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Electrical stimulation of human tissues is an old current of less than 1.5 milliamperes (mA) and
procedure dating from the attempts of the early relatively high peak currents of between 60 and 100
Greeks to use electric eels for therapeutic purposes. mA. (Amps = coulomb/second).
The modern rediscovery of electricity and its uses in
physical medicine dates from the early eighteenth Bipolar Electrode Placement: both cathode
century, when again, electrical stimulation (negative) and anode (positive) electrodes are
generated by electric eels was applied placed on the treatment area in relative proximity to
therapeutically to relieve headaches and to affect each other. This arrangement provides for rather
neuromuscular paralysis. specific stimulation of structures with few variations
Therapeutically applied electrical stimulation in responses.
has had a checkered history, enjoying long periods of
popularity and respectable use interspersed with Burst frequency: the number of trains of impulses
periods of widespread misuse by medical charlatans produced per second; it is dependent on the
who treated everything from psychiatric conditions “stimulation on and stimulation off” duty cycle
to cancerous tumors. One must suppose that the selected.
simplicity of electricity producing equipment
(especially that utilizing static or direct current)
Coulomb: a basic unit of charge theoretically
coupled with the seemingly magical effects that
produced by 6.28 x 1018 electrons. Most therapeutic
electrical currents have on human tissues,
electrical stimulators have a low pulse charge,
unavoidably led to its exploitation by unscrupulous
expressed in micro‐coulombs (10‐6 coulombs).
"practitioners" at the expense of the unsophisticated
and gullible.
Current density: the amount of current per unit
Often billed as a near panacea for the cure of
area; i.e., the smaller the electrode, the greater the
most human physical ills, over time the therapeutic
current density, making the stimulus perceptually
use of electrical stimulation, in the minds of many,
gradually became associated with quackery and stronger to the recipient.
therefore considered beneath the use of scrupulous
and sophisticated practitioners. This state of affairs Monopolar electrode placement: one electrode is
was (and is) unfortunate, since there are many placed on the treatment area and the other is placed
physical ills that humans are afflicted with that may on a remote location on the body. This arrangement
be improved or corrected by appropriately applied provides a rather general stimulation pattern
electrical stimulation. because of the multiple parallel pathways the
current that may be taken from one electrode to the
Electrical Stimulation Related Terms other. One may also expect variations in the
responses produced by the electrical stimulation
Modern instrumentation used to apply electricity to applied this way because of the number of nerves
the body is designed for users who are without and other structures the current may pass through.
detailed knowledge of the instrument's internal
circuitry or the physics responsible for the Ohm: a unit expressing the amount of resistance
production of electricity. However, some knowledge offered by a current conductor (the recipient’s soft
of the basic principles that govern electrical tissues).
stimulation is useful for an understanding of the
variable results that come from the necessary “trial
Ohm's Law: “The current (amps) is directly
and error” that is a regular feature of its therapeutic
proportional to potential (volts) and inversely
use. A few terms are defined below to help those of
proportional to resistance (ohms). Current =
us who have little or no education in this area.
potential/resistance.” Amps (amperes) =
volts/ohms.
Ampere: the unit of flowing charge (current). Most
therapeutic electrical stimulators have a low average
57
Pulse duration: the amount of time the current dispersive), thus completing an electrical circuit with
flows in one direction. Pulse duration is measured the recipient’s body.
when the current level is at 50% of its peak, usually Electrical currents passed through muscle or
expressed in microseconds. nervous tissue from an external source (electrical
stimulator) will be partially depolarized in the region
Pulse frequency: the number of pulses produced per of the negative and hyperpolarized in the region of
second, hertz (Hz) or cycles per second (c/s). the positive. If the current is sufficiently strong, the
degree of depolarization will reach or exceed the
Resistance to current: The body is made up of critical level necessary to produce a muscle
tissues and fluids that vary in their electrical contraction or the firing of the nerve. At the anode,
conductivity and, conversely, their resistance to the as the circuit is completed. The body
passage of electricity. Tissue conductivity is overcompensates for electrical changes induced by
proportionally related to the tissue's water content; the current, so that some degree of irritability is
the higher the water content the greater the present at the anode. If sufficiently great, the
conductivity and the lower the tissue's resistance. irritability will also cause a muscle contraction or
The water content of muscle is 72 to 75%, the brain nerve firing under the anode. The current level
is 68%, fat is 14 to 15%, and of the peripheral nerve, required to produce a single neuron impulse or
skin, and bone is five to 16%. Resistance varies in single muscle fiber contraction is called a minimal
direct proportion to the distance between stimulus. If a stronger stimulus is required to excite
electrodes. The resistance increases, as the distance all of a group of nerve fibers or denervated muscle
the electrical stimulus must travel increases. fibers, it is called a maximal stimulus. A stimulus
higher than that is called a supramaximal stimulus.
