CHAPTER 1

SATELLITE

1.1 Introduction
A Satellite is a object that orbits around a larger object.
There are two types of satellite
1.Natural Satellite
2. Artificial Satellite

1.1.1 Natural Satellite:- A natural satellite, or moon, is, in the most common
usage, an astronomical body that orbits a planet or minor planet (or sometimes another
small Solar System body).In the Solar System there are six planetary satellite systems
containing 205 known natural satellites. Four IAU-listed dwarf planets are also known to
have natural satellites: Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris. As of September 2018, there
are 334 other minor planets known to have moons

1.1.2 Artificial Satellite:- A artificial satellite is an object that has been

intentionally placed into orbit. On 4 October 1957 the Soviet Union launched the world's
first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1. Since then, about 8,900 satellites from more than 40
countries have been launched. According to a 2018 estimate, some 5,000 remain in orbit.
Of those about 1,900 were operational, while the rest have lived out their useful lives and
become space debris. Approximately 63% of operational satellites are in low-Earth orbit,
6% are in medium-Earth orbit (at 20,000 km), 29% are in geostationary orbit (at 36,000
km) and the remaining 2% are in elliptic orbit. Satellites are used for many purposes.
Among several other applications, they can be used to make star maps and maps of
planetary surfaces, and also take pictures of planets they are launched into. Common
types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites,
navigation satellites, weather satellites, and space telescopes. Space stations and human
spacecraft in orbit are also satellites.

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1.2 History
The first published mathematical study of the possibility of an artificial satellite
was Newton's cannonball, a thought experiment in A Treatise of the System of the
World by Isaac Newton (1687). The first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched
into orbit was a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon. The idea surfaced
again in Jules Verne's The Begum's Fortune (1879).
In 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) published Exploring Space Using
Jet Propulsion Devices, which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to
launch spacecraft. He calculated the orbital speed required for a minimal orbit, and that a
multi-stage rocket fueled by liquid propellants could achieve this.
In 1928, Herman Potočnik (1892–1929) published his sole book, The Problem of
Space Travel – The Rocket Motor. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for
observation of the ground and described how the special conditions of space could be
useful for scientific experiments.
In a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C.
Clarke described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass
communications. He suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide
coverage over the entire planet.
In May 1946, the United States Air Force's Project RAND released the
Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship, which stated that "A
satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the most
potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century." The United States had been
considering launching orbital satellites since 1945 under the Bureau of Aeronautics of
the United States Navy. Project RAND eventually released the report, but considered the
satellite to be a tool for science, politics, and propaganda, rather than a potential military
weapon. In February 1954 Project RAND released "Scientific Uses for a Satellite
Vehicle," written by R.R. Carhart. This expanded on potential scientific uses for satellite
vehicles and was followed in June 1955 with "The Scientific Use of an Artificial
Satellite," by H.K. Kallmann and W.W. Kellogg.
In the context of activities planned for the International Geophysical Year (1957–
58), the White House announced on 29 July 1955 that the U.S. intended to launch
satellites by the spring of 1958. This became known as Project Vanguard. On 31 July,
the Soviets announced that they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.

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 The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on 4
October 1957 under the Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer. Sputnik
1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its
orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. The
unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the
United States and ignited the so-called Space Race within the Cold War.
Sputnik 2 was launched on 3 November 1957 and carried the first living passenger
into orbit, a dog named Laika
In early 1955, following pressure by the American Rocket Society, the National
Science Foundation, and the International Geophysical Year, the Army and Navy were
working on Project Orbiter with two competing programs. The army used the Jupiter C
rocket, while the civilian/Navy program used the Vanguard rocket to launch a satellite.
Explorer 1 became the United States' first artificial satellite on 31 January 1958.
In June 1961, three-and-a-half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the United States
Space Surveillance Network cataloged 115 Earth-orbiting satellites.
Early satellites were constructed to unique designs. With advancements in technology,
multiple satellites began to be built on single model platforms called satellite buses. The
first standardized satellite bus design was the HS-333 geosynchronous (GEO)
communication satellite launched in 1972.
Currently the largest artificial satellite ever is the International Space Station.

