Earth-Science Reviews 109 (2011) 44–60

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Earth-Science Reviews
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/earscirev

Fire effects on soil aggregation: A review

J. Mataix-Solera a, c,⁎, A. Cerdà b, c, V. Arcenegui a, c, A. Jordán c, L.M. Zavala c
a
GEA (Grupo de Edafología Ambiental). Departamento de Agroquímica y Medio Ambiente, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Avenida de la Universidad s/n, 03202-Elche, Alicante, Spain
b
SEDER (Soil Erosion and Degradation Research Group). Departamento de Geografía, Universitat de València, Avenida de Blasco Ibáñez, 28, 46010 València, Spain
c
MED_Soil Research Group. Departamento de Cristalografía, Mineralogía y Química Agrícola, Facultad de Química. Universidad de Sevilla, C/Profesor García González, 1, 41012, Sevilla, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fire can affect soil properties depending on a number of factors including fire severity and soil type. Aggre-
Received 10 May 2011 gate stability (AS) refers to soil structure resilience in response to external mechanical forces. Many authors
Accepted 18 August 2011 consider soil aggregation to be a parameter reflecting soil health, as it depends on chemical, physical and bi-
Available online 28 August 2011
ological factors. The response of AS to forest fires is complex, since it depends on how fire has affected other
related properties such as organic matter content, soil microbiology, water repellency and soil mineralogy.
Keywords:
Burnt soil
Opinions differ concerning the effect of fire on AS. Some authors have observed a decrease in AS in soils af-
Structural stability fected by intense wildfire or severe laboratory heating. However, others have reported increases. We provide
Aggregate stability an up to date review of the research on this topic and an analysis of the causes for the different effects ob-
Soil erodibility served. The implications for soil system functioning and for the hydrology of the affected areas are also dis-
Wildfire cussed. Generally, low severity fires do not produce notable changes in AS, although in some cases an
Forest fires increase has been observed and attributed to increased water repellency. In contrast, high severity fires
can induce important changes in this property, but with different effects depending on the type of soil affect-
ed. The patterns observed can vary from a disaggregation as a consequence of the organic matter destruction,
to a strong aggregation if a recrystallization of some minerals such as Fe and Al oxyhydroxides occurs when
they are present in sufficient quantities in the soil, after exposure to high temperatures. Because of the com-
plexity of the different possible effects and reasons for the potential changes in the fire-affected soil aggre-
gates, the inclusion of other parameters in the studies is necessary to understand the results. The
suggested parameters to include in the examination of AS are: soil organic matter, microbial biomass,
water repellency, texture, aggregate size distribution, together with accurate ways of estimating fire severity.
More research is needed on what implications there are for soil system functioning with the changes suffered
by aggregates after fire. Studies including measurements at very different scales: from AS measurements in
the laboratory to erosion rates measured at pedon, slope and catchment scales are also necessary.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction to fire effects on soil properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

2. Soil structure. Importance and functions in the soil system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3. Aggregate stability measurement: alternative methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4. Aggregate stability in burnt soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5. Factors affecting aggregate stability in burnt soils and principal patterns observed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.1. Fire intensity and severity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.2. Initial soil characteristics and potential changes relating to fire severity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.1. Soil microbiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.2. Soil organic matter (SOM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2.3. Soil water repellency (WR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.2.4. Mineral changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3. Aggregate stability effects resulting from a combination of factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6. Impacts at different scales: from soil system functioning to geomorphological implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

⁎ Corresponding author at: GEA (Grupo de Edafología Ambiental). Departamento de Agroquímica y Medio Ambiente, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Avenida de la Universidad s/n,
03202-Elche, Alicante, Spain. Tel.: +34 966658334; fax: +34 966658340.
E-mail address: jorge.mataix@umh.es (J. Mataix-Solera).

0012-8252/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.08.002
 J. Mataix-Solera et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 109 (2011) 44–60 45

7. Conclusions and future research directions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

1. Introduction to fire effects on soil properties
Wildfire has been a natural disturbance factor in most forest ecosys-
tems since late Devonian times (Schmidt and Noack, 2000). Although in
many ecosystems it is a natural and ecological factor, the human influ-
ence on fire frequency and in the modification of vegetation patterns
has led to an environmental problem in some locations during the last
five decades (Cerdà and Mataix-Solera, 2009). Wildfire is an important
disturbance factor in many ecosystems. For example, approximately
10 Million hectares (M.ha) are annually affected by fires in boreal for-
ests, 5 M.ha in North America forests, 25 M.ha in tropical forest, 3 M.
ha in Asia, and around 50,000 wildfires affected annually c. 0.6 M.ha
of forest in Europe, being mainly the Mediterranean Basin the most af-
fected (FAO, 2001). As example, in 1994, in Spain alone 433,000 ha
were affected by wildfires.
Fire can produce physical, chemical and biological alterations in
soil properties (Neary et al., 1999; Mataix-Solera and Guerrero,
2007; Úbeda and Outeiro, 2009). Numerous findings on the effects
of fire on soil properties can be found in the literature. The magnitude
and duration of these changes depend on several factors. One of these
factors is fire severity, which is also dependent of fire intensity. Fire
intensity is defined as a measure of the time-averaged energy flux.
The term ‘fire severity’ describes how fire intensity affects ecosystems
(Keeley, 2009), being in the case of soil related to the peak tempera-
tures reached, the duration of fire, and initial soil properties (soil
type). Low intensity fires such as prescribed fires are commonly also
of low severity because they are used only to reduce fuel accumula-
tion and are applied during specific meteorological conditions to
avoid high severity. The changes to the soil produced by this type of
fire are in most cases only transient. However, severe fires, such as
summer wildfires, generally have several negative effects on soil
(Certini, 2005). The most typical effects of high severity fires are: 1)
loss of organic matter and nutrients through volatilisation, ash en-
trapment in smoke columns, leaching and erosion; 2) alterations
both quantitative and qualitative of microbial communities; and 3)
deterioration of soil structure by affecting aggregate stability
(Mataix-Solera and Cerdà, 2009). The increase in temperature may
cause changes in the properties of clay, but mainly leads to an alter-
ation in biological activity. Owing to the low thermal conductivity of
mineral soils, their depth affected by fire is limited to the top few cen-
timeters or how this layer is in closest interaction with the atmo-
sphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. The status of the soil surface is
crucial for hydrological and biogeochemical cycles in the post-fire pe-
riod (Fig. 1). Reduction in the vegetation cover will lead to changes in
soil thermal regime, and in general higher soil and water losses.
Some authors have reviewed the effects of fire on different aspects
of soils, e.g. Raison (1979) with a particular focus on nitrogen trans-
formations and DeBano (1981, 2000) and Doerr et al. (2000) dedicat-
ing some sections of their reviews to the effect of fire on soil water
repellency. Neary et al. (1999), and more recently Certini (2005),
have given general reviews of the effects on physical, chemical and
biological soil properties. Mataix-Solera et al. (2009) reviewed forest
fire effects on soil microbiology and Shakesby and Doerr (2006)
reviewed the hydrological and geomorphological effects of fire. Re-
cently, Cerdà and Mataix-Solera (2009) edited a book in which Span-
ish scientists working on this topic reviewed the effects of fire on soil
properties, and Shakesby (2011) reviewed fire effects on soil erosion
in southern European Mediterranean countries. To date, no specific
review of fire effects on soil aggregation has been made. Considering
that this parameter is of key importance for soil system functioning,