The factors that determine the adequacy of a
Volt: A volt is a unit of measure that indicates the
stimulus to either elicit a muscle contraction or
amount of potential energy (Joule) each unit of
provoke the firing of nervous tissue include pulse
charge (coulomb) contains (Voltage =
frequency, pulse duration, and the amplitude of the
Joule/coulomb).
current. The minimal duration of an effective
electrical stimulus (sufficient to provoke a muscle
Electrotherapeutic currents are generally derived
contraction or nerve firing) is 1.0 microsecond for a
from the commercial lighting circuit (alternating
normal innervated muscle fiber and 0.03
current in the United States or direct current in
microseconds for a normal nerve fiber. The strength
some other parts of the world) or from the direct
of an electrically induced muscle contraction is
current (d/c) provided by batteries. Transformers,
related to the intensity and pulse duration of the
electromagnetic or thermionic devices, or complex
stimulus: the greater the intensity and pulse
circuitry (beyond our scope here) modify these basic
duration, the greater the strength of contraction.
currents to produce various therapeutic current
forms. The therapeutic current forms include
Equipment Utilized in Electrical Stimulation
galvanic (square wave), interrupted galvanic, surged
interrupted galvanic, sinusoidal, alternating, surged
Electrical units currently used for the stimulation of
alternating, faradic, surged faradic and other hybrid
muscle or other deep tissues can be generally
waveforms (generally produced by combining two or
classified into six categories:
more waveforms). The variables manipulated to
produce the various waveforms include: voltage, High Frequency (Medium Frequency) Stimulators:
amperage, mode flow (direction), pulse frequency, These units, by definition, generate more than 1000
and pulse duration (pulse width). c/s, with popular models producing 2500 c/s. The
2500 c/s units usually employ a duty cycle of 10
Applying Electrical Stimulation to Soft Tissues: milliseconds (msec) on and 10 msec off. In this case,
Electrical stimulation is applied through a pair of the 2500 c/s is interrupted at 1/100 of a second on
electrodes placed on the body. The electricity is and 1/100 of a second off with a 50% duty cycle
passed from the cathode (negative) pole electrode, producing 50 bursts per second with 25 cycles per
over and through the soft tissues, to the anode burst. The 2500 c/s unit generally has a peak current
(positive) pole electrode (sometimes called the of 130 mA with an average current level of from 80
to 100 mA root mean square (RMS). These units
58
provide a variety of duty cycles, ramps, and peak muscle contraction that is 60% (or greater) of that
currents from which to choose. They can create a produced by a maximal isometric contraction.
An electrical stimulator with variable current forms
High Voltage Stimulators: These units have a high Low Voltage Electrical Stimulators: These units
peak current of 500 mA or greater with a low have low peak currents, low voltage driving forces
average current of less than one mA. They are that can be alternate or direct currents, and their
constant voltage generators with a pulse charge of pulse duration’s are usually large, measured in msec
approximately four micro coulombs, and their pulse or seconds. If using a direct current, they can
durations usually range from five to eight produce thermal and chemical effects and can be
microseconds. They generally provide a variety of used to produce iontophoresis.
duty cycles and pulse‐frequencies from which to
choose. Portable Neuromuscular Stimulators: These units
generally employ a constant current, which generally
Interferential Stimulators: These units are constant has a peak of 100 mA with a driving force of from 50
current generators that create a pulse frequency of to 100 volts. They generally provide a choice of duty
4000 to 5000 c/s. The interferential units generally cycles, pulse frequencies, peak currents, and ramps
employ two electrical sine wave circuits, one of (the time it takes for the current level to rise from
which has a fixed frequency while the other varies its zero to its peak).
frequency; when the two waveforms intersect, an
interferential frequency is said to result. The Electrodes: The electrical energy from electrical
interferential unit usually has a peak current of 60 stimulators is conveyed to the recipient by
mA. conducting cables. The cables are plastic or rubber
59
insulated flexible copper or silver wires. The cable from the electrical stimulator and the
thickness of the cable depends on the amount of recipient's body (only surface electrodes will be
current to be carried by the conductor (the greater discussed here). It generally consists of a good
the current, the thicker the cable needs to be). conducting material whose shape and form can be
These cables may be a uniform color or color‐coded adapted to conform to contours of the body.
