THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and Structures: Medical
Implants

A medical implant is a chemical substance or a device used to replace, support, or improve

a part of the human body. It should be stable, inert, heat-resistant, biocompatible, and long-
lasting.

Materials Used for Medical Implants

Metals have particles that are held together by strong

metallic bonds. They are strong and durable. They are also
good conductors of electricity because of the free flowing
electrons.

Alloys are combinations of one or more metals held

together by metallic bonds. They contain atoms that have
different sizes, which distort the regular arrangement of
atoms. This distortion makes it more difficult for the layers of
atoms to slide over each other, so alloys are harder and
stronger than most pure metals. Alloys are often used for
load-bearing implants because of their high strength,
durability, and inertness. For example, stainless steel is one
of the most common alloys used in orthopaedic imp

Pure metals can also be used as implants. Pure titanium is best used as a pacemaker case. A
pacemaker is a device which uses electrical impulses to regulate heart beats. Titanium is used
because of its high resistance to corrosion and superior biocompatibility.lants, which are
medical devices that can replace a missing joint or support a damaged bone.

Ceramics are nonmetallic, inorganic solids with ionic or covalent bonds. They are commonly
used in dental implants,such as crowns, cement, and dentures.They are hard, inert, and durable
materials.

Zirconia ceramic (ZrO2 ) is a crystalline solid held

together by covalent bonds. The strong bonds and the
regularity of the crystalline structure give rise to the
high strength and toughness of the material.

Zirconia is often used in restorative crowns because of its biocompatibility and smooth
surface finish.

Polymers are molecules with a large number of repeating

units of covalently bonded chain of atoms. They are versatile
biomaterials with applications on facial, orthopaedic, and
dental prosthesis. A common polymer used in implants is
silicone. Silicone is polymerized siloxanes. It contains silicone-
oxygen backbone chain with organic side groups bonded to the
silicon atoms.
 Silicone has a long polymer chain. The intermolecular forces of attraction between the
chains are very strong. Therefore, silicone has high strength and durability. Also, its long chains
can uncoil and slide past each other, making the material flexible. Because of its strength and
flexibility, silicone is often used to replace original joint surfaces

The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and

Structures: Sports Equipment
Sports equipment is any necessary item that is used to play sports, can be a game
equipment (ball, racket, net) or a player's equipment (shoes, pads, clothes). Materials Used for
Sports Equipment In the field of sports, material selection is very important for the success and
performance of any athlete. The characteristics of the materials should include strength and
durability for each sports equipment to perform its purpose well.

Materials Used for Sports Equipment

In general, the materials used in making sports equipment are also the same with the
materials in making medical implants. It can also be categorized into three types: metals,
ceramics, and polymers. However, some of the materials also are made of natural materials like
wood.

Metals are composed of particles held together by strong metallic bonds, making them
strong and durable. Materials Used for Sports Equipment Alloys are usually used in sports
equipment that requires strength or stiffness in weight performance. They are made of two or
more metals and other substances which improve the strength, hardness, durability,
formability, and tensile strength of the metal. For example,
aluminum alloy is one of the most common alloys used in the
frameset of a bicycle.

Stainless steel is commonly used in making golf clubs.

Titanium alloys are used in making baseball bats over wood
because some players tend to break the bats after hitting the
baseball.

Ceramics are nonmetallic, inorganic solids with ionic or covalent bonds. They are commonly
used in sports equipment parts that receive impact. They are lightweight, durable, and has
wear resistance than many plastic materials.

Ceramic fibers are not traditionally used in sports

equipment. However, with the advancement and
innovation of manufacturers, they have developed sports
equipment and parts which contain ceramics. For
example, carbon-ceramic rotors are used in race car
brakes. The ceramics used together with carbon makes
the car breaks lightweight as well as durable. Ceramic
fibers are also used in several head tennis racquets which
add power whenever hitting the ball.

Polymers have molecules with a large number of repeating units of covalently bonded chain
of atoms. They are used to make protective sports equipment. They are known for durability
and flexibility.
 Polycarbonate is a strong, shatter-free polymer that is usually found in protective sports
equipment such as in biking and equestrian competitions. They can be also seen in protective
visors and sunglasses as well as swimming goggles.

Polyurethane is commonly used in soccer balls. It is a synthetic

material that coats the leather material in the ball and protects it
from damages like tears,scuffs, and scratches.

The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and Structures:

Electronic Devices
Electronic devices are components for controlling the flow of electrons or electricity.
Common examples include capacitors, inductors, and resistors. They are often small and
combined into packages called integrated circuits

Electronic Devices – Capacitors

A capacitor stores electrical energy temporarily in an electric

field. It has two electrical plates separated by a dielectric. The
dielectric is an insulator that stores energy when polarized.
Electronic Devices – Capacitors The electrical plates are made of
conductive materials, such as metals and electrolytes. On the
other hand, the nonconducting dielectrics are often made of ceramic,
plastic film, and glass.