1.3 Parts of a satellite

Every usable artificial satellite — whether it's a human or robotic one — has four
main parts to it:
1. a power system (for example which could be solar or nuclear),
2. a way to control its attitude,
3. an antenna to transmit and receive information, and
4. a payload to collect information (such as a camera or particle detector).

however, not all artificial satellites are necessarily workable ones. Even a screw
or a bit of paint is considered an "artificial" satellite, even though these are missing these
parts

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1.4 What keeps a satellite from falling to earth?
A satellite is best understood as a projectile, or an object that has only one force
acting on it — gravity. Technically speaking, anything that crosses the Karman Line at
an altitude of 100 kilometers (62 miles) is considered in space. However, a satellite
needs to be going fast — at least 8 km (5 miles) a second — to stop from falling back
down to Earth immediately.
If a satellite is traveling fast enough, it will perpetually "fall" toward Earth, but the
Earth's curvature means that the satellite will fall around our planet instead of crashing
back on the surface. Satellites that travel closer to Earth are at risk of falling because the
drag of atmospheric molecules will slow the satellites down. Those that orbit farther
away from Earth have fewer molecules to contend with.
There are several accepted "zones" of orbits around the Earth. One is called low-
Earth-orbit, which extends from about 160 to 2,000 km (about 100 to 1,250 miles). This
is the zone where the ISS orbits and where the space shuttle used to do its work. In fact,
all human missions except for the Apollo flights to the moon took place in this zone.
Most satellites also work in this zone.
Geostationary or geosynchronous orbit is the best spot for communications
satellites to use, however. This is a zone above Earth's equator at an altitude of 35,786
km (22,236 mi). At this altitude, the rate of "fall" around the Earth is about the same as
Earth's rotation, which allows the satellite to stay above the same spot on Earth almost
constantly. The satellite thus keeps a perpetual connection with a fixed antenna on the
ground, allowing for reliable communications. When geostationary satellites reach the
end of their life, protocol dictates they're moved out of the way for a new satellite to take
their place. That's because there is only so much room, or so many "slots" in that orbit, to
allow the satellites to operate without interference.
While some satellites are best used around the equator, others are better suited to
more polar orbits — those that circle the Earth from pole to pole so that their coverage
zones include the north and south poles. Examples of polar-orbiting satellites include
weather satellites and reconnaissance satellites.

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1.5 What stops a satellite from crashing into another satellite?
There are an estimated half-million artificial objects in Earth orbit today, ranging
in size from paint flecks up to full-fledged satellites — each traveling at speeds of
thousands of miles an hour. Only a fraction of these satellites are useable, meaning that
there is a lot of "space junk" floating around out there. With everything that is lobbed
into orbit, the chance of a collision increases.
Space agencies have to consider orbital trajectories carefully when launching
something into space. Agencies such as the United States Space Surveillance Network
keep an eye on orbital debris from the ground, and alert NASA and other entities if an
errant piece is in danger of hitting something vital. This means that from time to time,
the ISS needs to perform evasive maneuvers to get out of the way.
Collisions still occur, however. One of the biggest culprits of space debris was the
leftovers of a 2007 anti-satellite test performed by the Chinese, which generated debris
that destroyed a Russian satellite in 2013. Also that year, the Iridium 33 and Cosmos
2251 satellites smashed into each other, generating a cloud of debris.
NASA, the European Space Agency and many other entities are considering
measures to reduce the amount of orbital debris. Some suggest bringing down dead
satellites in some way, perhaps using a net or air bursts to disturb the debris from its
orbit and bring it closer to Earth. Others are thinking about refueling dead satellites for
reuse, a technology that has been demonstrated robotically on the ISS.

