The Atmosphere

The Atmosphere is the medium in which an aircraft operates. It is the properties of

the atmosphere, changed by shape pf the wing, that generate the required Lift
force.

The most important property is air density (the “thickness” of air)

Key Fact: If the air density decreases, the mass of air flowing over the aircraft in a given time will decrease.

A given mass flow will generate the required Lift force, but a decrease in air density will reduce the mass flow.
To maintain the required Lift force if the density decreased, the speed of the aircraft through the air must be
increased. The increased speed of airflow over the wing will restore the mass flow and Lift flow to its previous
value.
The Physical Properties of Air

Air has substance! Air has mass; not very much if compared to other matter, but
nevertheless a significant amount. A mass of moving air has considerable kinetic energy,
e.g. when moving at 100 knots the kinetic energy of air can inflict severe damage to
man-made structure.

Air is a compressible fluid and is able to flow or change its shape when subjected to
even minute pressure differences. ( Air will flow in the direction of the lower
pressure). The viscosity of air is so low that very small forces are able to move the
molecules in the relation to each other.
Static Pressure

The unit for static pressure is N/m2 , the symbol is lower ‘p’.

a.) Static pressure is the result of the weight of the atmosphere pressing down on the air
beneath.
b.) Static pressure will exert the same force per square meter on all surfaces of an
aeroplane. The lower the altitude the greater the force per square meter.
c.) It is called static pressure because of the air’s stationary or static presence.

d.) An aircraft always has static pressure acting upon it.

Temperature

The unit for temperature is °C, or K. Degrees Celsius ( or centigrade) when measured
relative to the freezing point of water, or Kelvin when measured relative to absolute zero. (
0 °C is equivalent to 273 K).

Temperature decreases with increasing altitude, up to about 36, 000ft and then remains constant.

Density

The unit for density is kg/m3 and the symbol is the Greek letter (rho).
a.) density is ‘Mass per unit volume’ ( The “number of air particles in a given space).

b.) Density varies with static pressure, temperature and humidity.

i.) Density decreases if static pressure decreases.

ii.) Density decreases if the temperature increases.

iii.) Density decreases if humidity increases.

Dynamic Pressure

The unit for dynamic pressure is N/m2 and the symbol is lower case ‘q’ or upper case ‘Q’.

a.) Because air has mass, air in motion must possess kinetic energy, and will exert a
force per square meter on any object in its path. ( KE = 1/2mV2)

b.) It is called DYNAMIC pressure because the air is moving in relation to the object
being considered, in this cased an aircraft.

c.) Dynamic pressure is proportional to the density of the air and the square of the
speed of the air flowing over the aircraft.

An aircraft immersed in moving airflow will therefore experience both Static and
Dynamic pressure. ( Remember, static pressure is always present)

Dynamic Pressure = 1/2 V2

Dynamic Pressure

Dynamic pressure is common to all aerodynamic forces and

determines the air loads imposed on the aeroplane moving through
the air.

The symbol for the dynamic pressure is q or Q

Key Facts:
1.) A pilot needs to know how much dynamics pressure is available, but dynamics
pressure cannot be measured on tis own because static pressure will always be
present. The sum of the Static and Dynamic pressure, in the context, I known as
“Total Pressure”.
(Dynamic + Static pressure can also be referred to as Stagnation or Pitot Pressure)

Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure

2.) The significance of dynamic pressure to the understanding of Principles of flight

cannot be over-emphasized.
Because dynamic pressure is dependent upon air density and the speed of the
aircraft through the air, it is necessary for students to fully appreciate the factos
which affect air density.
a.) Temperature – increasing temperature decreases air density. Changes in air
density due to air temperature are significant during all phases of flight.

b.) Static Pressure – decreasing static pressure decreases are density. Changes in
air density due to static pressure are significant during all phases of flight.

c.) Humidity – increasing humidity decreasing air density. ( the reason increasing
humidity decreases air density is that the density of water vapour is about 5/8 that
of dry air). Humidity is most significant during take-off and landing.