Fig. 1. Soil surface after a high severity wildfire in Pinoso, Alicante, SE Spain (Photo by J. Mataix-Solera, 2003). The high degree of the combustion in a high severity fire produces the elim-
ination of vegetal cover, litter and organic horizons. The exposition of the mineral leads AS as a key factor controlling topsoil hydrology, crust development and erodibility.
46 J. Mataix-Solera et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 109 (2011) 44–60
forest soil hydrology, and the diversity of effects found in the litera-
ture, we have attempted to compile results from the most relevant
studies, synthesizing and interpreting the main points that emerge.
2. Soil structure. Importance and functions in the soil system
Soil aggregation can be defined as any stable association of indi-
vidual particles of the same or different nature, as a result of granulo-
metric composition, soil biology and soil physic-chemical properties.
Soil aggregates are the result of the organization of soil mineral and
organic particles. The relationship between AS and soil properties
has been widely studied (e.g. Tisdall and Oades, 1982; Rengasamy
et al., 1984). The phenomenon of flocculation of colloids gives rise
to the co-precipitation of colloidal particles, forming more or less sta-
ble small aggregates (initially microaggregates, b250 μm), which
then evolve into larger aggregates (macroaggregates, N250 μm), and
define the structure of the soil. In the formation of small fabric units
(cluster and domains), the inorganic bonds are the most important,
while in aggregate stabilization the organic ones play a more relevant
role (humic cements).
As indicated above, both the inorganic and organic soil compo-
nents influence aggregate formation and stabilization. Clay content
and mineralogy, through the forces of attraction and cohesion be-
tween them (Singer, 1994), microorganisms, joining the particles by
adsorption mechanisms, secreting slime and wrapping product parti-
cles, and indirectly through their role in organic matter dynamics, are
all factors that influence the aggregation (Harris et al., 1964; Insam
and Domsch, 1988). The quantity and quality of organic matter are
key factors that control particle aggregation (Oades, 1993) and this
is why plant types influence the aggregate stability and properties
(Cerdà, 1998). The clay–humic complex is more stable and thus
more humic acids are polymerized. In a biologically active and rich
in bases medium, polymerization leads to large molecules, insoluble
complexes forming stable aggregates with large pores between
them, which is typical of a mull humus type, characteristic of mollic
horizons.
Flocculation induced by certain cations plays an important role in
soil structure. Calcium, iron and aluminum favor the formation of stable
aggregates (Porta et al., 2003), particulary divalent cations related to
clay while, for example, the sodium ion favors the dispersion of them.
In calcareous soils, calcium carbonate acts as a stabilizing agent. Iron ox-
ides act as cementing films between the surfaces of clays and also as
charged discrete particles in the case of many highly weathered, acid
soils. The links are established by the precipitation of these minerals be-
tween the particles. The union with the functional groups of organic
matter may be due to hydrogen bonding and electrostatic forces. In
the formation of macroaggregates, biological agents are also involved,
in the form of plant roots or microorganisms, especially fungi, where
the mycelium acts positively in the aggregation and stabilization of
macro-aggregates for a wide variety of soils (Tisdall and Oades, 1982;
Roldán et al., 1994), and in general, soil organic components, such as
carbohydrates due to their behavior as cementing agents (Benito and
Díaz-Fierros, 1992; Lax and Garcia-Orenes, 1993).
Aggregate stability refers to soil resistance in maintaining its own
structure when it is subjected to external forces, particulary those
resulting from moisture, impact of raindrops, or a particular disper-
sive process. Therefore, this property can be used as an indicator of
the state of the soil structure and physical stability. In fact, it has
been used as a parameter indicative of soil system perturbation, and
potential erodibility since the 1940s (Imeson, 1984).
Soil aggregation can vary with the season or year. Aggregates can
form, disintegrate and re-aggregate regularly (Hillel, 1998). The de-
struction of aggregates is the first step towards the development of
soil crusting and surface sealing, which reduces water infiltration
and increases soil erodibility. Soil sealing can occur as a result of ag-
gregate breakdown due to the impact of raindrops, the splash and
the resulting soil surface compaction, if soil has a poor structure and
low AS (Epstein and Grant, 1973; Poesen and Savat, 1981; Hoogmoed
and Stroosnijder, 1984). In addition, small aggregates can be trans-
ported, even without being dispersed by water (Bryan, 1968). The
percentage of stable aggregates and their size distribution are the
most commonly used parameters indicative of the stability of the
soil structure and level of resistance to external factors (Jaiyeoba
and Ologe, 1990).
It is evident that biotic and abiotic factors are involved in soil ag-
gregation processes. They illustrate the complexity of the study of
soil structure, but also make both of them key parameters that deter-
mine the quality and functions of soil. Soil aggregation can therefore
be considered a parameter that provides information on soil health
(Mataix-Solera et al., 2010). Moreover, AS is one of the main factors
controlling topsoil hydrology, crust development and erodibility (De
Ploey and Poesen, 1985). A general review of soil AS that focuses par-
ticulary on methodologies can be consulted in Amezketa (1999).
3. Aggregate stability measurement: alternative methods
Researchers using different methods to measure soil aggregation is
one of the problems when comparing results. Some researchers apply
different tests and methods for comparison (Cerdà et al., 1995). Some
methods are focused on studying the aggregate size distribution, and
others on the stability against external forces. A complete description
and discussion about methodologies for studying AS in fire-affected
soils can be consulted in Mataix-Solera et al. (2010). Here we summa-
rize and describe the most common methods.
Among others, the most used are: dry sieving (Chepil, 1962; Kemper
and Rosenau, 1986), wet sieving (Yoder, 1936; Van Bavel, 1952; Low,
1954; Kemper and Rosenau, 1986; Amezketa et al., 1996; Le Bissonnais,
1996), tests based on drop impacts (McCalla, 1944; Low, 1954; Farres,
1980; Bergsma and Valenzuela, 1981; Imeson and Vis, 1984), tests
based on ultrasonic dispersion (North, 1979; Imeson and Vis, 1984;
Holz et al., 2000), and also, rainfall simulation experiments (Benito et
al., 1986; Loch and Foley, 1994; Ternan et al., 1994; Roldán et al.,
1996; Martínez-Mena et al., 1998).
In the distribution of aggregate sizes by dry sieving, the most com-
mon expression of results is the Mean Weight Diameter (MWD, Kemper
and Rosenau, 1986). However some authors use other ways to show the
results such as the weight distribution of the different fractions or the
loss in some fraction as consequence of the breakdown (Soto et al.,
1991).
As regards AS methods using water as the disaggregating agent,
there are different types. One group involves measuring the number
of aggregates that remain intact after the soil sample is subjected to
the action of mechanical forces by wet sieving (Yoder, 1936; Kemper
and Koch, 1966; Le Bissonnais, 1996; Le Bissonnais and Gaillard,
1997). Other methods are based on the use of repeated standard
drop impacts on individual soil aggregates; In this category are the
‘counting the number of drop-impacts’ test (CND; Low, 1954), and
the ‘ten drop impact’ test (TDI; Imeson and Vis, 1984). The first is
based on the number of drops required for the destruction of individ-
ual aggregates. The second one quantifies the loss of weight of each
aggregate after the impact of ten drops of water.
Some researchers have developed small rainfall simulators for lab-
oratory measurements of AS (Benito et al., 1986; Roldán et al., 1994).
These methods are based on quantifying the proportion of aggregates
that remain after the application of a rainfall of known kinetic energy.
Another group of methods for determining AS to water includes
those that measure the dispersion of clay in water, among which is
the popular water coherence test of Emerson (1967). This test clas-
sifies soil AS into eight classes based on the fractioning, swelling
and dispersion of soil aggregates when immersed in water. In order
to avoid rapid collapse of aggregates after short-term immersion,
Goebel et al. (2005) proposed the use of different water–ethanol
 J. Mataix-Solera et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 109 (2011) 44–60 47

Table 1
Summary of results of aggregation from different studies including laboratory controlled experiments, prescribed and experimental field fires, and wildfires.

Author(s) Location Soil typea/soil properties Type of fire Fire severity and/ Time after Aggregate Size of AS: burnt
or burningb or T (°C), time burningd stability (AS) aggregates vs unburntg
datac method(s)e burnt vs +−=
unburntf
+−=