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 CHAPTER 2
TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL SATELLITE

2.1 Astronomical Satellite

A astronomical Satellite or space telescope is an instrument located in outer space to
observe distant planets, galaxies and other astronomical objects. Space telescopes avoid
the filtering of ultraviolet frequencies, X-rays and gamma rays; the distortion
(scintillation) of electromagnetic radiation; as well as light pollution which ground-based
observatories encounter.
Suggested by Lyman Spitzer in 1946, the first operational space telescopes were the
American Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, OAO-2 launched in 1968, and the Soviet
Orion 1 ultraviolet telescope aboard space station Salyut 1 in 1971.
Space telescopes are distinct from satellites that point toward Earth for satellite
imagery for espionage, weather analysis and other types of information gathering. Space
observatories are divided into two types: Astronomical survey satellites to map the entire
sky, and satellites which focus on selected astronomical objects or parts of the sky and
beyond.

2.2 Bio Satellite

A biosatellite is an artificial satellite designed to carry plants or animals in outer
space. They are used to research the effects of space (cosmic radiation, weightlessness,
etc.) on biological matter while in orbit around a celestial body. The first satellite carrying
an animal (a dog, "Laika") was Soviet Sputnik 2 on November 3, 1957. On August 20,
1960 Soviet Sputnik 5 launched and recovered dogs from orbit Earth orbit.
NASA launched three satellites between 1966 and 1969 for the Biosatellite program.
The most famous biosatellites include:
 Bion space program by Soviet Union
 The Mars Gravity Biosatellite
 Orbiting Frog Otolith (OFO-A)
 Biosatellite program launched by NASA between 1966 and 1969.

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2.3 Communication Satellite
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio
telecommunications signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a
source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth. Communications satellites
are used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications. There are about
2,000 communications satellites in Earth's orbit, used by both private and government
organizations. Many are in geostationary orbit 22,236 miles (35,785 km) above the equator,
so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky, so the satellite dish
antennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to
track it.
The high frequency radio waves used for telecommunications links travel by line of
sight and so are obstructed by the curve of the Earth. The purpose of communications
satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between
widely separated geographical points. Communications satellites use a wide range of radio
and microwave frequencies. To avoid signal interference, international organizations have
regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use.
This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference.

2.4 Earth observation Satellite:-

An Earth observation satellite or Earth remote sensing satellite is a satellite used or
designed for Earth observation from orbit, similar to spy satellites but intended for non-
military uses such as environmental monitoring, meteorology, map making etc. The first
occurrence of satellite remote sensing can be dated to the launch of the first artificial satellite,
Sputnik 1, by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957. Sputnik 1 sent back radio signals, which
scientists used to study the ionosphere. NASA launched the first American satellite, Explorer
1, in January 31, 1958. The information sent back from its radiation detector led to the
discovery of the Earth's Van Allen radiation belts. The TIROS-1 spacecraft, launched on
April 1, 1960 as part of NASA's TIROS (Television Infrared Observation Satellite) Program,
sent back the first television footage of weather patterns to be taken from space. As of 2008,
more than 150 Earth observation satellites were in orbit, recording data with both passive and
active sensors and acquiring more than 10 terabits of data daily.
Most Earth observation satellites carry instruments that should be operated at a

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relatively low altitude. Altitudes below 500-600 kilometers are in general avoided, though,
because of the significant air-drag at such low altitudes making frequent orbit reboost
maneuvres necessary. The Earth observation satellites ERS-1, ERS-2 and Envisat of
European Space Agency as well as the MetOp spacecraft of EUMETSAT are all operated at
altitudes of about 800 km. The Proba-1, Proba-2 and SMOS spacecraft of European Space
Agency are observing the Earth from an altitude of about 700 km. The Earth observation
satellites of UAE, DubaiSat-1 & DubaiSat-2 are also placed in Low Earth Orbits (LEO)
orbits and providing satellite imagery of various parts of the Earth.
To get (nearly) global coverage with a low orbit it must be a polar orbit or nearly so.
A low orbit will have an orbital period of roughly 100 minutes and the Earth will rotate
around its polar axis with about 25 deg between successive orbits, with the result that
the ground track is shifted towards west with these 25 deg in longitude. Most are in Sun-
synchronous orbits.

