally.
9
Genuine participation by all the stakeholders is a key element in designing both DDR
programmes and transitional assistance measures, if priorities are to be defined from a
local perspective. This is essential for ensuring that the issues being addressed reflect
the genuine needs of ex-combatants and communities which are being asked to
receive them. Meaningful participation is also important in ensuring effective
implementation of programmes, which will in any case face unexpected challenges,
and which rely on the goodwill of many local actors.
Assessment: The Operational Guide to IDDRS (2006: 67-71) gives detailed guidance
on carrying out an assessment as part of the planning process for DDR, and this
includes participatory assessments carried out by beneficiaries. It includes those in
rural settings, with the help of a facilitator, as well as women, youth and children,
whose input can often be overlooked.
M&E: The process of monitoring and evaluation is different from assessment, and
generally takes place once a programme is underway or completed. However,
experience of Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation (PM&E) in a weapons
collection context is relevant, and the process has been described in detail by
Mugumya in Mali (2004a), Albania (2004b), and Cambodia (2005).
10
Table 1: Identification of possible variables
11
Ex-combatants and Consultation during More effective and
those associated Demobilisation sustainable economic
with armed groups phase. and social
reintegration.
Participation in
decisions about Reconciliation
economic facilitated.*
reintegration (e.g.
about training Return to conflict
opportunities) less likely.
12
Local ownership
One of the aspects of a participatory approach is the greater sense of ownership
among stakeholders, and their belief in the process. This can be fostered by a
participatory approach, or destroyed by one which excludes or alienates them. Such
exclusion can arise quite unintentionally, and it can have repercussions for various
groups’ attitudes to the peace process and reconciliation. An opportunity to listen to
the fears and perspectives of, for example, a local community or a group of
demobilising fighters, is a key moment. Even if the course of action remains
unchanged, the feeling of having been listened to has a bearing on attitudes to a policy
– while the sense that one’s opinion has not been heard will worsen any disaffection.
Marginalised groups
Certain groups are at risk of being marginalised during the DDR process unless their
situation is given specific attention. There are many reasons why specific attention
needs to be paid to women and to children who have been associated with armed
groups, for example, through a participatory approach.
13
Firstly, despite recent efforts, the international and national organisations may simply
overlook the particular needs of children and women, since in most cultures these
people are less likely to be heard. Secondly, women and children in any case have
particular needs, and have had particular experiences in the course of the conflict.
Thirdly, they face additional challenges in rehabilitation and reintegrating socially,
due to higher levels of abuse during the conflict and stigma on return. And finally,
evidence so far shows that women and children of both sexes have not benefited from
DDR programmes to the same extent as others (Specht, 2006: 87–96; de Watteville,
2002; McKay and Mazurana, 2004; Bouta, 2005; Brett and Specht, 2004).
Another group which may be regarded as marginalised are those ex-combatants who
are disabled, presumably as a result of the conflict. They will have extra needs, and
face additional challenges in establishing a new livelihood. Family support networks,
where this is possible, may be an important part of the equation.
Resentment can be driven by the perception of what incentives are available for other
groups, even more than the reality. A well-planned information campaign can be
important, as an element of participation. In fact, DDR without an effective
communications or public awareness strategy can have ‘disastrous’ consequences,
according to Muggah (2005):
14
The pursuit of DDR in West Africa and the Philippines has
shown how the mismanagement of expectations and inadequate
preparation for disarmament generated counterproductive, even
lethal, outcomes. In Liberia more than three times the anticipated
number of claimants demanded ‘reintegration’ benefits and rioted
when turned away. Similarly, a reintegration industry has been
spawned in Mindanao, where international agencies such as the
UNDP and USAID continue to support tens of thousands more
MNLF excombatants and dependants than are believed to exist
(Muggah, 2005: 246-247).
One of the main advantages of a participatory approach to DDR is that this inevitably
draws in the communities which are being asked to accept ex-combatants to live
among them. The importance of involving communities is being increasingly
recognised, even though this raises many challenges for international actors
5
An interesting discussion about an enhanced public information campaign as part of peace operations
in West Africa is contained in Hunt (2006).