Are et al., 2009 W Nigeria Typic Kanhaplustalf1 PF Low-medium 15 d WS1 − =

Arcenegui et al., 2008 SE Spain Xerorthents and WF Medium-high 7d RS1 n.d. +
Haploxerepts1
Arcenegui et al., 2008 SE Spain Haploxerolls and WF Low 7d RS1 n.d. =
Rhodoxeralfs1
Badía and Martí, 2003 NE Spain Xeric Torriorthent1 and LB 250–500 °C 0d WS1 n.d. −
Calcaric Regosol2
Badía and Martí, 2003 NE Spain Xeric Haplogypsid1 and LB 250–500 °C 0d WS1 n.d. −
Haplic Gypsisol2
Boix Fayos, 1997 SE Spain Lithic Leptosol2 WF Low- High 2-3y CND, US = +
Bowker et al., 2004 Oregon, USA Non-calcareous, loam WF Medium 11 m WI n.d. −
Campo et al., 2008b SE Spain Rendzic Leptosol2 EF High 0–360 d WS1 − −
Campo et al., 2008b SE Spain Rendzic Leptosol2 EF Medium 0–360 d WS1 − =
Cerdà, 1993 SE Spain Xeralfs1 WF n.d. 2y CND, TDI n.d. -
Fox et al., 2007 Orleans, France Planosol2 LB ≥ 150 °C 0d WS3 n.d. +
García-Corona et al., 2004 NW Spain Regosols and Umbrisols2 LB 170–220 °C 0d CND = +
30 min
García-Corona et al., 2004 NW Spain Regosols and Umbrisols2 LB 380–460 °C 0d CND − −
30 min
García-Oliva et al., 1999 Jalisco, Mexico Orthent1 PF 500 °C surface 1d WS1 n.d. =
García-Oliva et al., 1999 Jalisco, Mexico Orthent1 PF 500 °C surface 7m WS1 n.d. −
Giovannini and Lucchesi, 1983 Sardinia, Italy Lithic Xerochrept1 EF n.d. 7d WS1 (WSI) n.d. −
Giovannini and Lucchesi, 1997 Pisa, Italy Lithic Xerochrept1 EF 89–558 °C 7d WS1 (WSI) + +
Giovannini et al., 1987 Sardinia, Italy Lithic Xerochrept1 EF n.d. 2-3y WS1 (WSI) n.d. =
Guerrero et al., 2001 SE Spain Calcic Rhodoxeralf1 LB 200–600 °C 0d RS1 n.d. +
Ibáñez et al., 1983 Madrid (Spain) Sandy loam WF n.d 335 d WS2 n.d. +
Jordán et al., 2011 Mexico Andosol2 WF High 7–15 d CND n.d. −
Jordán et al., 2011 Mexico Andosol2 WF Low 7–15 d CND n.d. =
Josa et al., 1994 NE Spain Typic Xerochrept1 EF 300 °C 8–371 d WS2, CND = +
Josa et al., 1994 NE Spain Typic Xerochrept1 LB 50–300 °C 0d WS2, CND − =
30 min
Kavdir et al., 2005 Turkey Orthents1 WF n.d. 15 d WS1 n.d. =
Kavdir et al., 2005 Turkey Orthents1 WF n.d. 2-8y WS1 n.d. −
Kavdir et al., 2005 Turkey Orthents1 WF n.d. 12y WS1 n.d. =
Llovet et al., 2008 SE Spain Calcaric Cambisol2 LB Low-high 0d RS1 n.d. =
Llovet et al., 2009 SE Spain Calcaric Cambisol2 WF High 30 d RS1 - +
Marcos et al., 2007 NW Spain Humic Cambisol2 LB 100–200 °C 0d WS1 (WSI) n.d. =
5–60 min
Marcos et al., 2007 NW Spain Humic Cambisol2 LB 200–500 °C 0d WS1 (WSI) n.d. −
Mataix-Solera and Doerr, 2004 SE Spain Xerorthent1 WF Low-high 1-3y RS1 n.d. +
Mataix-Solera, 1999 SE Spain Typic Calcixeroll1 EF Medium 1–330 d RS1 n.d. =
Mataix-Solera et al., 2002a SE Spain Typic Xerorthent1 WF (crown) Low 180–540 d RS1 = +
Mataix-Solera et al., 2002a SE Spain Typic Calcixeroll1 WF (crown) Low 180–540 d RS1 = =
Mataix-Solera et al., 2002a SE Spain Typic Calcixeroll1 WF (surface) High 180–540 d RS1 − =
Mataix-Solera et al., 2008a, 2008b SE Spain Lithic Xerorthent1 WF High 15 m RS1 n.d. =
Mataix-Solera et al., 2008a, 2008b SE Spain Lithic Xerorthent1 WF High 19y RS1 n.d. −
O'Dea, 2007 Arizona (USA) Ustic Haplargid1 PF Low 4m WS1 n.d. =
O'Dea, 2007 Arizona (USA) Ustic Haplargid1 PF Low 16 m WS1 n.d. −
Providoli et al., 2002 S Switzerland Typic Haplumbrept1 WF (surface) High 180 d WS1 − =
Soto et al., 1991 NW Spain Humic Cambisols2 LB 170 °C 0d RS2 = +
Soto et al., 1991 NW Spain Humic Cambisols2 LB 380–700 °C 0d RS2 − −
Terefe et al., 2008 Spain Rhodoxeralfs, Palexeralfs, LB 100–200 °C 1 h 0d WS1 n.d. +
Calcixerepts and
Palehumults1
Terefe et al., 2008 Spain Rhodoxeralfs, Palexeralfs, LB 300–500 °C 1 h 0d WS1 n.d. −
Calcixerepts and
Palehumults1
Ternan and Neller, 1999 Hong Kong, Acrisols2 WF Low-high 4-9y RS3 n.d. =
China
1
Úbeda and Bernia, 2005 NE Spain Lithic Xerochrept WF Low-High 0d CND, TDI n.d. +
Úbeda and Bernia, 2005 NE Spain Lithic Xerochrept1 WF Low-High 240 d CND, TDI n.d. −
Úbeda and Bernia, 2005 NE Spain Lithic Xerochrept1 WF Low-High 976 d CND, TDI n.d. +
Úbeda, 1999 NE Spain Lithic Xerochrept1 LB 200–800 °C 0d CND, TDI n.d. +
Úbeda et al., 1990 NE Spain n.d. EF 300 °C 0d CND, TDI, US, n.d. −
Emerson
Valzano et al., 1997 SE Australia Xeralf1 PF Low 2d WS1 n.d. =
Varela et al., 2010 NW Spain Different types WF (28 sites) n.d. b30 d CND 18(−) 7(+) 11(−) 11(+)
3(=) 6(=)
Virto et al., 2007 Navarre, NE Calcic Haploxerept1 PF Low WS3 = =
Spain

(continued on next page)

48 J. Mataix-Solera et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 109 (2011) 44–60

Table 1 (continued)
Author(s) Location Soil typea/soil properties Type of fire Fire severity and/ Time after Aggregate Size of AS: burnt
or burningb or T (°C), time burningd stability (AS) aggregates vs unburntg
datac method(s)e burnt vs +−=
unburntf
+−=

6 m (burnt
once per
year)
Zavala et al., 2010 SW Spain, SE Regosols and Leptosols2 LB 100–150 °C 0d CND n.d. =
Australia and 45 min
central Mexico
Zavala et al., 2010 SW Spain, SE Regosols and Leptosols2 LB 250-450 °C 0d CND n.d. −
Australia and
central Mexico
e
n.d.: no data available.
a
(1) USDA Classification (Soil Survey Staff, 2006), and different versions of Keys to Soil Taxonomy 1976–2006, (2) WRB Classification (FAO, 2006).
b
WF: Wildfire, LB: Laboratory burning, EF: Experimental fire (field), PF: Prescribed fire (low intensity).
c
An arbitrary classification of fire severity interpreted from author's own descriptions.
d
Time between burning and measurements/monitoring. In the cases that indicate intervals it means a monitoring period. d: days, m: months, y: years.
e
RS1: Rainfall simulator method 1 (Roldán et al., 1994), RS2: Rainfall simulator method 2 (Soto et al., 1991), RS3: Rainfall simulator method 3 (Ternan et al., 1996), CND: Count-
ing Number of Drops test (Low, 1954), TDI: Ten Drop Impact test, WS1: Wet Sieving 1 (Kemper and Rosenau, 1986), WS2: Wet Sieving 2 (Hénin and Feodoroff, 1958), WS3: Wet
Sieving 3 (Le Bissonnais, 1996), WSI: Water Stability Index (Giovannini and Sequi, 1976a, 1976b). US: Ultrasounds, WI: Water Immersion (Herrick et al., 2001).