2.5 Navigational Satellite

A satellite navigation or satnav system is a system that uses satellites to provide
autonomous geo-spatial positioning. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their
location (longitude, latitude, and altitude/elevation) to high precision (within a few
centimeters to metres) using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from
satellites. The system can be used for providing position, navigation or for tracking the
position of something fitted with a receiver (satellite tracking). The signals also allow the
electronic receiver to calculate the current local time to high precision, which allows time
synchronisation. Satnav systems operate independently of any telephonic or internet
reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the positioning
information generated.
A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation
satellite system (GNSS). As of October 2018, the United States' Global Positioning System
(GPS) and Russia's Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) are fully operational
GNSSs, with China's BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and the European Union's
Galileo scheduled to be fully operational by 2020. Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System
(QZSS) is a GPS satellite-based augmentation system to enhance GPS's accuracy, with
satellite navigation independent of GPS scheduled for 2023. India already has functioning

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Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) with an operational name of NAVIC, it
is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system that provides accurate real-time
positioning and timing services and plans to expand to a global version in long term.

2.6 Killer Satellite

Killer Satellites are satellites that are designed to destroy enemy warheads, satellites, and
other space assets.

2.7 Crewed spacecraft

A spacecraft is a vehicle or machine designed to fly in outer space. A type of artificial
satellite, spacecraft are used transportation of humans and cargo. All spacecraft except single-
stage-to-orbit vehicles cannot get into space on their own, and require a launch vehicle
(carrier rocket). On a sub-orbital spaceflight, a space vehicle enters space and then returns to
the surface, without having gained sufficient energy or velocity to make a full orbit of the
Earth. For orbital spaceflights, spacecraft enter closed orbits around the Earth or around other
celestial bodies. Spacecraft used for human spaceflight carry people on board as crew or
passengers from start or on orbit (space stations) only, whereas those used for robotic space
missions operate either autonomously or telerobotically. Robotic spacecraft used to support
scientific research are space probes.

2.8 Miniaturized Satellite

A small satellite, miniaturized satellite, or smallsat is a satellite of low mass and size,
usually under 500 kg. While all such satellites can be referred to as "small", different
classifications are used to categorize them based on mass. Satellites can be built small to
reduce the large economic cost of launch vehicles and the costs associated with construction.
Miniature satellites, especially in large numbers, may be more useful than fewer, larger ones
for some purposes – for example, gathering of scientific data and radio relay. Technical
challenges in the construction of small satellites may include the lack of sufficient power
storage or of room for a propulsion system.

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2.9 Reconnaissance Satellite
A reconnaissance satellite or intelligence satellite (commonly, although unofficially,
referred to as a spy satellite) is an Earth observation satellite or communications satellite
deployed for military or intelligence applications. The first generation type (i.e., Corona and
Zenit) took photographs, then ejected canisters of photographic film which would descend
back down into Earth's atmosphere. Corona capsules were retrieved in mid-air as they floated
down on parachutes. Later, spacecraft had digital imaging systems and downloaded the
images via encrypted radio links. In the United States, most information available is on
programs that existed up to 1972, as this information has been declassified due to its age.
Some information about programs prior to that time is still classified, and a small amount of
information is available on subsequent missions.

2.10 Weather Satellite

The weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather
and climate of the Earth. Satellites can be polar orbiting, covering the entire Earth
asynchronously, or geostationary, hovering over the same spot on the equator.
Meteorological satellites see more than clouds: city lights, fires, effects of pollution,
auroras, sand and dust storms, snow cover, ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents, energy
flows, etc. Other types of environmental information are collected using weather satellites.
Weather satellite images helped in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from Mount St. Helens
and activity from other volcanoes such as Mount Etna. Smoke from fires in the western
United States such as Colorado and Utah have also been monitored.
El Niño and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images. The
Antarctic ozone hole is mapped from weather satellite data. Collectively, weather satellites
flown by the U.S., Europe, India, China, Russia, and Japan provide nearly continuous
observations for a global weather watch.