Increasing altitude will decrease air density because the effect of decreasing static
pressure is more dominant than decreasing temperature.
Measuring Dynamic Pressure

All aerodynamic forces acting on an aircraft are determined by dynamic pressure, so it is

essential to have some means of measuring dynamics pressure and presenting that information
to the pilot.

A scaled tube, open at the forward end is located where it will collect air when the aircraft is
moving. The pressure in the tube (Pitot Tube) is Dynamic + Static and, in this context, is called
“Pitot” Pressure. (Because the air is inside the Pitot Tube.
Altimeter
The altimeter is an instrument that measures the height of
an aircraft above a given pressure level.
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
The VSI, which is sometimes called a vertical velocity
indicator (VVI), indicates whether the aircraft is climbing,
descending, or in level flight. The rate of climb or descent
is indicated in feet per minute (fpm). If properly calibrated,
the VSI indicates zero in level flight. [Figure 7-5]
Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
The ASI is a sensitive, differential pressure gauge which
measures and promptly indicates the difference between pitot
(impact/dynamic pressure) and static pressure. These two
pressures are equal when the aircraft is parked on the ground
in calm air. When the aircraft moves through the air, the
pressure on the pitot line becomes greater than the pressure
in the static lines. This difference in pressure is registered by
the airspeed pointer on the face of the instrument, which is
calibrated in miles per hour, knots (nautical miles per hour),
or both. [Figure 7-7]
Relationships between Air Speed

Indicated Air Speed: IAS - The speed registered on the Air Speed Indicator.

Calibrated Air Speed: CAS – An accurate measure of dynamic pressure when the aircraft is
flying slowly.

Equivalent Air Speed: EAS – An accurate measure of dynamic pressure when the aircraft is
flying fast. Air entering the pitot tube(s) is compressed, which gives a false dynamic pressure
(IAS) reading, but only becomes significant at higher speeds.

True Air Speed: TAS - The speed of the aircraft through the air.
Airspeed Indicator Markings
Aircraft weighing 12,500 pounds or less, manufactured after 1945, and certificated
by the FAA, are required to have ASIs marked in accordance with a standard
color-coded marking system. This system of color-coded markings enables a pilot
to determine at a glance certain airspeed limitations that are important to the
safe operation of the aircraft. For example, if during the execution of a maneuver,
it is noted that the airspeed needle is in the yellow arc and rapidly approaching
the red line, the immediate reaction should be to reduce airspeed. As shown in
Figure 7-8, ASIs on single-engine small aircraft include the following standard color-
coded markings:
• White arc—commonly referred to as the flap operating range since its lower limit
represents the full flap stall speed and its upper limit provides the maximum flap
speed. Approaches and landings are usually flown at speeds within the white arc.

• Lower limit of white arc (VS0)—the stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed
in the landing configuration. In small aircraft, this is the power-off stall speed at the
maximum landing weight in the landing configuration (gear and flaps down).

• Upper limit of the white arc (VFE)—the maximum speed with the flaps extended.
• Green arc—the normal operating range of the aircraft. Most flying occurs within this range.

• Lower limit of green arc (VS1)—the stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed obtained
in a specified configuration. For most aircraft, this is the power-off stall speed at the maximum
takeoff weight in the clean configuration (gear up, if retractable, and flaps up).
• Upper limit of green arc (VNO)—the maximum structural cruising
speed. Do not exceed this speed except in smooth air.

• Yellow arc—caution range. Fly within this range only in smooth air,
and then, only with caution.
• Red line (VNE)—never exceed speed. Operating above this speed is
prohibited since it may result in damage or structural failure.
1.0 OBJECTIVES

2.0 DEFINITION OF SHOCK WAVE

3.0 PROPERTIES OF SHOCK WAVE

4.0 TYPES OF SHOCK WAVE

5.0 FORMATION OF SHOCK WAVE

6.0 NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

7.0 OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE

1.0 OBJECTIVES

 To define shock wave phenomena.