according to function. If color‐coded, the wire to the Electrode mediums include water, metal foil (usually
negative (cathode) electrode is conventionally black, made from an alloy of lead, tin, and zinc), moist‐
and that to the positive (anode) electrode is red. An pads, or flexible carbon or “silicone” pads.
electrode is a medium that intervenes between the
Flexible electrode pads
Electrode pads are usually employed in pairs, most bending or movement of the cable occurs,
often of equal size. Between two electrode pads of usually close to the electrode connections at both
equal size, the current density beneath each of them ends.
is equal. If one is twice as large as the other is, the
current density under the smaller one will be twice Application:
as great as that under the larger. As the current
spreads between two electrode pads, across the If low frequency sponge pad electrodes are
body, its density must gradually decrease so that being used, they must be well moistened
midway between them the density is the least. The with a saline solution (or water) and placed
closer the electrodes are to one another, the greater over the chosen treatment sites. If carbon
the density of the current that passes between or “silicone” pads are used, take care that
them. The higher the current density, the greater the skin between the electrodes remains
the effect on the tissues stimulated. dry to avoid an “electrode bridge” that
would decrease or preclude effective
The electric current carried along the cable electrical stimulation (the electricity would
length eventually leads to some crystallization and to pass through the water to complete the
breaks in the conducting wires at the sites where the circuit, having no effect on the body).
60
the injury, the burn site appears rather small and
Generally, place a negative electrode on the inconsequential but becomes more alarming as the
muscle's motor point (where the motor damaged tissues are subsequently sloughed off and
nerve is most superficial as it innervates the ulceration occurs. Electrical burns are slow to heal,
muscle) so that when stimulated the prone to infection, and (if sufficiently deep) may be
greatest muscle contraction is provoked. followed by extensive unsightly scarring.
Once the best sites for electrode placement Electric shock may be caused if the recipient
have been determined, elastic strapping, touches a grounded object (a water pipe, radiator, or
weighting, or taping may be applied to electric circuit) while being stimulated. This is
ensure good continued electrode contact. especially serious if a large area is subjected to the
shock. Electric shock may also occur if the electrical
Set a watch or timer for the length of stimulator suffers transformer breakdown (which is
treatment. Turn the electrical stimulator on unlikely with modern units). If this happens the
and increase the amplitude (intensity) until high‐tension, low frequency current may jump to the
a visible contraction takes place, always recipient and produce an electrical burn as well as a
staying within the recipient’s range of shock.
tolerance. Take care to avoid over‐fatigue of the muscles
stimulated. Stimulation should stop when the
Allow the recipient to become accustomed muscle begins to respond with less vigor.
to the current before additional intensity Generally, do not place electrodes over scar
increases are slowly made. Continue this tissue, skin irritations or open skin lesions (unless
process until the desired degree of used to help fight infection). If increased sweating,
contraction is reached. Closely monitor the salivation or signs of nausea occur discontinue
recipient for excessive muscle spasm, stimulation.
cramping, joint compression, or pain. Do not let electrical current flow across a
Never leave the recipient out of hearing pregnant uterus or a cardiac pacemaker.
range once the treatment has been started. When applying electrodes, take care to avoid
overlapping negative and positive electrodes, and
At the end of the session (if not avoid having conductive materials (electrode cream,
automatically shut off) gradually decrease water or gel) form a conductive “electrode” bridge
the intensity until it is switched off. Return between the two. Either situation will cause a
all controls to zero. Remove all electrodes completion of the circuit without involving or
from the recipient. Have the recipient rest affecting the recipient’s tissues.
for several minutes before being allowed to When applying electrical stimulation, a gradual
exercise. increase of intensity is preferred because of the
tendency of natural skin resistance to suddenly
Precautions: break down after being exposed to an electric
current for several minutes. If the apparent lack of
Electrical burns may occur if continuous tissue response persuades the practitioner to
uninterrupted galvanic current is used and an excess increase the intensity to a relatively high level before
of current density applied to the skin or mucous skin resistance breaks down, the recipient may pay
membrane. If an electrical burn results, the tissue for the practitioner's lack of patience by
damage produced occurs in a roughly conical area, experiencing additional pain or discomfort. Future
extending from the apex on the skin's surface treatment may be put in jeopardy because of the
(where the original electrical contact occurred) and recipient’s acquired fear.