15
early on in the assessment and planning process, at a stage and in a way which allows
them to have an influence the outcome. It can help to identify precarious local
economic activities which may be disrupted or damaged by providing certain types of
assistance to ex-combatants during reintegration. It is also required at during
implementation, and during any ongoing monitoring and evaluation. It helps to
establish the legitimacy of the programming and implementers.
Unless they join new state services, fulltime education, or are re-recruited for other
conflicts, ex-combatants will ultimately seek to reintegrate economically into the rest
of society. Whether this is urban or rural, and regardless of whether it is their place of
origin or another area, they will be interacting with people who may also be war-
affected, but who have been treated differently by the international community. The
development of new livelihoods, social reintegration, and reconciliation will all be
affected by the way these ex-combatants and the receiving community interact. How
the international agencies have treated that community in comparison with those who
carried guns in the conflict will have a major bearing on that process.
16
Rejection, or less likelihood of acceptance, of ex-combatants due to community
resentment;
Increased tension over the many unresolved issues of transitional justice and
impunity which may already exist, as a result of perceived unfairness of
incentives for ex-combatants.
Where appropriate, such projects could involve both community members and ex-
combatants working together on the same scheme, as a way of promoting
reconciliation and rehabilitation. This has been described by Vencovsky (2006) in
Liberia and the DRC.6
6
Vencovsky cites some examples: ‘In addition to examples mentioned earlier, in southeastern Liberia a
Danish Refugee Council project engaged a group of 4 500 people in reconstruction efforts. This group
comprised both ex-combatants (60 percent) and unemployed civilians (40 percent). DDRR in the DRC
introduced the ComRec scheme, a United Nations Development Project (UNDP)-managed project that
gives funding to ex-combatants. The idea is for the ex-fighters to organise themselves and, with the
help of local nongovernmental organisations (NGO), design business ideas in the area of reconstruction
of local communities. These projects are then funded from the ComRec budget. ComRec embraces
many approaches already mentioned: it is community-based, promotes reconciliation and offers the
opportunity for a business start-up. It is, however, hampered by insufficient capacity on the part of local
NGOs and ex-combatants themselves.’ (Vencovsky, 2006: 41).
17
This involves considerable challenges, as it requires coordination with a further layer
of actors, from communities to implementers to donors. The essential element,
however, is not necessarily to implement simultaneously, but to coordinate from the
planning and assessment stage onwards.
The situation can of course be complicated by the fact that ‘receiving communities’
may not be stable entities, and can be affected by returns and other post-conflict
population movements.
Capacity building of CBOs and LNGOs is necessary
Civil society groups are a rich source of expertise, with access to informal networks
and information at national, local and community level (Dzinesa, 2006). Nevertheless,
they are easily overlooked by international NGOs and IGOs. This exclusion can arise
even when the international agency concerned is openly committed to working in
partnership with national actors and civil society. The fact that internationally-
connected agencies often control access to resources remains a factor in this
relationship: agencies which like to think of themselves as working in partnership are
well aware that it is an asymmetric relationship. The fact that there can be a high
turnover of international staff also has an impact on the level of participation. The
very real time pressures in rolling out a DDR programme, and undertaking short term
emergency or rehabilitation work, also makes meaningful consultation more difficult.
18
Implementation Unit (JIU). The structure is set out in the Operational Guide to the
IDDRS, from which the following figure is taken:
The support of the Jesuit Centre for Faith and Justice, in the form of the Jesuit
Solidarity Scholarship, is gratefully acknowledged. The assistance of Trócaire and its
staff in head office and West Africa has also been of great help in furthering this
research project.
7
Figure taken from Operational Guide to the IDDRS, 2006, (Figure 3.30.1, Section 3.30, p. 83)
19
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20
Lost Children (2005) documentary film, written and directed by Ali Samadi Ahadi and
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21
UN (2005) Freetown Conference urges improvements in disarmament,
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