Film capacitors are the most common type of capacitors. Their

dielectrics are made of plastic films, such as polystyrene. Polystyrene, a
synthetic polymer made from the monomer styrene, has no free flowing

electrons, so it has superior insulating properties.

On the other hand, metals like aluminum are used

as electrical plates in film capacitors. Metals have free
flowing electrons, so they are good conductors of
electricity. Long thin strips of the metal foil with the
dielectric material are sandwiched together and then
wound into a tight roll.

Electronic Devices – Inductors

An inductor resists changes in electric

current passing through it. It is often
comprised of conductors wound into a
magnetic core. When an electric current
passes through its coil, it produces a magnetic
field, which in turn produces electric current.
In other words, an inductor stores energy on
the basis of reactive magnetic flux.

A typical inductor has copper wires, which are good

electrical conductors, wound around a magnetic iron or ferrite
core. Ferrites are ceramic materials comprised of iron oxides
combined with nickel, zinc, or manganese compounds. They
have high magnetic permeability and high electrical resistivity.

Electronic Devices – Resistors

 A resistor reduces the amount of current and lowers the voltage levels within circuits. The
reduction in current or voltage results in the transformation of electrical energy into heat. A
resistor is necessary in devices that need circuit adjustments, such as those that need control of
volume or dimming of light.

The most common type of resistor is the carbon resistors, which are cheap general purpose
resistors. They are mainly composed of a mixture of conducting graphite or carbon powder and
a non conducting ceramic powder. The resistive value of the resistor depends on the ratio of
graphite to ceramic (conductor to insulator). If the amount of carbon is higher, then the overall
resistance is lower. The mixture is then placed in an insulating material with metal wires
connected to each end.

The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and Structures:

Construction Supplies
Materials Used for Construction Supplies – Metals

Metals are strong and durable construction materials because of the strong metallic bonding
between metal atoms. They have a wide range of applications in construction, including roofing,
drainage components, and handrails.

As the structural framework of buildings, metals should be durable and corrosion resistant.
Corrosion, the process by which something deteriorates because of oxidation, is a major factor in
assessing the longevity of the metallic material.

As the structural framework of buildings, metals should be durable and corrosion resistant.
Corrosion, the process by which something deteriorates because of oxidation, is a major factor in
assessing the longevity of the metallic material.

When chromium is added to steel, the alloy is referred to as stainless steel. The addition of about
10.5 to 30% chromium gives rise to superior corrosion- and stain-resistant properties.

Steel forms iron oxide (rust) in the presence of oxygen. In comparison, stainless steel does not form
rust. Instead, it spontaneously forms a chromium oxide layer on its surface on contact with oxygen.This
passive layer is impermeable and has the ability to repair itself.

Materials Used for Construction Supplies – Ceramics

Ceramics are inorganic, nonmetallic materials comprised of

metal, nonmetal, or semimetal atoms held together by ionic or
covalent bonds. These materials are often used in the
construction industry. They are used as abrasive, flooring, roofing
and wall tiles, and countertops.

Silicon carbide (SC) is a compound of silicon and carbon. It is a

nonmetallic ceramic material that behaves almost like a diamond. It is the lightest and the hardest
ceramic material. It has high tear resistance. It is also highly resistant to strong acids and bases.

SC is a construction supply and is often used as an abrasive because of its high tear resistance and
durability. An abrasive is a material that finishes a workpiece through rubbing. For instance, SC is used in
stripping and finishing flooring materials, such as wood
 Materials Used for Construction Supplies – Polymers

Polymers are large molecules with repeating units called monomers. They have a wide range of
applications in construction including flooring, windows pipes, insulation, and signage. For instance,
plastics, which are synthetic polymers that can be molded or extruded into different shapes, are used as
the replacement for glass and metal pipes.

Polymethylmethacrylate or acrylic is a synthetic polymer of methyl methacrylate.

Acrylic has high molecular weight and strong London dispersion forces. It is a shatterproof and
transparent plastic. Hence, it is used as a replacement for glass.

Like glass, acrylic can be molded into different shapes. Granules of acrylic are poured into a machine
that heats them up. As the temperature of the polymer is increased, intermolecular forces are disrupted
turning the polymer into a viscous liquid. At high temperatures, it can be placed in molds and upon
cooling, it solidifies having the shape of its container

The Uses of Different Materials According to Their Properties and Structures:

Household Gadgets
Household appliances or Gadgets

Household appliances or gadgets are electrical and/or mechanical machines which can (1)
accomplish some household functions such as cooking; (2) make the living space more comfortable by
cooling the surroundings; or (3) provide entertainment.

