CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES AND STUDIES

This chapter consists of information based on literature and studies from which this

research study is premised. This served as an aid to the researchers to conceptualize the problem.

The state of the art, research paradigm, and bibliography were also presented in this chapter.

Review of Related Literatures

Interactive Pedagogical Technologies in Differentiated Foreign Language Training in Non-

Linguistic Higher Educational Institution

According to the interactive pedagogical technologies in differentiated foreign language

training in non-linguistic higher educational institution, one of the most important conditions for

improving the quality of foreign language education in Russian non-linguistic universities in

terms of heterogeneity of academic groups is the implementation of the differentiated approach

to learning and the use of modern methodological tools in the form of interactive educational

technologies. According to the authors, differentiated learning is a system of language training

which allows to meet students’ cognitive needs, as well as to take into account their individual

characteristics. The authors argue that the problem of having different levels of language training

in a heterogeneous group can be solved through a combination of individual, pair, group and

collective forms of training realized in interactive teaching. The article is aimed at the theoretical

substantiation of the effectiveness of interactive pedagogical technologies and the generalization

of the results of their implementation in teaching students of economic and engineering

specialties. Such technologies as gamе simulation and debates based on problem-solving are

aimed at involving all the students in cooperation and creating the most favourable conditions for

each student’s learning. The pedagogical experience of introducing interactive learning

accumulated by the authors suggests that the technology of phased, logical implementation of

interactive forms from simple to more complex increases students' motivation, gains the

experience of partnership, intensifies the learning process, directly linking foreign language

skills with the ability to apply them in professional activities.

Autonomy and Foreign Language Learning.

Holec, Henri

The autonomous language learner takes responsibility for the totality of his learning

situation. He does this by determining his own objectives, defining the contents to be learned and

the progression of the course, selecting methods and techniques to be used, monitoring this

procedure, and evaluating what he has acquired. Objectives are specific to the learner, and the

learner's communicative needs determine the verbal elements chosen. Learning thus proceeds

from ideas to correct grammatical, lexical, and phonological form. The self-directed learner

chooses the methods of instruction through trial-and-error. His selection is based on the

objectives set and its applicability to internal and external constraints. The student evaluates his

attainment through his objectives, and this evaluation helps him to plan subsequent learning. The

concept of autonomous learning requires a redefinition of knowledge from an objective universal

to a subjective individual knowledge determined by the learner. For teachers, it means new

objectives which help the learner define his personal objectives and help him acquire autonomy.

Several experiments in autonomous learning are described

Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language. New Edition.

Nuttall, Christine

This book is divided into three parts. It begins with fundamental principles about reading,

texts, and teaching which underlie the way the book approaches its subject; the second part looks

more closely at some of the theoretical issues and how they affect reading teaching. The third

focuses on the importance of exensive reading, the choice of materials, and the way courses and

lessons are planned, taught, and assessed. The book examines the skills required to read

effectively; focuses on getting the message from the text; suggests classroom strategies for

developing reading skills; and looks at both linguistic and non-linguistic features of texts.

Chapters in the book are (1) What Is Reading?; (2) Text and Discourse; (3) Approaching

Reading in the Foreign Language Classroom; (4) Efficient Reading; (5) Word Attack Skills; (6)

Reading for Plain Sense; (7) Understanding Discourse; (8) An Extensive Reading Programme;

(9) Planning Reading Lessons; (10) Selecting Texts; (11) Questioning; (12) Other Kinds of

Reading Task; (13) The Testing of Reading (by J. Charles Alderson); and (14) The Teacher as

Reader. Appendixes present texts, extracts from reading courses, lesson plans, and useful

addresses, a key to activities, and a 273-item select bibliography.

Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety

Elaine K. Horwitz , Michael B. Horwitz, Joann Cope

The Modern Language journal 70 (2), 125-132, 1986

" I just know I have some kind of disability: I can't learn a foreign language no matter

how hard I try."" When I'm in 17rySpanish class I just freeze! I can't think of a thing when my

teacher calls on me. My mind goes blank." I feel like my French teacher is some kind of Martian
death ray: I never know when he'll point at me" It's about time someone studied why some

people can't learn languages."