solutions to reduce the surface tension of liquid. In this case, the per-
centage of intact aggregates after 30 min, and the surface tension (or
ethanol concentration) at which 100% of aggregates are disrupted
after 30 min are used as classes of AS. Cerdà (2000) modified the Em-
erson test by changing the measurement times to adapt it to the soil
aggregate dispersion properties of the soils in Southern Bolivia.
Among the methods that use ultrasound for the dispersion of ag-
gregates are those described by Edwards and Bremner (1967) and
Holz et al. (2000). The procedure used in these methods is basically
the immersion of aggregates in water and the application of energy
controlled by an ultrasound source, quantifying the aggregates that
resist the treatment. Power output and time of exposure to ultrasonic
disruption may be in the range 30–45 W during 20 s (Imeson and Vis,
1984) and 30–115 W during 5–10 s (Cerdà, 1996; Jordán et al., 2010).
One of the main problems with determining this soil parameter is
the fact that results obtained with different methodologies are not
comparable, since each method uses different energies and/or
sources to apply the energy (ultrasound, water immersion and siev-
ing, water drop impacts). Some authors have made comparisons
and have found good correlations (Martí et al., 2001; Varela, 2007),
but this is a soil parameter that is strongly related to the energy ap-
plied. In any case, in this review we have not compared the values be-
tween studies, but the trends found in every study.
4. Aggregate stability in burnt soils
The effects of fire on soil aggregation has been studied by different
researchers for soils affected by wildfires (e.g. Cerdà, 1993; Cerdà et
al., 1995; Andreu et al., 2001; Mataix-Solera et al., 2002a; Mataix-Solera
and Doerr, 2004; Varela, 2007; Arcenegui et al., 2008; Llovet et al., 2009;
Jordán et al., 2011), by experimental and prescribed fires in field (Josa et
al., 1994; García-Oliva et al., 1999; Mataix-Solera, 1999; Campo et al.,
2008a, b), and with respect to burning soils in muffle furnaces
(Guerrero et al., 2001; García-Corona et al., 2004; Marcos et al., 2007;
Zavala et al., 2010) or using blowtorches (Llovet et al., 2008).
In the literature, there are discrepancies about the effect of fire on
AS. For example, Sanroque et al. (1985), Giovannini et al. (1987) and
Úbeda et al. (1990), observed a decrease in AS of soils affected by in-
tense wildfire or severe laboratory heating. On the other hand, Giovan-
nini and Sequi (1976a, b), Ibáñez et al. (1983) and Díaz-Fierros et al.
(1987) reported increases. This contrast in soil aggregate response to
heating can be observed in Table 1, where some relevant data and re-
sults from publications to date are summarized. It is evident that results
from some studies show no significant differences in AS between burnt
and unburnt soils, while others show increased or decreased AS after
fire. Reviewing in more detail some of these studies we can begin to un-
derstand the reasons for the different patterns observed. Here we de-
scribe some of the results and in the next section we discuss in more
depth the factors affecting the observed response of soil aggregation
to fire.
Soto et al. (1991) studied the effects of heating temperature on ag-
gregation using six soils from NW Spain under laboratory conditions.
They used differential thermal analyses (DTA) to determine the ther-
mal events involved in the soil changes. These analyses showed a
weak endothermic process between 170 and 220 °C that is generally
attributed to gel dehydration; two well defined exothermic processes
between 220 and 460 °C that are due mainly to the combustion of or-
ganic matter; and an endothermic process between 460 and 700 °C
due to the loss of hydroxyl groups from clay minerals. The soils
used in those experiments—Humic Cambisols developed over differ-
ent parent materials (Gabro, Amphibiolite, Schist, Granite or sand de-
posits)—had organic matter as the main binding agent (Benito and
Díaz-Fierros, 1989). Soto et al. (1991) found an increase in AS in
those soils heated to less than 170 °C, but destruction of aggregates
and a decrease in AS in the soils heated to higher temperatures as a
result of soil organic matter (SOM) combustion. Josa et al. (1994),
using also a soil from NW Spain under laboratory heating, found a de-
crease in aggregate size distribution and AS when the temperature
reached 200 °C.
Cerdà (1993) studied AS in soils burnt by a wildfire that occurred
in Pedralba (Valencia, E Spain) in 1990, using the CND and TDI drop
impact tests. They observed that fire produced some weakening of
soil structure. Úbeda et al. (1990) also used the same tests (CND
and TDI) in soils burnt by a prescribed fire (PF) in Catalonia (NE
Spain) and their results also showed a decrease in stability after the
fire.
Mataix-Solera et al. (2002a) studied different areas affected by a
wildfire that occurred in 1994 in Alcoy (Alicante, SE Spain), but
with different intensity and severity, and observed destruction of
macro- to micro-aggregates in the soils affected by highest severity.
This finding was showed by scanning electron microscopy observa-
tions of the b0.250 mm aggregate fraction, together with the study
of the aggregate size distribution determined by dry sieving. In this
case, the high fire severity produced a decrease in soil organic matter
content resulting in destruction of the aggregates. However, compar-
ing the stability of macroaggregates using a rainfall simulation meth-
od (Roldán et al., 1994), no statistically significant differences were
observed between burnt and control soils.
 J. Mataix-Solera et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 109 (2011) 44–60
In a comparative study on burnt pine forest soils in the province of
Valencia (E Spain), Andreu et al. (2001) observed that high severity
fire mainly affected aggregates with a diameter greater than 2 mm.
The degradation effect of high temperatures on aggregation was
also reflected in a clear reduction in the macro- and increase in the
microaggregates, particularly in the b1 mm fraction. These results
were more evident on south-facing slopes, where it was accompanied
by an increase in CaCO3 content. These authors found that the season-
al evolution of the aggregates showed net destruction, leading to de-
creased aggregate size with time. After the fire, there was an increase
in aggregation in winter and early spring, but a decrease in summer
and autumn after high intensity rainfalls, typical of Mediterranean cli-
mate. The changes were clearer in the 16 and 32 μm aggregate frac-
tion, with a recovery in north-facing slopes during the late winter,
but no clear improvement in the microstructure of soils on south-fac-
ing slopes. In the latter, the increasing proportion of microaggregates
smaller than 16 μm reflected a progressive degradation in soil struc-
ture. Similar effects were reported by García-Oliva et al. (1999) in
soils subjected to prescribed fires in Mexico. Aggregate size distribu-
tion was not affected during burning but the proportion of large mac-
roaggregates (N2000 μm) decreased significantly during the first few
months after fire (winter season). They argued that fire reduced the
soil C pools associated with macroaggregates and therefore the dis-
ruption of stabilization-mechanisms.
Campo et al. (2008a), conducting studies using experimental fires
(EF) in closed erosion plots, analyzed the effect of medium-high in-
tensity fire on soil AS. Furthermore, they studied both the effect of
vegetation cover and the incidence of fire on various cementing
agents such as organic matter, and CaCO3 (Campo et al., 2008b).
Their results showed that before burning, soils under a vegetation
cover had higher levels of SOM, AS, greater size of aggregates
(N0.5 mm) and lower content of CaCO3 than bare soils. Immediately
after the fire, few changes were observed in these characteristics in
all cases. During the first month after the fire, some changes were ob-
served. The vegetated sites burnt with high intensity showed the
highest values of AS, while no differences were detected in burnt
bare sites. In the medium term, the high susceptibility of soils to ero-
sion induced a decrease in SOM, AS, and aggregate size. The authors
found that SOM was mainly related to the presence of aggregates
N0.5 mm in size. In the burnt soils, SOM was the principal factor con-
trolling AS in the aggregates N1 mm in size, with CaCO3 not playing a
relevant role. Sites burnt with high-intensity fire were most affected
in the medium-term with an increase in the aggregates smaller than
0.1–0.05 mm. One year after fire a similar trend of decreasing AS,
SOM, and aggregate size was observed in all plots but especially in
the sites burnt at high intensity.
Badía and Martí (2003), studying the effect of fire on the soils of
the Middle Ebro Valley (E Spain) through controlled burns in the lab-
oratory (LB), found that AS of soils rich in gypsum (Gypsisols) togeth-
er with calcareous soils (Calcaric Regosols), measured by the wet
sieving method (Kemper and Rosenau, 1986) decreased at tempera-
tures of 250 °C, compared to the—unburnt—control samples. Howev-
er, this reduction was much higher when soil temperatures reached
500 °C, at which point organic matter was almost entirely consumed
and clay content decreased significantly. Similar results were found
by Marcos et al. (2007) after heating soil samples (0–5 cm deep)
from a Humic Cambisol under laboratory conditions and by Zavala
et al. (2010), who studied soils from different sites in the world
(Spain, Mexico and Australia) and did not detect changes at low tem-
peratures (100–150 °C) after heating under controlled laboratory ex-
periments. Instead, they observed a decrease in AS when
temperatures increased (250–450 °C).
Under laboratory conditions, García-Corona et al. (2004) analyzed
two forest soils from NW Spain differing mainly in texture to study
the effects of heating treatments on some soil physical properties in-
cluding AS. Their results revealed that heating the soils at 170–220 °C
49
did not cause significant changes in aggregate size distribution but in-
creased AS. Higher temperatures (380–460 °C), however, produced a
decrease in AS and a destruction of larger aggregates measured as
mean weight diameter (MWD).
Llovet (2005) studied the characteristics of the topsoil (0–1 cm
depth) after a forest fire in the Sierra of Mariola, Alicante, SE Spain,
with respect to lithology and slope aspect. He used a rainfall simula-
tion method (Roldán et al., 1994) and observed significantly higher
AS in soils developed from dolomite than from marls, and in soils
on north-facing slopes, with no interaction between both factors
(soil type and slope aspect). He also found that AS was not related
to the infiltration capacity of the soil immeditely after the fire, but it
was following the first post-fire rains.
In another experiment, using the same method, Llovet et al.
(2009) evaluated the combined effect of the length of crop abandon-
ment and fire in the “Sierra de La Xortà” (Alicante, SE Spain). The two
factors studied, time since abandonment of farming and fire,
explained the variance found in AS. The percentage of stable aggre-
gates was significantly lower in recently abandoned agricultural ter-
races compared with those abandoned decades ago, while the fire
caused a significant increase in AS, regardless of time of abandon-
ment. Conversely, when this method was applied to aggregates of
1–4 mm size from soil samples burnt under laboratory conditions,
the authors did not find significant changes in AS (Llovet et al., 2008).
Varela et al. (2010) studied soil samples collected from 28 sites in
Galicia, NW Spain, recently affected by wildfires. They studied AS
with the counting number of drops (CND) method (Low, 1954), and
the aggregate size distribution by using the MWD method (Kemper
and Rosenau, 1986). In the case of aggregate size distribution, a
clear reduction was observed at most study sites. However, AS did
not show the same clear tendency. In this case, AS was significantly
higher in eleven of the 28 cases, lower in another eleven and no sta-
tistically different in the six remaining. The decrease observed in
MWD for most cases and the decrease of AS at some of the sites
was attributed by the authors to the combustion of SOM as a conse-
quence of high severity fires. This destruction of organic matter ac-
cords with the view that it is the principal binding agent in soils of
NW Spain and its loss favors a strong disaggregation and a reduction
in AS.
In a study of wildfires in Oregon (USA), Bowker et al. (2004)
reported a decrease in AS in burnt soils, and they attributed to a de-
crease in mosses and lichens. Kavdir et al. (2005) also found lower
values of AS in some of their study areas in Turkey, namely those
burnt 2 and 8 years before sampling. O'Dea (2007) observed a de-
crease in aggregate stability and fungi, two years after a prescribed
fire and this relationship seemed to have implications in higher soil
losses. After a wildfire in Nigeria, Are et al. (2009) also observed a de-
crease in MWD and AS.
While most of the studies have found a loss of structural stability
due to fire, there are others that have found the opposite pattern.
For instance, Boix Fayos (1997) reported an increment of AS in soils
affected by fire in SE Spain. Giovannini and Lucchesi (1997), in an ex-
perimental fire on soils from Italy, observed that AS remained unal-
tered up to c. 400 °C which confirmed the relevant role of iron in
the cementation process in those types of soils. Guerrero et al.
(2001), carrying out a controlled laboratory burning (LB) with forest
soils from the province of Alicante (SE Spain), found that AS increased
with exposed temperature. Arcenegui et al. (2008), studied the stabil-
ity of aggregates in samples of 10 wildfires in the province of Alicante
(E Spain) with the same method, compared with adjacent unburnt
soil samples (controls), and also noted that AS was higher for the
burnt soils in most cases. Similarly, Úbeda and Bernia (2005) found
a higher AS in soil samples collected after a wildfire in Catalonia
(NE Spain). Terefe et al. (2008), heating different types of soils
under laboratory controlled conditions, found a slight increase, al-
though not significant, when heated between 25 and 200 °C.
50 J. Mataix-Solera et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 109 (2011) 44–60
However, they observed a clear decreasing trend when soils were
heated at temperatures above 300 °C with the only exception being
soil samples from Bt horizons from Palexeralfs and Rhodoxeralfs
and Ap horizons from Calcixererts, when contain large amounts of
clay and low organic matter content. In these cases the increase in
AS continued with temperatures up to 500 °C. Through laboratory
heatings, Fox et al. (2007) also found an increase in AS after heating
the soil despite the loss of SOM as a consequence of the combustion
process.
Certain studies have detected no changes in some of their study
areas as a direct consequence of fire (Josa et al., 1994; Valzano et al.,
1997; García-Oliva et al., 1999; Mataix-Solera, 1999; Mataix-Solera
et al., 2002a; Llovet et al., 2008; Are et al., 2009; Jordán et al., 2011),
although some of them found a decrease in the size of aggregates
(Josa et al., 1994; Mataix-Solera et al., 2002a; Providoli et al., 2002;
Campo et al., 2008a, 2008b; Are et al., 2009).
Reviewing the results (Table 1), there is not a clear pattern in
changed AS in the medium- and long-term after fire. Some studies
showed similar values for burnt and unburnt soils, for example after
3 years Giovannini et al. (1987), or just 15 months Mataix-Solera et
al. (2008a) after fire. Other studies found higher values in burnt
soils: Boix Fayos (1997) or Mataix-Solera and Doerr (2004), 3 years
after the fire, and others found lower values in burnt soils: 11 months
Bowker et al. (2004), 12 years Kavdir et al. (2005), or 19 years
Mataix-Solera et al. (2008a) after fire.
5. Factors affecting aggregate stability in burnt soils and principal
patterns observed
The results from different investigations are in many cases appar-
ently contradictory, and require specific analysis of the many factors
involved to reach an appropriate interpretation. In most cases, find-
ings show that fire leads to fragmentation of aggregates and loss of
stability, though in some cases no significant changes have been
detected, and in a few cases higher AS has been observed in the
burnt soils. Depending on fire severity and the nature of the soil,
changes either way will be fairly clear. A summary diagram on factors
affecting the changes of aggregate stability immediately after fire and
in a short-term is shown in Fig. 2. Decreased aggregation is usually at-
tributed to the degradation of organic matter as a result of combus-
tion, if the fire has been of high severity. However, fires are not
always particularly severe and we must also take into account that
in some soils there are cementing agents other than organic material,
which play an important role in the physical resistance of aggregates
to rupture. Sometimes fire activity does not lead to significant
changes in soil properties and a loss of stability of aggregates is not
detected (for example, an area where fire spreads through the
crown of the trees). In this case, there will be no significant direct
changes to the soil caused by the fire. On the other hand, there are
Fig. 2. Summary diagram on factors affecting the changes of aggregate stability immediately after fire and in the short-term.
cases in which heat changes can lead to increased AS, for example if
temperatures are sufficient to produce thermal fusion of particles
and recrystallization of minerals in the clay fraction (Giovannini and
Lucchesi, 1997) leading to the formation of more resistant aggregates.
In many cases when the soil is heated at low temperatures, increased
AS has been observed and many authors attribute it to the condensa-
tion of hydrophobic substances onto aggregates (Fox et al., 2007; Ter-
efe et al., 2008). Positive correlations have been found between both
parameters by different authors (Varela, 2007; Arcenegui et al.,
2008), and in soils with different characteristics (García-Corona et
al., 2004; Mataix-Solera and Doerr, 2004).
In the following sub-sections we review the principal factors af-
fecting the different patterns observed and the relationships with AS.
5.1. Fire intensity and severity
Fire intensity describes the physical combustion process and ener-
gy released by organic matter during the burning process, and is de-
fined as a measure of the time-averaged energy flux. The term ‘fire
severity’ was born out of the need to provide a description of how
fire intensity affects ecosystems, and many authors have proposed
definitions and indicators of fire severity (see the review of Keeley,
2009 with regard to this terminology). Any quantification of fire se-
verity needs to consider the immediate impacts of aboveground and
belowground heat pulses. Although the two concepts are usually di-
rectly related, the extent to which fire intensity can be translated
into fire severity depends on many factors.
Fire severity depends on factors relating to fire behavior (e.g. rate
of spread, flame length, intensity duration). Also included are such
factors as weather conditions: temperature, relative humidity, wind,
and antecedent rainfall, topography, as well as fuel characteristics
such as amount, size and moisture of live and dead fuel and their
structural and chemical composition (Ahlgren and Ahlgren, 1960;
Raison, 1979; Chandler et al., 1983; Pritchett and Fisher, 1987). The
spatial variations of these factors imply a heterogeneous spatial dis-
tribution of fire behavior and thus of fire severity. Burnt soils often
appear as chaotic mosaics with areas little affected by the fire in
close proximity to others seriously impacted (Rab, 1996).
Fast-moving fires with fine fuels may be intense in terms of energy
release per unit area, but the transfer of heat to the forest floor and
mineral soil is much lower than with slow-moving fires with moder-
ate to heavy fuels (Neary et al., 1999). The quantity and duration of
the heat transfer to soil determines the severity of the impact on
the physical soil system, its chemical constituents, and biological
component. Threshold temperatures for biological disruptions in
soils are relatively low (40–121 °C; see review by Neary et al., 1999)
and it is not difficult for them to be reached in the first topsoil centi-
meters of mineral soil. Temperatures reached in soils during fires can
be very variable. Maximum soil surface temperatures are typically in
 J. Mataix-Solera et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 109 (2011) 44–60 51