Cooking Appliances

Cooking appliances are used to heat food ingredients during the cooking
process. Examples include toaster, oven, boiler, coffee maker, hot plate, and rice
cooker. Most of the cooking appliances are powered by electricity. Hence, they
are mostly made of electrical conductors such as steel, aluminum, and copper. To
protect the users from electric shock, their handles are often made of polymers
for electrical insulation.

An oven toaster is an appliance that uses electricity to heat and toast bread.
An important part of the toaster is the heating element.

The heating element is often made of nichrome wire, which is an alloy of nickel and chromium. It
converts electricity into heat through a process called resistive heating. Electric current passes through
the element and encounters resistance. Because of the resistance, the electrical energy is converted into
heat. Nichrome is an ideal material for heating element because of its high resistance. It also forms a
thin layer of chromium oxide when it is heated for the first time. This layer protects the nichrome from
breaking or burning out.

Cooling Appliances

Cooling appliances are used to lower the temperature and

circulate the air in a room. They are often used during hot weather to
make the living space more comfortable. Electric fans and air
conditioners are examples of cooling appliances. They are powered by
electricity so many of their components are made of metals.Their
covers are often made of polymers or plastics.

An electric fan is an appliance that uses rotating blades (or paddles) to circulate air. Unlike an air
conditioner, a fan does not cool air. However, it produces a cooling effect by moving the air around the
room. The moving air or breeze allows your skin to evaporate sweat faster, cooling your skin.

An important part of an electric fan is the motor, which converts electric energy into mechanical
energy, often through an interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. Copper is a
metal commonly used in coil windings, bearings, and connectors of motors because of its high electrical
conductivity (due to its free flowing electrons), high electrical efficiency, and low cost.

The motor is then attached to the fan blades through a shaft. The blades are often made of wood,
iron, aluminum, or plastic. It is important for the blades to be light, durable, tough, and easily molded or
cut into shapes.

Home Electronics

Consumer electronics or home electronics are equipment intended for everyday use. They are often
used for entertainment. They include television, DVD players, video recorders, and video game consoles.
They have software embedded within the hardware of electronic components.

Most home electronics have electronic panel displays. A typical example of material used in display
is the liquid-crystal display (LCD). LCD is made up of liquid crystal, a state of matter between solid and
liquid. A liquid crystal may flow like a liquid, but its molecules are oriented in a crystal-like manner.

If you look closely on an LCD TV screen, you will notice that the images are made of millions of tiny
blocks called pixels (picture elements). Each pixel can be switched on or off very rapidly to make the
images move. These pixels are controlled electronically using liquid crystals.

The Structures, Properties, and Functions of Biomolecules

Biomolecules are large organic compounds that are important to life’s processes, such as respiration
and metabolism. There are numerous biomolecules with different structures and functions. They are
generally classified into four major groups – proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Proteins
Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acid units.
Amino acids are organic molecules that have a central carbon
atom bonded to four different groups — an amino group (−NH2
), an acidic carboxyl group (−COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a
variable side chain, R. The side chain can range from a single
hydrogen atom to complex ring structures.

In a protein, the amino acids are linked via a peptide bond. This peptide bond is formed between an
amino group of one amino acid and an acid carboxyl group of another amino acid. A chain of two or
more amino acids linked together by peptide bonds is called a peptide.

Properties
Proteins can participate in neutral, acidic, or basic reactions because their amino acids have an
acidic carboxyl end and a basic amino end. The amino acids are amphoteric which means they can
function either as an acid or a base. Also, proteins have high molecular weights because they are
comprised of many amino acids.
 Functions
The sequence of amino acids determines the protein’s shape and function. Proteins play many
important roles in living cells. They can hasten chemical reactions, transport substances, and provide
structural support.

Many proteins function as enzymes, which are molecules that catalyze or speed up chemical
reactions in the body. The reactant molecules bind to the active site of the enzymes, where they react to
form products. Enzymes have shapes that are highly specific for their functions. A slight change to their
structures will inhibit them to do their function.

Transport proteins carry small particles throughout the body. For example, the protein haemoglobin
carries oxygen in the blood from the lungs to the rest of the body. An important part of hemoglobin is its
iron group (called heme), the part to which oxygen binds.

Structural proteins are fibrous proteins which have long, thin structures. A typical example of a
structural protein is keratin, which is a component of the protective covering of most animals – hair,
nails,skin or feathers.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are molecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They have a
general formula of CnH2nOn . They can be grouped depending on the number of their monomer units
called saccharides.

Carbohydrates can be d ivided into three major groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates.

They contain either five or six carbon atoms. They have open-
chain and cyclic forms. A typical example of monosaccharide is
glucose, C6H12O6 , one of the products of photosynthesis in
plants.