 To study the properties of shock wave.

 To discuss about different types of shock wave & their properties.

 To discuss about the formation of shock wave.

 To discuss about over expanded flow & under expanded flow.

 To know the application of different types of shock wave.

2.0 DEFINITION OF SHOCK WAVE

A shock wave is a type of propagating disturbance. An alternative name for the shock
wave is shock front.

 Like an ordinary wave, it carries energy and can propagate through a medium (solid,
liquid, gas or plasma) or in some cases in the absence of a material medium, through a
field such as the electromagnetic field.

 Shock wave is a very thin region in a flow where supersonic flow is decelerated to
subsonic flow. The process is adiabatic but non-isentropic.
 Across the shock there is always an extremely rapid rise in pressure, temperature and
density of the flow.

 Shock wave are characterized by an abrupt nearly discontinuous change in the

characteristics of the medium.

 Shock wave is a very thin region in a flow where supersonic flow is decelerated to
subsonic flow. The process is adiabatic but non-isentropic.
3.0 PROPERTIES OF SHOCK WAVE
 Shock wave is not a conventional sound wave.  A Shock wave travels through
most media at a higher speed than an ordinary wave.
 When a shock wave passes through matter the total energy is preserved.
 Shock wave is a large amplitude compressibility wave.
 A shock wave takes the form of a very sharp change in the gas properties.
 Shock wave form when the speed of a fluid changes by more than the speed
of sound.
 Over larger distances a shock wave can change from a non linear wave into a
linear wave.
 Shock wave is a strong wave, i.e. property changes across it are finite.
 Shock waves can be stationary or moving.
 Shock waves are very thin, in the order of 10−7 m.  In a shock wave the
properties of the fluid (density, pressure, temperature, velocity, Mach number)
changes almost instantaneous.
4.0 FORMATION OF SHOCK WAVE

Case- 1: Mach Number is less than 1 that means subsonic flow.

Case- 2: Mach Number is equal to 1 that means sonic flow.
Case- 3: Mach Number is greater than 1 that means supersonic flow.

Ma= V/C
Where:
Ma= Mach Number
V= Velocity of fluid or body moving in fluid
C= Velocity of sound in fluid
5.0 TYPES OF SHOCK WAVE
There are three types of shock wave.

These are:

4.1 Normal Shock Wave

4.2 Oblique Shock Wave

4.3 Curved Shock Wave

4.1 NORMAL SHOCK WAVE
If the shock wave is perpendicular to the flow direction it is called a normal shock. A normal
shock occurs in front of a supersonic object if the flow is turned by a large amount and the
shock cannot remain attached to the body.
4.2 Oblique Shock Wave
An oblique shock wave is one that is not perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow. Such a
shock wave arises when a fluid stream flowing at a supersonic speed moves along a
convergent or divergent boundary.

Properties:

 The oblique shock wave is not perpendicular to the direction of flow.

 Oblique shock wave always decreases Mach number.

 Properties of oblique shock wave can be obtained by modification & manipulation of

the normal shock wave.
APPLICATION OF OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE

 Oblique shock waves are used predominantly in engineering applications. This can be
attributed to the fact that using one or a combination of oblique shock waves results in
more favorable post-shock conditions when compared to utilizing a single normal shock.