the range 200–300 °C for forests (Rundel, 1983), but higher (500–
700 °C) where high loads of heavy fuels are present, and more than
1500 °C has been instantaneously recorded (Dunn and DeBano,
1977). The range of maximum temperatures in shrublands is higher
than for forest (300–700 °C), and lower maximum soil surface tem-
peratures are usually registered in grasslands (200–300 °C; Neary et
al., 1999). Depending on the temperature registered in the soil and
the residence time, the changes in soil properties will of greater or
lower intensity. In addition, the initial soil properties or characteris-
tics will play a key role in controlling these changes.
5.2. Initial soil characteristics and potential changes relating to fire
severity
Some soil characteristics like organic matter content, water con-
tent and soil texture can play an important role in the heat transfer
into the soil profile. Soil heating generally decreases rapidly with
soil depth in a dry soil because it is a poor conductor of heat (Brad-
stock et al., 1992; Valette et al., 1994; Bradstock and Auld, 1995).
Soil moisture prevents sudden temperature increases at the surface,
but releases the thermal conductivity.
In addition, some important soil properties closely related to ag-
gregation can be affected directly by the heat released during a fire;
therefore, AS will be indirectly affected. Fig. 3 summarizes the main
changes in these properties as a function of temperatures reached in
the soil.
In the following paragraphs we provide an overview of the effects
of fire on the principal soil properties that are related to aggregation.
5.2.1. Soil microbiology
The stability of soil aggregates produced by microorganisms may
be of a physical nature (Tisdall and Oades, 1982) or arise from the for-
mation and excretion of microbial polysaccharides, which act as bind-
ing agents (Cheshire et al., 1983). Such binding agents are associated
with large transiently stable aggregates. According to Oades (1984),
microorganisms attach themselves firmly to clay surfaces by the pro-
duction of: a) fibrillae, and b) mucilage of a dominant polysaccharide
nature. Proteins produced by mycorrhizal fungi have been suggested
as acting as hydrophobic coatings on soil aggregates (Rillig, 2005).
The mycelium of mycorrhizal fungi is also an important aggregating
factor, as many authors have stated (see Barea and Jeffries, 1995).
The impact of fire on soil microorganisms depends on a number of
factors, one of which is soil moisture. Latent heat of vaporization pre-
vents soil temperature exceeding 95 °C until water completely vapor-
izes (Jury et al., 1991; Campbell et al., 1994). Within the soil,
convection, vaporization and condensation are the most important
mechanisms for heat transfer in a dry soil, but in a wet or moist soil,
conduction can contribute significantly to heat transfer (Chandler et
al., 1983). Soil moisture prevents sudden temperature peaks at the
surface, but it increases thermal conductivity. Moist heat is more ef-
fective for killing soil microorganisms than dry heat; lethal tempera-
tures (50–210 °C) for specific microbial groups are perhaps reduced
by as much as half in moist compared to dry soils (Wells et al.,
1979). A higher impact under wet conditions has been reported (Klo-
patek and Klopatek, 1987; Choromanska and DeLuca, 2002), since
water is a better heat conductor than air, and microorganisms are
more sensitive to moist than to dry heat (Powlson and Jenkinson,
1976; Wolf and Skipper, 1994). As a result, the survival of heterotro-
phic bacteria is better in dry than in moist soil (Dunn and DeBano,
1977; Dunn et al., 1985; Choromanska and DeLuca, 2002) due to a
greater presence of dormant forms when the soil is dry.
The immediate direct effect of fire on soil microbiology is normally
a reduction in the microbial biomass. The maximum temperatures
reached in topsoil often considerably exceed those required for killing
most living beings (DeBano et al., 1998). In extreme cases, the topsoil
can undergo complete sterilization. Several authors have found a dra-
matic negative effect on microbes immediately after fire (Meiklejohn,
1955; Ahlgren and Ahlgren, 1965; Dunn et al., 1979; Theodorou and