2.11 Tether Satellite

Tethers satellite are long cables which can be used for propulsion, momentum
exchange, stabilization and attitude control, or maintaining the relative positions of the
components of a large dispersed satellite/spacecraft sensor system. Depending on the mission
objectives and altitude, spaceflight using this form of spacecraft propulsion is theorized to be
significantly less expensive than spaceflight using rocket engines.

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 CHAPTER 3
TYPES OF ORBITS

3.1 Orbit
An orbit is a repeated path that one object in space takes around another One.. an orbit
is the gravitationally curved trajectory of an object, such as the trajectory of a planet
around a star or a natural satellite around a planet. Normally, orbit refers to a regularly
repeating trajectory, although it may also refer to a non-repeating trajectory. To a close
approximation, planets and satellites follow elliptic orbits, with the central mass being
orbited at a focal point of the ellipse An object in an orbit is called a satellite

Fig. 5.1 orbit

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3.2 Types of Orbits

 Low earth orbit

 Medium earth orbit

 Geo Synchronous orbit

 High earth orbit

3.3 Low earth orbit

A low Earth orbit (LEO) is an Earth-centered orbit with an altitude of 2,000 km

(1,200 mi) or less (approximately one-third of the radius of Earth), or with at least 11.25
periods per day (an orbital period of 128 minutes or less) and an eccentricity less than
0.25. Most of the manmade objects in outer space are in LEO.
The LEO region is defined by some sources as the region in space that LEO
orbits occupy. Some highly elliptical orbits may pass through the LEO region near their
lowest altitude (or perigee) but are not in an LEO Orbit because their highest altitude
(or apogee) exceeds 2,000 km (1,200 mi). Sub-orbital objects can also reach the LEO
region but are not in an LEO orbit because they re-enter the atmosphere. The distinction
between LEO orbits and the LEO region is especially important for analysis of possible
collisions between objects which may not themselves be in LEO but could collide with
satellites or debris in LEO orbits.
The International Space Station conducts operations in LEO. All crewed space
stations to date, as well as the majority of satellites, have been in LEO. The altitude
record for human spaceflights in LEO was Gemini 11 with an apogee of 1,374.1 km
(853.8 mi). Apollo 8 was the first mission to carry humans beyond LEO on December
21–27, 1968. The Apollo program continued during the four-year period spanning 1968
through 1972 with 24 astronauts who flew lunar flights but since then there have been
no human spaceflights beyond LEO.

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3.3.1 Use of LEO
A low Earth orbit requires the lowest amount of energy for satellite placement.
It provides high bandwidth and low communication latency. Satellites and space
stations in LEO are more accessible for crew and servicing. Since it requires less energy
to place a satellite into a LEO, and a satellite there needs less powerful amplifiers for
successful transmission, LEO is used for many communication applications, such as the
Iridium phone system. Some communication satellites use much higher geostationary
orbits, and move at the same angular velocity as the Earth as to appear stationary above
one location on the planet.

3.3.2 Disadvantages
Satellites in LEO have a small momentary field of view, only able to observe
and communicate with a fraction of the Earth at a time, meaning a network (or
"constellation") of satellites is required to in order to provide continuous coverage.
Satellites in lower regions of LEO also suffer from fast orbital decay, requiring either
periodic reboosting to maintain a stable orbit, or launching replacement satellites when
old ones re-enter.

3.3.3 Examples
 Earth observation satellite
 The International Space Station
 Iridium satellites
 GOCE
 GRACE
 The Hubble Space Telescope
 The Chinese Tiangong-2 station

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3.4 Medium Earth orbit
Medium Earth orbit (MEO), sometimes called intermediate circular orbit (ICO),
is the region of space around Earth above low Earth orbit (altitude of 2,000 km (1,243
mi) above sea level) and below geosynchronous orbit (altitude of 35,786 km (22,236
mi) above sea level).
The orbit is home to a number of artificial satellites – the most common uses
include navigation, communication, and geodetic/space environment science. The most
common altitude is approximately 20,200 kilometres (12,552 mi)), which yields an
orbital period of 12 hours, as used, for example, by the Global Positioning System
(GPS). Other satellites in medium Earth orbit include Glonass (with an altitude of
19,100 kilometres (11,900 mi)) and Galileo (with an altitude of 23,222 kilometres
(14,429 mi)) constellations. Communications satellites that cover the North and South
Pole are also put in MEO.
The orbital periods of MEO satellites range from about 2 to nearly 24 hours.
Telstar 1, an experimental satellite launched in 1962, orbited in MEO.