 One example is that many supersonic aircraft wings are designed around a thin diamond
shape. Placing a diamond-shaped object at an angle of attack relative to the supersonic
flow streamlines will result in two oblique shocks which could generate lift.
Wind Tunnel
INTRODUCTION
Designing planes that will fly quickly, efficiently and economically is all about
making air flow smoothly over their wings and past their tube like bodies. Once a
plane is up in the air, there is no easy way to see how air is moving past it. That’s
why every modern spacecraft and airplane is tested on the ground first in a wind
tunnel.
WHAT IS WIND TUNNEL?
A wind tunnel is a tool used in aerodynamic research to study the effects of air
moving past solid objects. A wind tunnel consists of a tubular passage with the
object under test mounted in the middle.
History of wind tunnel
• English military engineer and mathematician Benjamin Robins (1707—1751)
invented a whirling arm apparatus to determine drag and did some of the first
experiments in aviation theory.

• Francis Herbert Wenham (1824—1908), a Council Member of the Aeronautical

Society of Great Britain, addressed these issues by inventing, designing and
operating the first enclosed wind tunnel in 1871.

• The Wright brothers' use of a simple wind tunnel in 1901 to study the effects of
airflow over various shapes while developing their Wright Flyer was in some
ways revolutionary. Side View Shop Belt Drive Flow Direction View Window Fan
Test Section Fan Straightener A 1901 wind tunnel (Wright brothers)
WRIGHT BROTHERS WIND TUNNEL
WORLD WAR TWO
In 1941 the US constructed one of the largest wind tunnels at that time at Wright
Field in Dayton, Ohio. ' By the end of World War Two, the US had built eight new
wind tunnels, including the largest one in the world at Moffett Field near
Sunnyvale, California . ' The worlds largest wind tunnel was constructed in AMES
research center of NASA
Uses of wind tunnel
‘Pressure distribution over a test model

‘Air velocity through a test model

' Static pressure and dynamic pressure over a test model The direction of air flow
across a test model

' Temperature rise across a test model

' Various aerodynamic forces across a test section

Types of Wind Tunnel
LOW SPEED WIND TUNNEL

HIGH SPEED WIND TUNNEL

TRANSSONIC WIND TUNNEL

SUPERSONIC WIND TUNNEL

HYPERSONIC WIND TUNNEL

LOW SPEED WIND TUNNEL

• LOW SPEED WIND TUNNEL ARE USED FOR OPERATIONS FOR VERY LOW MACH
NUMBER.

• MACH NO. IS UPTO 0.4

HIGH SPEED WIND TUNNEL

HIGH SPEED WIND TUNNELS ARE USED FOR MACH NO. FROM 0.4 TO 0.75
TRANSONIC WIND TUNNEL
TRANSONIC WIND TUNNEL ARE USED FOR MACH NUMBER 0.75 to 1.2.
SUPERSONIC WIND TUNNEL
A SUPERSONIC WIND TUNNEL IS USED FOR MACH NUMBER 1.2 TO 5.

IT NEEDS A LARGE POWER DEMAND.

POWER IS OF THE ORDER OF 50MW PER SQUARE METER OF TEST SECTION CROSS
SECTIONAL AREA.
HYPERSONIC WIND TUNNEL
• IN THIS TYPE OF WIND TUNNEL MACH NO. VARIES FROM 5 TO 15.

• ONE FORM OF HYPERSONIC WIND TUNNEL IS HOT SHOT OR GUN TUNNEL

WHICH HAS MACH NO. UPTO 27.

• GUN TUNNEL IS USED FOR ANALYSIS OF FLOW PAST MISSILES, HEAT TRANFER
AT HIGH TEMPERATURES.
Bellmouth
• Wind enters through this section.

• Constitutes aluminum honey comb structures.

• Acts as flow straightener.

• Constrict flow and increases air speed. Largest part of wind tunnel
Test section
• Parallel sides — allow boundary layer growth.

• Four tapered fillets -compensate for the narrowing of the flow channel due to
boundary layer growth

• To provide a constant static pressure throughout the test section.

• Camera and other measuring equipment

Diffuser And Fan
• Gradually expanding passage- low speed decreases and the pressure
rises.

• Aluminum blade fan

• Sucks air inside wind tunnel.

THANK YOU AND GOODLUCK!!!