Fig. 3. The main soil components or properties relevant to aggregation and their changes at different temperatures. Horizontal lines indicate the approximate range of temperatures
at ones which each property changes. The curves represent the magnitude and trend of the changes induced by fire at particular temperatures. These ranges can vary depending on
the type of soil and also on the duration of a given temperature. Based in different studies (e.g.: DeBano et al., 1976; Giovannini et al., 1988; Soto et al., 1991; Neary et al., 1999;
Ketterings et al., 2000; Arcenegui et al., 2007).
52 J. Mataix-Solera et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 109 (2011) 44–60
Bowen, 1982; Deka and Mishra, 1983), and especially on fungi
(Wright and Bollen, 1961; Ahlgren and Ahlgren, 1965; Widden and
Parkinson, 1975; Tiwari and Rai, 1977).
Several soil heating experiments have been carried out under lab-
oratory conditions with the aim of isolating the effect of temperature
on soil microbes. In general terms, at temperatures higher than 70–
80 °C, the effective killing of numbers of microbes has been observed.
Some groups of microorganisms are more sensitive to heating than
others. Some bacteria (nitrifying), protozoa and non-spore forming
fungi are killed when temperatures rise to 70 °C. Arbuscular mycor-
rhizae are killed at temperatures around 80–90 °C (Pattinson et al.,
1999). However at this temperature, some bacteria actually survived
in experiments reported by Ciardi (1998), with the total disappear-
ance of microbes at higher temperatures 115–150 °C. In the case of
some microorganisms, short-term heating at low temperatures (50–
60 °C) can stimulate spore germination (Bollen, 1969). Several micro-
organisms are able to survive as thermo-tolerant spores (Alexander,
1967; Widden and Parkinson, 1975). For example, the fungus Neosar-
torya fischeri survives fire in the form of spores and becomes domi-
nant in the post-fire environment (Bartoli et al., 1991) because its
ascospores are thermo-tolerant and their germination is stimulated
by thermic stress (Warcup and Baker, 1963). The sterilizing effect of
heat is highly related to the temperature reached, but the duration
of heating is also important. It has been noted that temperatures
above 127 °C can sterilize the soil (Raison, 1979).
Reports on the effect of fire on microbes under field conditions
vary substantially. This variability results from several factors operat-
ing simultaneously at the same time: soil moisture, soil sampling
depth, fire intensity, and timing of post-fire soil sampling. When
burnt soils have been analyzed after incubation in laboratory, or sam-
pled several days after fire, the data obtained correspond directly to
the effect of heating and also to the indirect short-term effects (main-
ly changes in soil properties). Microbes rapidly react and change
according to the new conditions (as regards soil and climate). Com-
petitive interactions between fungi and bacteria have been observed
by Bárcenas-Moreno and Bååth (2009), who found that fungal recov-
ery started when bacterial growth decreased.
Fungi are one of the microorganisms groups most sensitive to the
effect of fire (Ahlgren and Ahlgren, 1965; Acea and Carballas, 1996;
Guerrero et al., 2005; Bárcenas-Moreno et al., 2011), and within this
group the mycorrhizal fungi play a key role in stabilizing aggregates
(Mataix-Solera et al., 2009).
The taxonomic and functional fungi groups are many and varied,
ranging from saprophytic fungi, parasites, symbionts to the “predato-
ry” types (nematophagous fungi). However, mycorrhizal fungi (those
able to establish symbiosis with plants) form the most important
group from both quantitative and qualitative points of view. In gener-
al, most of the information published refers to filamentous fungi, or
more specifically, to mycorrhizal fungi. This information seems some-
what contradictory, which is probably a consequence of the differ-
ences in the types of fire studied (which affect, for example,
intensity, severity, vegetation type burnt), as well as in the experi-
mental designs involved. The available information suggests that fila-
mentous fungi appear to be the microorganisms most affected by fire
(Ahlgren and Ahlgren, 1965; Bollen, 1969; Jalaluddin, 1969; Vázquez
et al., 1993; Acea and Carballas, 1996) and they are more susceptible
than bacteria (Dunn et al., 1985; Fonturbel et al., 1993; Bååth et al.,
1995). This is perhaps due to their greater sensitivity to temperature,
as Dunn et al. (1985) pointed out. In studies where fire severity has
been low (prescribed fire), some authors have found scarcely any
changes (Jorgensen and Hodges, 1970) to fungi. One day after an ex-
perimental fire, Mataix-Solera et al. (2002b) found an increase in fun-
gal propagules and no effect on culturable bacteria, as a consequence
of the low rise in soil temperature. This mild heating was unable to
kill microbes, but was able to stimulate the germination of fungal
spores (Warcup and Baker, 1963).
An important factor in fungal survival is the presence of fungal re-
sistance structures such as sclerotia, from which new mycelia origi-
nate, which could go on to colonize new plants. In the case of fungi
that form arbuscular mycorrhizas (AM), almost all the studies con-
ducted on fire effects show a negative influence, which results in a re-
duced number of propagules. The degree of this reduction and its
persistence over time depend on the intensity and severity of the
fire and the effects on host plants. No significant decreases were ver-
ified in the amount of AM propagules in the soil with low-intensity
fires (Dhillion et al., 1988; Bellgard et al., 1994). With fires of a greater
intensity however, significant reductions have been observed in the
amount of AM fungi propagules (spores and mycelium) (Vilariño
and Arines, 1991; Amaranthus and Trappe, 1993; Rashid et al.,
1997). Pattinson et al. (1999) verified that the major fire effects
take place in the upper few centimeters of soil. In their experiment,
a simulation of a forest fire in which the temperatures reached were
200 °C on the surface and 45–70 °C at a depth of 5 cm, the effects of
heat led to a significant decrease in the quantity of viable propagules,
but the decrease was progressively less at depth such that it was prac-
tically imperceptible at depths of 10 cm or more.
It is obvious that fire causes a significant loss of fungal biomass in
organic horizons (Jonsson et al., 1999), so that the abundance of my-
corrhizas at this level is drastically decreased. The mycorrhizas that
develop in the deepest soil substrata on the other hand, are better
protected against high temperatures, and consequently survive. Sten-
dell et al. (1999) found that mycorrhizas survived in the mineral sub-
stratum irrespective of the severity of the fire, and this was verified
following burning of Ponderosa pine forests in the USA; the reduction
of mycorrhizal biomass in this study was up to 8 times in the organic
horizon, and yet the reduction was insignificant in the mineral hori-
zons further down in the soil. It should be highlighted that mycorrhi-
zas in dry or semiarid environments are located in deeper mineral soil
than in temperate or humid ecosystems (mycorrhizas are located at
the deep of the roots). Therefore, fire effects on mycorrhizas are less
in such environments (Dahlberg, 2002).
5.2.2. Soil organic matter (SOM)
Fire affects SOM (Fig. 4) both quantitatively and qualitatively.
González-Pérez et al. (2004) reviewed of the effects of wildfires on
SOM. Depending on different factors, the total SOM content can de-
crease or increase (Mataix-Solera et al., 2002a). These factors include
fire type (canopy, above-ground or below-ground fires), fire intensity
and severity and other factors controlling fire behavior such as slope,
fuel content and moisture, and meteorological conditions (air mois-
ture, wind velocity, etc.). SOM content changes may range from its al-
most total destruction to increases in the surface layers as a
consequence of external inputs, mainly from dry leaves and partially
burnt plant materials in fires affecting the tree canopy (Chandler et
al., 1983).
Some studies have reported organic carbon losses in the upper
layers after wildfires (Fernández et al., 1997; Tinoco, 2000; Mataix-
Solera et al., 2002a) and also after controlled laboratory heating
(Almendros et al., 1984). However is not unusual to find an increase
in SOM after moderate intensity wildfires (Rashid, 1987; Mataix-
Solera et al., 2002a) suggesting a substantial incorporation of forest
necromass.
The lipid fraction in a soil increases after fires (Almendros et al.,
1988). The main reason seems to be the translocation into the soil
of organic substances released from burning litter or biomass
(DeBano et al., 1970). An increase in the abundance of the humin frac-
tion has also been systematically observed (Almendros et al., 1990;
Fernández et al., 1997; González-Vila and Almendros, 2003), together
with the formation of black carbon (see review by González-Pérez et
al., 2004).
Qualitatively, SOM is also affected by the passage of fire. The pyro-
morphic material consists of rearranged, relatively inert macromolecular
 J. Mataix-Solera et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 109 (2011) 44–60 53

