Daniel Morales

Petroleum Geology Fundamentals

Module 2: Earth’s Layers
“The expert in anything was once a beginner”
Helen Hayes

The earth consists of layers, some molten and others solid. Generally, the most known
layers are crust, mantle and core. Crust are mainly solid and has two types: continental
(granitic composition) and oceanic (basaltic composition). Mantle is mostly molten rock and
core is both liquid (outer core) and solid (inner core).
Crust doesn’t have the same thickness everywhere; it is thicker in the continents, and thinner
in the oceans. The crust floats on top of the mantle, and it moves in different plates. These
plates are in constant motion, collide, break and deform. Crustal dynamics generate
earthquakes, volcanoes, and hot springs / geysers; this is important for petroleum geology
because we get fractures, faults, and other structural features, which can lead to traps. In
addition to this, we have heat flow which is important in "cooking" the organic materials in
the "kitchen" where oil is generated. We need to take into account that the landforms of the
earth are created by geological processes.
In other part, the rock cycle is a complex process which consists of an interaction between
external (weathering and erosion) and internal (heat and pressure) factors, with geological
materials through time. These factors can change composition and texture of geological
materials, generating three main types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks. For petroleum geology, the most important rocks are sedimentary rocks. We can
classify sedimentary rocks in three categories: clastic rocks, carbonates rocks and
evaporites rocks:
Clastic rocks form by weathering processes (by the action of water, wind, and ice) that
break down rocks into pebble, sand, or clay particles. These grains are derived from igneous
rocks, sometimes carbonates and sometimes other clastic rocks. The most important clastic
rocks for petroleum are sands and fine grained (clay size) rocks (like shale).
Carbonates rocks are mainly composed of either calcite or of dolomite. Technically, we call
them limestones (mainly calcite, could have fossils) or dolostones (mainly dolomite, a
magnesium carbonate). Carbonates have two main origins: Biogenic origin (from fossils like
plants, reefs, algal mats or stromatolites) and Chemical origin (calcium and magnesium
dissolved and in suspension in fluid).
Evaporites rocks are formed by chemical processes. They were deposited when water
content evaporated, leaving the chlorides and “salt” minerals (like salt, gypsum and sylvite).
After its formation, other sediments are deposited above evaporitic layers, increasing
pressure and therefore, making salt migrate upward. This movements push sediments
around, deforming them and generating structures that create perfect trapping conditions
for petroleum accumulation.
There are 3 basic elements of a petroleum reservoir: source rock, reservoir rock and cap
rock (seal). Source rock is where hydrocarbons are formed, so is organic rich (like shale).
Reservoir rock is where hydrocarbons are stored after migration (commonly sandstone or
carbonates). Cap rock (or seal) is a relatively impermeable rock that serves as a barrier
between fluids and other rocks, this rock holds the oil and gas from migrating out of the
reservoir rock (like shale or salt). Source rocks are often next to reservoir rocks, and some
of them are also the reservoir rock.
Rocks that are part of a petroleum system need to have certain characteristics or properties.
When we talk about a good reservoir rock, it needs to have two main properties: Porosity
and Permeability. Porosity is related with the volume available to store oil, it can be primary
(due to space between grains) and secondary (have to do with fractures or dissolution).
Permeability is about the facility of the oil to flow through the formation, it is directly related
with the number of interconnected pores (effective porosity).
In the reservoir, water and gas are associated to oil, these fluids move through the rocks
in a process called migration. In the subsurface, other fluids can affect porosity and
permeability of the rocks, because they can result in crystallization, cementation, dissolution
and many other significant processes.
Fractures in rocks can be conduits for oil production (high permeability). Fractures can be
naturally occurring or induced. Natural fractures can be open (interconnected) or closed (not
good for flowing oil, but they can hold oil). In low-permeability reservoirs (unconventional), a
stimulation technique is applied where special fluids are pumped at high pressure and rate
into the reservoir, producing open fractures that allow hydrocarbons to flow. This technique
is known as fracking. In Colombia, is necessary to start applying fracking in oil industry,
because oil reserves are ending. If not, Colombia will lose its self-sufficiency and will have
to start importing crude oil, causing serious economic problems.
A fundamental component of a petroleum system is oil trap, because it doesn't allow
hydrocarbons to migrate and therefore produces oil accumulation. Oil traps can be
Structural or Stratigraphic. Structural traps are Anticlines (early exploration targets in
offshore and onshore), salt domes (common offshore trap), faults (reservoir and non-
reservoir rock in contact), among others. Stratigraphic traps are reservoir rock surrounded
by non-reservoir rock. It is very common offshore and onshore, it has 3 styles: pinchout of
the rock, unconformity and formed by reefs.
As it was mentioned already, hydrocarbons move through the rocks in a process called
migration. Depending of pore architecture, hydrocarbon moves faster, slower or it is just
accumulated (if it find a trap). Oil and gas are lighter than water, they move upward and
stop when they can no longer move (due to trapping mechanism). So, if the beds are tilted
up, then there is perfect opportunity for the oil to travel up. This particular behavior of fluids
is due to differences in density, and this is how water injections work to extract oil.
By last, we can talk about early and recent giant oil fields. Early oil and gas fields were
found near natural seeps. Looking for these seeps was the early method for exploration.
They were shallow targets; petroleum was easy to find. Recent oil and gas fields are found
in low permeability shale reservoirs, which can be produced thanks to new technologies like
horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing. Other recent fields are found in deep-water
reservoirs. These have been discovered beneath thick salt layers in areas where it was
impossible to visualize in the past, due to seismic limitations.
Conclusion:
In this module, we have seen different concepts that allow us to understand how the
structures and rocks are related with oil and gas resources. For petroleum geology, some
of the most important concepts treated here are source rock (e.g. Shale), reservoir rock (like
sandstone and carbonates), cap rock (shale or salt) and types of traps (structural and
stratigraphic). Rock properties like porosity and permeability are essentials to have
important volume of stored oil, and to easy extract it.
Is very useful to know what structures are present in the subsurface and its distribution,
because these structures can allow oil accumulation. Taking into account the structures, and
fluids (oil, gas and water) behavior, it is possible to determine migrations pathways, which
can lead to a better prospection.
To end, in Colombia is necessary to start applying fracking in oil industry, because oil
reserves are ending. If not, Colombia will lose its self-sufficiency and will have to start
importing crude oil, causing serious economic problems.