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 3.5 Geosynchronous Earth Orbit
A geosynchronous orbit (sometimes abbreviated GSO) is an orbit around Earth of a
satellite with an orbital period that matches Earth's rotation on its axis, which takes one
sidereal day (about 23 hrs, 56 min, and 4 sec). The synchronization of rotation and orbital
period means that, for an observer on Earth's surface, an object in geosynchronous orbit
returns to exactly the same position in the sky after a period of one sidereal day. Over the
course of a day, the object's position in the sky may remain still or trace out a path,
typically in a figure-8 form, whose precise characteristics depend on the orbit's inclination
and eccentricity. Satellites are typically launched in an eastward direction. A circular
geosynchronous orbit is 35,786 km (22,236 mi) above Earth's surface. Those closer to
Earth orbit faster than Earth rotates, so from Earth, they appear to move eastward while
those that orbit beyond geosynchronous distances appear to move westward.
A special case of geosynchronous orbit is the geostationary orbit, which is a
circular geosynchronous orbit in Earth's equatorial plane (that is, directly above the
Equator). A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears stationary, always at the same point in
the sky, to observers on the surface. Popularly or loosely, the term geosynchronous may be
used to mean geostationary. Specifically, geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) may be a
synonym for geosynchronous equatorial orbit, or geostationary Earth orbit.
Communications satellites are often given geostationary or close to geostationary orbits so
that the satellite antennas that communicate with them do not have to move, but can be
pointed permanently at the fixed location in the sky where the satellite appears.

3.5.1 Types of Geo-synchronous orbit

Geostationary orbit
A geostationary equatorial orbit (GEO) is a circular geosynchronous orbit in the
plane of the Earth's equator with a radius of approximately 42,164 km (26,199 mi)
(measured from the center of the Earth). A satellite in such an orbit is at an altitude of
approximately 35,786 km (22,236 mi) above mean sea level. It maintains the same
position relative to the Earth's surface. If one could see a satellite in geostationary orbit, it
would appear to hover at the same point in the sky, i.e., not exhibit diurnal motion, while
the Sun, Moon, and stars would traverse the skies behind it. Such orbits are useful for

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telecommunications satellites.
A perfectly stable geostationary orbit is an ideal that can only be approximated. In
practice the satellite drifts out of this orbit because of perturbations such as the solar
wind, radiation pressure, variations in the Earth's gravitational field, and the gravitational
effect of the Moon and Sun, and thrusters are used to maintain the orbit in a process
known as station-keeping.

Elliptical geosynchronous orbit

Elliptical geosynchronous orbits are used in communications satellites to keep the
satellite in view of its assigned ground stations and receivers. A satellite in an elliptical
geosynchronous orbit appears to oscillate in the sky from the viewpoint of a ground
station, tracing an analemma in the sky. Satellites in highly elliptical orbits must be
tracked by steerable ground stations.
The Infrared Space Observatory was in a highly elliptical geosynchronous orbit with an
orbital height of apogee 70,600 km and perigee 1,000 km. It was controlled by two
ground stations.

Inclined geosynchronous orbit

An inclined geosynchronous orbit (IGSO) is a geosynchronous orbit with a non
zero inclination. It traces an analemma (figure 8) across the sky.
Due to their inherent instability, geostationary orbits will eventually become inclined if
they are not corrected using thrusters. At the end of the satellite's lifetime, when fuel
approaches depletion, satellite operators may decide to omit these expensive manoeuvres
to correct inclination and only control eccentricity. This prolongs the life-time of the
satellite as it consumes less fuel over time, but the satellite can then only be used by
ground antennas capable of following the north-south movement, satellite-tracking Earth
stations.
NAVIC is a regional — i.e. non-global — Indian navigation system currently
operating with 7 satellites, of which 3 are in geostationary orbit and 4 in geosynchronous
orbit.
The Chinese BeiDou GNSS constellation uses five satellites in a geosynchronous orbit.
The communications satellite AMC-14 was sold to the US government and placed in a
13° inclined geosynchronous orbit following a rocket malfunction.