A B

C D

Fig. 4. The upper few centimeters of surface soil can be affected by the combustion of the litter and soil organic matter, due to the heat released during fire. This, in turn, can affect
aggregate stability. The images provide examples of soil affected by fire from different forested environments. A) Organic matter in the upper few centimeters has been quantita-
tively and qualitatively affected. The photo was taken seven months after a moderate intensity forest fire in Finestrat, Alicante, SE Spain (Photo by J. Mataix-Solera, 2009). B) Clay
loam soil affected by the 2009 Black Saturday fires near Melbourne (Australia). The soil (gray) is overlain by a thick (5 cm) ash layer. At the very top, organic matter has been ox-
idized as indicated by the pale brown color. The charcoal above is likely to have been deposited subsequently from charred logs. C) Sandy soil in Sydney's main water supply catch-
ment, affected by the Christmas 2001 wildfires (Australia). The red color suggests complete oxidation of organic matter and changes in mineralogy due to extreme heating under a
burning log. D) Highly water repellent silty soil under a thick ash cover following a severe wildfire in conifer forest, Montana (USA). Arrows indicate water drops over water-re-
pellent soil. Photos B, C and D courtesy of Stefan H. Doerr.

substances mostly derived from plant biomass and highly aromatic in
nature (Almendros et al., 1988; Knicker et al., 1996). In summary, in the
case of high-intensity fires, the pyromorphic humus formed shows an in-
creased stability to chemical and biological degradation. The relationship
with AS is very obvious, since SOM is one of the most significant compo-
nents controlling AS (Metzger et al., 1987; Roldán et al., 1994; Badía and
Martí, 1999; Martí et al., 2001). Soto et al. (1991) found that in those soils
where organic matter is the main aggregation agent, heating up to 170 °C
in laboratory experiments favored structural stability, whereas tempera-
tures above 220 °C resulted in a structural degradation. Kavdir et al.
(2005), studying soils affected by wildfires after different intervals
found that carbohydrate content of soil organic matter was directly relat-
ed to AS (R2 =0.92) but not to the total SOM content.
Several studies have reported a breakdown of aggregates (Josa et
al., 1994; Mataix-Solera et al., 2002a; Providoli et al., 2002; García-Co-
rona et al., 2004; Campo et al., 2008a, 2008b) and a decrease of AS as a
consequence of intense fires, especially in those types of soils where
organic matter is the main binding agent (Soto et al., 1991; García-
Oliva et al., 1999; Badía and Martí, 2003; García-Corona et al., 2004;
Marcos et al., 2007; Terefe et al., 2008; Zavala et al., 2010; Jordán et
al., 2011). How long these changes last is variable. Martín et al. (in
press), for example, reported differences diminishing over time be-
tween unburnt and burnt Humic Cambisols, while fire effects on AS
were maintained or even increased in Leptosols one year after burning.
5.2.3. Soil water repellency (WR)
Water repellency (WR) is a soil property particularly affected by
fire (Soto et al., 1991). It is important because it regulates the main
hydrological soil processes (DeBano, 1991) and has major repercus-
sions for plant growth (Doerr et al., 2000). Natural soil WR is
generally more intense near the soil surface, where the presence of
hydrophobic organic substances is more usual. Many authors have
found that soil WR can be high even when the SOM content is low.
Pierson et al. (2008) attributed this effect to dry conditions during
sampling and the presence of hydrophobic organic coatings on coars-
er soil particles. Most studies report that heating of forest soils mod-
ifies their wettability, and the changes in WR are related to
temperatures reached (e.g. DeBano and Krammes, 1966; Doerr et
al., 2004; García-Corona et al., 2004; Dlapa et al., 2008). Fire-induced
WR is caused by partial combustion of SOM. Heated hydrophobic or-
ganic substances in the topsoil are volatilized and lost upward in the
smoke during burning with a variable proportion moving downward
in response to the temperature gradient in the soil until they con-
dense and coat the mineral soil particles in cooler and deeper soil
layers. These volatilization/condensation processes can partly explain
the occurrence of strong WR in deep soil layers (DeBano et al., 1970).
DeBano (1981) found that heating soil to 175–200 °C resulted in in-
creased WR while above 270–300 °C WR was destroyed (see also
García-Corona et al., 2004; Zavala et al., 2010). The destruction tem-
perature for hydrophobicity is influenced by the nature of the heating
atmosphere used, being higher under oxygen-deprived than in oxy-
gen-rich conditions (Bryant et al., 2005).
In many studies of burning effects, it has been observed that fire
induced WR occurs in hydrophilic soil (Fig. 4D), and either enhanced
or reduced the surface WR in an already water-repellent soil (e.g.
Savage, 1974; DeBano et al., 1979; Mataix-Solera and Doerr, 2004;
Hubbert et al., 2006; Arcenegui et al., 2008; Zavala et al., 2009a; Jor-
dán et al., 2011). In naturally highly water-repellent soils, fire may
have very little effect on WR if soil temperatures remain below the
threshold of repellency destruction (Doerr et al., 1996). The direction
54 J. Mataix-Solera et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 109 (2011) 44–60
of changes is related to the peak temperatures, the amount and type
of burned litter and pre-fire soil moisture content (Doerr et al., 2000).
A few studies have reported no development of WR after burning
of hydrophilic soils. For example, Busse et al. (2005) found no effects
of burning on WR in a hydrophilic soil with a clay loam texture. No
changes for soil WR were detected by Giovannini and Lucchesi
(1983) in one of their studies of fire effects on soils, and they argued
that the discrepancy found in comparison with most previous studies
was because of the fine texture of the soil tested. More recently, Arce-
negui et al. (2007) and Mataix-Solera et al. (2008b) have demonstrat-
ed the low susceptibility of Terra Rossa soils to water repellency by
burning and found that both clay content and mineralogy were the
principal factors controlling this behavior.
A positive correlation between WR and AS has been found by dif-
ferent authors, both in unburnt (Chenu et al., 2000; Hallett et al.,
2001; Benito et al., 2003) and burnt soils (Giovannini and Lucchesi,
1983; García-Corona et al., 2004; Mataix-Solera and Doerr, 2004;
Arcenegui et al., 2008; Jordán et al., 2011). Hydrophobic substances
released during burning and condensed over aggregates surfaces
can act as cementing agents, thus promoting a higher AS (Fig. 5).
On the other hand, a direct consequence of retarded limited in
water-repellent aggregates is the enhanced structural stability of soil
aggregates, as the energy release rate and build-up of air pressure in
pores (i.e. slaking) caused by the intrusion of water is reduced (Piccolo
and Mbagwu, 1999; Chenu et al., 2000).
5.2.4. Mineral changes
It would be expected that only moderate and severe fires would
have the potential to cause strong mineral transformations, because
generally the first step of disruption of most minerals—dehydroxyla-
tion—occurs at temperatures over 500 °C (Tan et al., 1986). However,
there are some exceptions, and some authors have also detected
some changes at lower temperatures. Gibbsite may be completely
destroyed by heating at 200 °C (Rooksby, 1972), and goethite is al-
tered to hematite at ≈300 °C (Cornell and Schwetmann, 1996). Kao-
linite has been shown to decompose at temperatures between 500
and 700 °C (Richardson, 1972). Under field conditions, fire has been
observed to reduce the content of some 2:1 phyllosilicates (Arocena
and Opio, 2003) and destroy kaolinite (Ulery et al., 1996). The pres-
ence of maghemite in soils has often been attributed to the dehydrox-
ylation of goethite or leidocrocite by burning in the presence of
organic matter (Taylor and Schwertmann, 1974; Annand and Gilkes,
1987; Stanjek, 1987). Carbonates, the main constituent of calcareous
soils, resist up to 1000 °C of heating (Rabenhorst, 1988), and thus
rarely undergo fire-induced changes.
Fig. 5. Water drops (arrowed) on the surface of a water-repellent aggregate. Photo by
Jorge Mataix-Solera and Vicky Arcenegui, 2011.
Geochemical analysis of aggregates in a range of severely burnt
soils from California, USA suggested that aggregate bonding was in
part due to the formation of poorly crystalline aluminosilicates and
amorphous Si and Al from kaolinite decomposition during burning
(Ulery and Graham, 1993). Giovannini and Lucchesi (1997) also
reported textural alteration via aggregate binding mechanisms during
burning. They observed that alteration of iron and aluminosilicates
led to a fusion of the aggregates into robust particles with higher AS
with respect to their unburnt controls.
Some studies found a trend to coarser soil textures after the passage
of fire and in those cases it has been attributed to the formation of stable
aggregates from clay and silt fractions (Almendros et al., 1984; Ulery and
Graham, 1993), although this observed effect should be limited to some
type of soils and exposed to high temperatures. Ketterings et al. (2000)
reported that exposure of the soil to extreme temperatures (N600 °C)
resulted in a sharp increase in the amount of sand and a decrease in
silt, and especially, clay. Similar results were obtained in laboratory stud-
ies by Dyrness and Youngberg (1957), Sertsu and Sanchez (1978), and
Duriscoe and Wells (1982), and also in field studies by Sreenivasan and
Aurangabadkar (1940), and Ulery and Graham (1993). The aggregates
formed from these thermal fusions of clays are usually strongly stable
to dispersion treatments (Ulery and Graham, 1993).
The slight increase in AS found by Terefe et al. (2008) at tempera-
tures of 25–200 °C was attributed to a possible volatilization of some
organic matter, which condensed on the aggregates making them hy-
drophobic and more resistant to slaking in water. However, for the
clayey soils this last finding was explained by possible changes in
thermal and dehydration processes affecting the Fe oxyhydroxides
(Fig. 4C) as reported previously by other researchers (e.g. Giovannini
et al., 1988; Guerrero et al., 2001).
5.3. Aggregate stability effects resulting from a combination of factors