Such statements are all too familiar to teachers of foreign languages. Many people claim

to have a mental block against learning a foreign language, although these same people may be

good learners in other situations, strongly motivated, and have a sincere liking for speakers of the

target language. What, then, prevents them from achieving their desired goal? In many cases,

they may have an anxiety reaction which impedes their ability to perform successfully in a

foreign language class. Anxiety is the subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness,

and worry associated with an arousal of the autonomic nervous system. Just as anxiety prevents

some people from performing successfully in science or mathematics, many people find foreign

language learning, especially in classroom situations, particularly stressful.

Foreign Language Reading Anxiety

Yoshiko Saito, Thomas J. Garza, Elaine K. Horwitz

Whereas most discussions of foreign language (FL) anxiety have centered on the

difficulties caused by anxiety with respect to oral performance, this article discusses the

possibility of anxiety response to foreign or second language reading. It introduces the construct

of FL reading anxiety, offers a scale for its measurement, and reports on a preliminary study of

reading anxiety in 20 intact first semester classes of Spanish, Russian and Japanese. The study

found that contrary to previous teacher institutions, reading in an FL can be anxiety provoking to

some students. Whereas general FL anxiety has been found to be independent of target language,

levels of reading anxiety were found to vary by target language and seem to be related to the

specific writing systems. In addition, students’ reading anxiety levels increased with their
perceptions of the difficulty of reading in their FL, and their grades decreased in conjunction

with their levels of reading anxiety and general FL anxiety.

Review of Related Studies

Effective Foreign Language Teaching: Perceptions of Prospective English Language

Teachers

According to the study of Archer and Davison (2008), considering the effective foreign

language teaching: perceptions of prospective English language teachers, studies conducted so

far have mainly focused on investigating the characteristics of effective foreign language

teachers to understand the role of teacher effectiveness in the process of language learning, while

there is scarcity of studies focusing on the perceptions of the characteristics of effective foreign

language teaching of the students of Department of English Language Teaching (ELT) and

Department of English Language and Literature (EL&L) who are the major candidates of

English language teaching profession in Turkey. Thus, this study aims to examine the

perceptions of prospective English teachers with regard to their department and demographic

variables. Effective Teacher Questionnaire [10] was used to obtain data from ELT (n=212) and

EL&L (n=192) students. The t test results indicated that there was a significant difference

between ELT students’ and EL&L students’ perceptions of an effective foreign language teacher

with regard to the mean scores in favor of the former. Also, the t test results indicated that there

was a significant difference between daytime students and night-time students with regard to the

mean scores. In the light of the findings, some practical recommendations are provided.
In the Eyes of Turkish EFL Learners: What Makes an Effective Foreign Language

Teacher?

Research on the qualities of successful teachers in Turkey indicates that students consider

teacher effectiveness as the ability to ensure an environment in which positive student-teacher

interaction can take place. However, further studies are needed to clarify students’ perceptions of

the qualities of effective foreign language teachers, in particular, thus providing educators with

necessary information concerning the implementation of language teacher development

programs. Therefore, 998 undergraduate students at a state university in Turkey were asked to

complete a survey concerning the qualities they believed are characteristic of a successful

English language teacher. The results provide a detailed profile of university English as a foreign

language (EFL) students’ perceptions with respect to pedagogy-specific knowledge, personality

traits, professional skills and classroom behavior.

Learning Strategies in Foreign Language Instruction

Anna Uhl Chamot  Lisa Kupper

This paper summarizes the findings of a three year project which investigated the use of

learning strategies by foreign language students and their teachers,1 and suggests specific

classroom applications for learning strategy instruction. Three studies were conducted under this

project: (a) a Descriptive Study, which identified learning strategies used in studying foreign

languages, (b) a Longitudinal Study, which identified differences in the strategy use of effective

and ineffective language learners and analyzed changes in strategy use over time, and (c) a

Course Development Study, in which foreign language instructors taught students how to apply

learning strategies. Classroom applications discussed in the paper include guidelines for
developing students' metacognition and motivation through the identification and discussion of

their existing language learning strategies, and techniques for modeling and practicing additional

strategies that can help students become more effective and independent language learners.