Disaccharides are two monosaccharides

bonded to each other. The monosaccharides
are linked through an ether (C−O−C) group. A
common example of a disaccharide is the
sweetener sucrose, or table sugar. Sucrose is
formed by glucose and fructose.

Polysaccharides are long chains of

monosaccharide units. They are also called
complex carbohydrates. Similar to
disaccharides, the monosaccharides in a
polysaccharide are linked through an ether
bond. An example of a polysaccharide is
starch, which is used to store energy in
plants. It is comprised solely of glucose
subunits.

Properties
Monosaccharides and disaccharides are small molecules with multiple polar groups so they are
water soluble. Because they exhibit hydrogen bonding in their structures, they have high melting points.
In comparison, polysaccharides are less soluble due to their large sizes and complex shapes. For
example, starch and glycogen are both insoluble in water. On the other hand, cellulose, also
waterinsoluble, cannot be digested by humans because the appropriate enzyme to breakdown cellulose
into simpler monosaccharides is lacking. Hence, nutritionists call cellulose as dietary fiber because it just
passes through the digestive system unchanged.

Functions
The main function of carbohydrates is to store and provide energy. They are broken down into
smaller glucose units that can be easily absorbed by the cells. When glucose is further broken down, the
energy released by breaking its chemical bonds are used or stored by the body in the form of glycogen.
Some carbohydrates also serve as the framework of cellular structures. For example, cellulose makes up
the cell wall of plant cells. Chitin, another carbohydrate, forms the exoskeleton of arthropods and the
cell wall of fungal cells.

Lipids
Lipids are large, nonpolar biomolecules. They are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. Unlike proteins and carbohydrates, lipids are not polymers with repeating monomer subunits.
They have many kinds including triglycerides, waxes, and
steroids.

Lipids – Triglycerides

Triglycerides are lipids composed of glycerol and fatty acids.

Glycerol is a molecule with three carbons, each containing a
hydroxyl (−OH) group while fatty acid is a long chain of carboxylic
acid.

When three fatty acids bond to glycerol, they form ester bonds.

Triglycerides can be solid or liquid at room temperature. If solid at room temperature, they are
called fats. Fats,such as lard and butter, are produced by animals. If liquid at room temperature, they
are called oils. Oils, such as coconut and olive oils, are produced by plants.

Lipids – Waxes

Waxes are lipids that are

composed of a fatty acid with a
long chain of alcohol. They are
produced by both plants and
animals. Plants often produce
wax that coats their leaves which prevents them from drying out. Animals such as bees also produce
wax. Bees create their honeycomb structures from beeswax.

Lipids – Steroids

Steroids are lipids without fatty acid chains. Instead, they

have multiple rings in their structures. They are built from the
basic fourring steroid structure.

An example of a steroid is dietary lipid cholesterol.

Cholesterol is the precursor of hormones such as estrogen and
progesterone. Recall that hormones are molecules that communicate between organs to regulate
physiology and behavior.

Properties
Lipids such as triglycerides and waxes are mostly made of nonpolar hydrocarbon chains, making
them generally insoluble in water. The hydrocarbon chains are the “hydrophobic (waterfearing) tails” of
lipids. On the other hand, their hydroxyl, ester, and ether groups can interact with water. These groups
are called “hydrophilic (water-loving) heads.” When lipids are mixed with water, they arrange
themselves in a spherical form called a micelle.

Functions
Lipids are the reserved sources of energy. The energy stored in their bonds is used by the body for
fuel. When the energy is abundant, cells store the excess energy in the fatty acids of triglycerides.

Lipids like waxes are used as a protective coating of organisms. Because they are hydrophobic, lipids
protect plants and animals from drying out by controlling evaporation.

Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids, discovered by Friedrich Miescher in
1869, are biomolecules that are made up of repeating
units of nucleotides. Nucleotides are monomers with
three components, a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group,
and a nitrogenous base. The nucleotides are linked
through phosphodiester bonds.

If the sugar is ribose, then the nucleotides make up

the ribonucleic acid (RNA). On the other hand, if the
sugar is deoxyribose, then the nucleotides make up the
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Both DNA and RNA have nitrogenous bases. The five common nitrogenous
bases are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).

Functions
DNA contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of organisms. This
genetic information is converted by the RNA into amino acid sequences of proteins. RNA has three
types, messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). The mRNA carries the
genetic sequence information between the DNA and ribosomes. In ribosomes, proteins are synthesized.
The rRNA catalyzes the peptide bond formation while the tRNA serve as the carrier molecules of the
amino acids that make up the protein.

(Ferrer, 2018) Reference: https://www.scribd.com/presentation/369043812/3-How-the-Properties-

of-Matter-Relate-to-Their-Chemical-Structure