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 Quasi-Zenith orbit
The Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) is a three-satellite regional time
transfer system and enhancement for GPS, covering Japan at high elevation. Each
satellite dwells over Japan, allowing signals to reach receivers in urban canyons then
passes quickly over Australia.

Tundra orbit
The Tundra orbit is an eccentric Russian geosynchronous orbit, which allows the
satellite to spend most of its time over one location. It sits at an inclination of 63.4°,
which is a frozen orbit, which reduces the need for stationkeeping. It is used by the Sirius
XM Satellite Radio to improve signal strength in northern US and Canada.

3.6 High Earth Orbit

A high Earth orbit is a geocentric orbit with an altitude entirely above that of a
geosynchronous orbit (35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi)). The orbital periods of such orbits
are greater than 24 hours, therefore satellites in such orbits have an apparent retrograde
motion – that is, even if they are in a prograde orbit (90° > inclination ≥ 0°), their orbital
velocity is lower than Earth's rotational speed, causing their ground track to move
westward on Earth's surface.

3.7 Satellite Services

3.7.1 Satellite Internet access

Satellite Internet access is Internet access provided through communications
satellites. Modern consumer grade satellite Internet service is typically provided to
individual users through geostationary satellites that can offer relatively high data
speeds, with newer satellites using Ku band to achieve downstream data speeds up to
506 Mbit/s.

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3.7.2 Satellite navigation
A satellite navigation or satnav system is a system that uses satellites to provide
autonomous geo-spatial positioning. It allows small electronic receivers to determine
their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude/elevation) to high precision (within a
few centimeters to metres) using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio
from satellites. The system can be used for providing position, navigation or for
tracking the position of something fitted with a receiver (satellite tracking). The signals
also allow the electronic receiver to calculate the current local time to high precision,
which allows time synchronisation. Satnav systems operate independently of any
telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness
of the positioning information generated.

3.7.3 Satellite phone

A satellite telephone, satellite phone or satphone is a type of mobile phone that
connects to other phones or the telephone network by radio through orbiting satellites
instead of terrestrial cell sites, as cellphones do. The advantage of a satphone is that its
use is not limited to areas covered by cell towers; it can be used in most or all
geographic locations on the Earth's surface.

3.7.4 Satellite radio

Satellite radio is defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)'s
ITU Radio Regulations (RR) as a broadcasting-satellite service. The satellite's signals
are broadcast nationwide, across a much wider geographical area than terrestrial radio
stations, and the service is primarily intended for the occupants of motor vehicles. It is
available by subscription, mostly commercial free, and offers subscribers more stations
and a wider variety of programming options than terrestrial radio.

3.7.5 Satellite television

Satellite television is a service that delivers television programming to viewers
by relaying it from a communications satellite orbiting the Earth directly to the
viewer's location.The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic antenna commonly
referred to as a satellite dish and a low-noise block downconverter.

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 A satellite receiver then decodes the desired television programme for viewing
on a television set. Receivers can be external set-top boxes, or a built-in television
tuner. Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services. It is usually
the only television available in many remote geographic areas without terrestrial
television or cable television service.

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 REFERENCES
 Satellite https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite assessed on 19-11-2019
 Orbit https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-is-
orbit-58.html assessed on19-11-2019
 Types of orbits https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/
Space_Transportation/Types_of_orbits assessed on 19-11-2019
 LEO https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit assessed on 19-11-2019
 MEO https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_Earth_orbit assessed on 19-11-2019
 GEO https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosynchronous_orbit assessed on 19-11-2019

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