fanning out into the deeper layers. Just following
61
CCIIRRCCUULLAATTIIOON
N EEN
NHHAAN
NCCEEM
MEEN
NTT
It has long been accepted that electrical stimulation in the total capillary surface area and the “sprouting”
of muscle tissue to provoke muscle contractions to of large capillaries (making new branches). Increases
rhythmically squeeze associated blood vessels may in capillary density (20% after 4 days of stimulation,
be used to therapeutically improve circulation. This 50% after 14, and 100% after 28 days) are
process induces the muscles to artificially provide apparently not a consequence of the action of the
the pumping action required by nature to facilitate electrical current itself. They result from the
venous blood flow and to add impetus to lymphatic muscular need for additional blood supply to
circulation. support the demand of electrically induced muscular
Less known or appreciated is the effect that contractions. Similar changes accompany hypoxia in
electrical stimulation may have on capillary humans and animals (non‐primates) when engaging
development. Research undertaken in the late in aerobic exercise (repetitive isotonic contractions,
1970's demonstrated that continuous low frequency like running). It should be noted that high frequency
electrical stimulation could increase capillary to electrical stimulation (30 Hz and above) and
muscle fiber ratio and thus the number of capillaries isometric exercise have both failed to demonstrate
present in a cross‐sectional area. The formation of the ability to increase capillary density.
new capillaries may be accompanied by an increase
Electrode placement for electrical
stimulation of the calf
Because of the ability to increase capillary density, good effect when treating conditions stemming from
low frequency electrical stimulation may be used to impaired or decreased blood circulation.
62
Application: Turn the stimulator on, and slowly increase
the intensity until a visible contraction of
To increase capillary density, the electrodes the muscle or muscle group develops.
may be placed in bipolar fashion over a
large muscle or muscle group in the As the patient gets used to the sensation of
involved extremity or associated with the electrical stimulation, gradually increase the
involved area. current until the contractions are quite
brisk.
Preset the electrical stimulator to deliver a
pulsed square wave or faradic current flow Daily treatments provide the best results.
at a pulse frequency of between four and
14 Hz (7 to 10 Hz would be ideal), for a 20‐
minute period.
63
EEDDEEM
MAA RREEDDUUCCTTIIOON
N
It has long been accepted that electrical stimulation over the area most swollen. If a dual positive is
of muscle tissue to provoke muscle contractions to available, place each positive electrode on either
rhythmically squeeze associated blood vessels may side of the joint; place the negative electrode in an
be used to therapeutically improve circulation. This area distant from the swollen joint (in the midback
induces the muscles to artificially provide the area, for example).
pumping action required by nature to facilitate
venous blood flow and to add impetus to lymphatic Application:
circulation. Consequently, electrical stimulation may
Preset the electrical stimulator to deliver a
be used to good effect when the patient has lost the
pulsed square wave current flow at a pulse
ability or is unable to voluntarily contract the
frequency of 28 Hz for a 20‐minute period.
necessary muscles (as when splinted or when closely
confined for therapeutic reasons). This provides a Turn the stimulator on and slowly increase
way of reducing lymph edema that is often a the intensity until the patient’s muscles just
consequence of syndromes in which the muscles are begin to involuntarily tighten.
kept from contracting or "working out".
Apart from the mechanical pumping action that Ideally, daily treatment is best but suitable
electrically induced muscle contractions can provide, outcomes have resulted from treatments
pulsed direct (galvanic) current has the observable every other day, or even two to three times
and apparent ability to carry or drive fluid out of a week.
edematous tissue, possibly because of electrical
ionic transfer. Electrical stimulation for the reduction of edema
To facilitate lymph circulation or decrease is remarkable for its ability to immediately reduce
edema, in the most effective manner, place the the swelling associated with strained, sprained, or
largest possible electrodes over the largest possible immobilized joints. Consequently, when
areas. For example, place the patient’s swollen appropriate, following electrical stimulation the
ankle in a basin of water (the water above the level involved joint should be taped or fitted with a
of the malleoli) with the positive electrode. Place the pressure‐splint (usually an inflated sleeve) to
negative electrode on the low back. This set‐up will prevent swelling from redeveloping and to help
affect the greatest number of muscles possible and stabilize the involved joint, thus preventing further
may additionally facilitate the flow of the edematous joint trauma.
fluid out of the swollen extremity. To treat a single
swollen joint, place a wet cloth (wet wrap) over and
around the swollen joint, and the positive electrode
64
M
MUUSSCCLLEE TTOON
NIIN
NGG
Research has confirmed that electrical stimulation, if the muscle or muscle group on stretch and
appropriately applied, may be used to effectively fixing the involved joint in place to prohibit
increase tone, strengthen muscle, improve them from moving in response to provoked
endurance, and increase the size of innervated contractions (i.e., an isometric contraction).