Motivation and Motivating in the Foreign Language Classroom

Zoltan Dornyei

Motivation is one of the main determinants of second/foreign language learning

achievement and, accordingly, the last three decades have seen a considerable amount of

research that investigates the nature and role of motivation in the learning process. Much of this

research has been initiated and inspired by two Canadian psychologists, Robert Gardner and

Wallace Lambert, who, together with their colleagues and students, grounded motivation

research in a social psychological framework. Gardner and his associates also established

scientific research procedures and introduced standardized assessment techniques and

instruments, thus setting high research standards and bringing L2 motivation research to

maturity. Although Gardner's motivation construct did not go unchallenged over the years, it was

not until the early 1990s that a marked shift in thought appeared in papers on L2 motivation as

researchers tried to reopen the research agenda in order to shed new light on the subject. The

main problem with Gardner's social psychological approach appeared to be, ironically, that it

was too influential. In Crookes and Schmidt's words, it was "so dominant that alternative

concepts have not been seriously considered" . This resulted in an unbalanced picture, involving

a conception that was, as Skehan put it, "limited compared to the range of possible influences

that exist". While acknowledging unanimously the fundamental importance of the Gardnerian

social psychological model, researchers were also calling for a more pragmatic, education-
centered approach to motivation research, which would be consistent with the perceptions of

practicing teachers and which would also be in line with the current results of mainstream

educational psychological research.

Conceptualizing Motivation in Foreign‐Language Learning*

Zoltán Dörnyei

This study investigates the components of motivation in foreign‐language learning (FLL)–which

involves learning the target language in institutional/academic settings without regularly

interacting with the target language community. It was assumed that the results obtained

from second‐language acquisition (SLA) contexts–those in which the target language is learned

at least partly embedded in the host environment–are not directly applicable to FLL situations.

Therefore a motivational questionnaire was developed and administered to 134 learners of

English in Hungary, a typical European FLL environment, with the aim of defining the relevance

and characteristics of integrativeness and instrumentality in FLL, as well as to locate other

motivational components. Based upon the results, a motivational construct was postulated

consisting of (1) an Instrumental Motivational Subsystem, (2) an Integrative Motivational

Subsystem, which is a multifaceted cluster with four dimensions, (3) Need for Ach evement, and

(4) Attributions about Past Failures. The results also indicated that in mastering an intermediate

target language proficiency, the Instrumental Motivational Subsystem and Need for

Achievement especially, play a significant role, whereas the desire to go beyond this level is

associated with integrative motives.

 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Review of Related Literatures

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333254165_interactive_pedagogical_technologi

es_in_differentiated_foreign_language_training_in_non-

linguistic_higher_educational_institution

Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom

anxiety. The Modern language journal, 70(2), 125-132. Retrieved from:

https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED192557

Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. Heinemann, 361

Hanover Street, Portsmouth, NH 03801-3912. Retrieved from: https://eric.ed.gov/?

id=ED399531

Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom

anxiety. The Modern language journal, 70(2), 125-132., Retrieved from:

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1986.tb05256.x

Saito, Y., Garza, T. J., & Horwitz, E. K. (1999). Foreign language reading anxiety. The

modern language journal, 83(2), 202-218., Retrieved from:

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/0026-7902.00016
 Saito, Y., Garza, T. J., & Horwitz, E. K. (1999). Foreign language reading anxiety. The modern

language journal, 83(2), 202-218., Retrieved from:

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/0026-7902.00016

Review of Related Studies

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291810421_Effective_Foreign_Language_Teac

hing_Perceptions_of_Prospective_English_Language_Teachers

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/244563074_In_the_Eyes_of_Turkish_EFL_Lea

rners_What_Makes_an_Effective_Foreign_Language_Teacher/download

Chamot, A. U., & Kupper, L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language

instruction. Foreign language annals, 22(1), 13-22. Retrived from:

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1944-9720.1989.tb03138.x

Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. The

modern language journal, 78(3), 273-284. Retrived from:

https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/45186302/Dornyei1994_Foreign_La

nguage_Classroom_motivation.pdf?

AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1559277208&Signature=

YFPwQ5GQ8jJ4RJdSThu1PBWmHJ0%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B

%20filename%3DMotivation_and_Motivating_in_the_Foreign.pdf
Dörnyei, Z. (1990). Conceptualizing motivation in foreign‐language learning. Language

learning, 40(1), 45-78., Retrieved from:

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1990.tb00954.x