muscle. Electrical stimulation has not been shown Place the electrodes over the muscle or
to be superior to traditional forms of voluntary muscle group to be stimulated in a bipolar
exercise, for building tone and strength. fashion. Place the cathode (negative)
Nevertheless, several studies have shown electrical electrode over the dominant muscle's
stimulation to be nearly as effective. In fact, some motor point, and the anode (positive)
research has demonstrated that high voltage pulsed electrode elsewhere on the same muscle or
electrical stimulation of at least 30 Hz may be used muscle group.
to cause involuntary isometric muscular (tetanic)
Turn the electrical stimulator on and slowly
contraction against resistance without causing the
increase the intensity until a visible
stress to the cardiovascular system. Both isometric
contraction develops. As the patient gets
and isotonic exercise cause increases in heart rate
used to the stimulation (shows signs of
and blood pressures as a normal consequence of
relaxing), gradually increase the current
voluntary exertion.
until tetany or near tetany occurs.
Review of the literature suggests that more
study is needed to establish which types of electrical Continue stimulation for 10 to 15 minutes.
stimulation are most effective for increasing muscle Use a duty cycle of 10‐seconds on and 10‐
tone and strength and which methods of application seconds off to produce maximum toning, if
are most efficient. In addition, more study is that option is available. Treatment may
necessary to establish which types of muscle fibers occur daily, but suitable results have come
(fast or slow twitch) will respond best to electrical from treatments every other day or twice a
stimulation. Muscle toning with electrical week.
stimulation seems to be most effectively
accomplished by electrical stimulation units capable Muscle toning with electrical stimulation has
of producing currents strong enough to produce been shown to be remarkably effective for retrieving
tetany (or near tetany) while being fairly muscle tone lost as a secondary effect of long term
comfortable for the patient. Such stimulation units inflammatory conditions (chronic tennis elbow or
generally provide a duty cycle of 10 to 15‐seconds on debilitating knee or ankle ailments) or disuse from
and 10 to 50‐seconds off. Such stimulation is usually prolonged bed rest. If the electrical stimulation is
best provided by a high voltage, high frequency applied correctly and appropriately, muscle strength
(medium frequency) unit. can be improved without any risk of reinflaming the
previously involved soft tissues through strain, which
Application: is often a consequence of voluntary exercise.
To tone muscle with electrical stimulation,
the best results seem to come from putting
65
M
MUUSSCCLLEE LLEEN
NGGTTH
HEEN
NIIN
NGG
Chronically “tight” muscles, muscles spasm, and produced; a firm maintained contraction if
trigger points may be treated by relengthening the medium frequency is used or a brisk, brief
muscles involved through the judicious use of visible contraction if wide‐pulse stimulation
electrical stimulation. is used.
Application: Turn the machine off after 10 minutes of
stimulation.
Put the involved muscle(s) on stretch and (if
possible) place both the negative and If the medium frequency current was used,
positive electrode pads over either the encourage the patient not to move and to
muscle involved or its most active maintain the “stretched‐out” position for
antagonist. If medium frequency is used, five minutes. If the wide‐pulsed current
place the pads over the involved muscle. If was used, vibrate the “tight” muscle’s
wide‐pulsed electrical stimulation at 7 Hz is antagonist(s) for one minute (each site),
used, place the pads over the antagonist(s) and then have the patient maintain the
of the involved muscle. “stretch‐out” position for five minutes.
Preset the electrical stimulation machine to Remove the pads and any remaining
deliver either the medium frequency electrode cream or gel from the patient’s
current, in a duty cycle of 10‐seconds on 10‐ skin.
seconds off, or a wide‐pulse frequency of
five to 7 Hz. A variation of the above technique may be used
to enhance the effects of both cervical and lumbar
Turn the electrical stimulation on and set it traction, by itself or in combination with vibration
(if possible) to turn off after 10‐minutes of (refer to Vertebral Traction, Electrical Stimulation
stimulation. Enhancement, and Electrical Stimulation and
Vibration Enhancement in Combination).
Slowly turn the electrical amplitude up until
the desired level of muscle contraction is
66
TTIISSSSUUEE AAN
NDD BBOON
NEE RREEPPAAIIRR
67
BBAACCTTEERRIIAALL IIN
NFFEECCTTIIOON
N
68
OOSSTTEEOOGGEEN
NEESSIISS
69
W
WOOUUN
NDD H
HEEAALLIIN
NGG
To promote wound healing (without the presence of
Following treatment, remove the surface
infection) with electrical stimulation go through the
electrodes and cleanse the skin formerly
following steps:
under the electrodes.
70
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