The response of soil aggregates to fire can be highly variable, meaning
complex interpretations. Therefore, if studies do not consider other soil
properties (e.g. soil organic matter, water repellency, texture) and the
factors involved (e.g. fire severity), erroneous interpretation could arise.
From the combination of these factors we could expect three dif-
ferent patterns of behavior of AS as a function of fire severity
(Fig. 6). The pattern described in the case a reflects the behavior of
soils with high clay content, calcium carbonate, Fe and Al oxides as
relevant cementing substances. In these cases, an increase of AS with
fire severity has been observed by different authors (e.g. Giovannini
and Lucchesi, 1997; Guerrero et al., 2001; Terefe et al., 2008). However,
Fig. 6. Three different patterns of aggregate stability changes in relation to fire severity:
a) soil with a high clay content, calcium carbonate, Fe and Al oxides as principal
cementing substances; b) soil with organic matter as the principal binding agent and
originally hydrophilic or with low water repellency; and c) a sandy soil which is highly
water-repellent and has organic matter as the principal binding agent.
 J. Mataix-Solera et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 109 (2011) 44–60
this result leads us to an interesting question: is this AS increment a
beneficial outcome for the soil system? Regarding resistance to erosive
agents and thus a lower potential erodibility, the answer seems to
be positive, but from a soil system functioning point of view, the strong
aggregates formed at high temperatures by thermal fusion of clays or
other causes have a very low organic matter content and biological
activity, as a result of with the temperature thresholds for the changes
in these properties (see Fig. 3). Therefore, although the aggregates can
be more resistant to breakdown, they lack the attributes for proper
functioning of the soil. Soil organic matter and biological activity play
key roles and influence almost all soil properties. This will have direct
implications for the regeneration of vegetation cover and indirect
ones for soil erosion and degradation (Mataix-Solera et al., 2009).
The pattern described in case b of Fig. 6, indicates the most typical be-
havior for those soils that have organic matter as the principal bind-
ing agent and were hydrophilic or slightly water-repellent before
heating. An initial increase in AS mainly attributed to an enhanced WR
(Giovannini and Lucchesi, 1983; García-Corona et al., 2004; Mataix-Solera
and Doerr, 2004; Arcenegui et al., 2008; Jordán et al., 2011), followed by a
decrease when temperatures reached are sufficient for destruction of or-
ganic matter to take place (e.g.: Soto et al., 1991; García-Corona et al.,
2004; Marcos et al., 2007, among others). The post-fire increased AS in
the surface layer and consequent reduced erodibility may compensate
for the effects of enhanced WR on overland flow generation (Giovannini
and Lucchesi, 1983; Hallett et al., 2001) at the plot scale, but potential ero-
sion risk may be triggered at hillslope or basin scales. Further research is
necessary to shed light on this problem.
The behavior shown in case c of Fig. 6, represents the progressive
decrease in AS observed especially in sandy soils that are initially
water-repellent, with high initial values of AS, and where organic
matter is the principal binding agent. In this case, the initial levels
of AS cannot increase because the starting point is already high main-
ly due to the organic matter content and the high background water
repellency levels, so that the progressive decrease in AS results from
the destruction of the main binding agent, the soil organic com-
pounds. This behavior is particularly limited to some sandy acidic for-
est soils since they are very likely to show high levels of soil water
repellency (Doerr et al., 2000), and the aggregation in sandy texture
soils is mainly controlled by the organic components.
From the fire severity point of view, we can conclude from the re-
view of results that in low severity conditions, no observable changes
in AS can be expected. Moderate and high fire severity cases can, how-
ever, produce different responses that are controlled by the intrinsic soil
properties.
From a methodological point of view, however, in some cases the in-
crease of AS reported in burnt soils could be the result of a wrong inter-
pretation of results caused by the methodology used and the
circumstances of the soil sampling. It is possible that in some cases the
reported fire-induced increase in AS is only apparent, because fire
destroyed a proportion of aggregates as a result of the combustion of or-
ganic matter. As a consequence only the most resistant aggregates re-
main. We have to remember that the AS tests of soil aggregates
sampled in the field evaluate those remaining after fire. Therefore,
post-fire higher stability of aggregates does not necessarily imply that
AS increased as consequence of fire. It could be that less stable aggre-
gates are destroyed during or immediately after fire, and the average
stability of those remaining ones is higher than before fire. For example,
in a laboratory experiment, in the absence of post-fire runoff processes,
Zavala et al. (2010) found that heat treatment reduced AS, especially at
temperatures above 200 °C. They found that AS (determined by the
CND test) after heating decreased after exposure to temperatures
above 150 °C. For this reason, in addition to AS measurements it is
recommended that the study of aggregate size distribution and other
related parameters as indicated above (water repellency, organic mat-
ter content, etc.) should be included in order to achieve a better under-
standing of soil characteristics affected by fire.
55
6. Impacts at different scales: from soil system functioning to geo-
morphological implications
The impacts of AS changes as a consequence of fire have implica-
tions for infiltration, overland flow, and rainsplash detachment of
soil particles, and as a result, a redistribution of surface soil on slopes
and in river basins (Blake et al., 2007). This redistribution therefore,
has consequences for soil water content and thus availability of
water for plants. Wildfires have hydrological and geomorphological
implications that have been associated with the AS changes and
other related properties such as soil water repellency (see the review
of Shakesby and Doerr, 2006). However, as can be deduced from this
review, different patterns of aggregation can be produced by the ef-
fects of fire depending on factors such as fire severity and the type
of soil and its properties.
In the cases of fire-induced aggregate breakdown patterns, a crust
of fine particles is formed, sealing the soil surface and further reduc-
ing the rates at which water can be adsorbed by the soil (Farres,
1978; Mills and Fey, 2004). Bulk density increases as a result of the
collapse of the organo-mineral aggregates (Giovannini et al., 1988).
Therefore, there is a decrease in the water-holding capacity of the
soil (Boyer and Miller, 1994; Boix Fayos, 1997) and an increase in
overland flows leading usually to more erosion (Ellison, 1947; Martin
and Moody, 2001). As a consequence of aggregate breakdown, easily
erodible sediment may be exposed to surface erosion after vegetation
and litter covers are removed by fire (Johansen et al., 2001; Wondzell
and King, 2003). According to Wondzell and King (2003), degradation
of soil structure after intense heating, combustion of soil organic
cementing agents and soil drying can lead to decreased cohesiveness
of exposed soil aggregates and increased soil erosion risk. In Mediter-
ranean soils developed from clay and limestones (SE Spain), Cerdà
(1996) found that the reduction of AS caused by repeated wildfires
increased erosion risk. Aggregate stability can however evolve posi-
tively following wildfires, affecting post-fire erosion rates. In Mediter-
ranean soils under pine forest, Andreu et al. (2001) observed that
micro-aggregation increased progressively due to biological activity,
mainly during the first rainy season after fire.
In other cases, AS has been found to increase immediately as con-
sequence of heating, and a trend to coarser soil textures has been ob-
served and attributed to the formation of stable aggregates within the
clay and silt fractions. Blake et al. (2007) suggested that the modifica-
tions in aggregates as consequence of fire could affect how they are
eroded, transported and deposited. They found that soil aggregates
in a severely burnt soil have a different fluvial behavior to their
unburnt counterparts since burning resulted in a shift in aggregates
to higher densities, lower porosities, and higher settling velocities.
Contradictory results have been however observed by other au-
thors. After a laboratory experiment, Fox et al. (2007) observed that
low AS in the finer fractions, is the dominant process determining
splash erosion, in contrast to coarse fractions, since stable coarse ag-
gregates are not easily detached and transported by the kinetic ener-
gy of raindrops alone.
Water repellency and AS are typically implicated in changes of
overland flow and erosion rates after fire (DeBano, 2000; Martin
and Moody, 2001). Reduced sediment concentration in runoff has
been observed after fire by several authors in soils where water repel-
lency has been induced or enhanced (e.g.: Wallis and Horne, 1992;
Benito et al., 2003). However, despite reduced soil erosion rates in
burnt soils where aggregate stability has been increased because of
fire-induced water repellency, enhanced runoff rates may favor in-
creased erosion rates at catchment scale. But fire effects on soil ero-
sion are also dependent on others factors (Shakesby and Doerr,
2006). One of them is the ash cover and thickness (Cerdà and Doerr,
2008; Zavala et al., 2009b), and the type of ash, which can vary sub-
stantially depending on the degree of combustion of vegetation and
species burnt. Ash can show variable hydrological properties and
56 J. Mataix-Solera et al. / Earth-Science Reviews 109 (2011) 44–60
Fig. 7. Summary diagram showing the range of factors affecting post-fire erosion.
there are therefore different implications (Bodi et al., 2011). Post-fire
meteorological factors will also be a key factor controlling the erosion
rates (see the review by Shakesby, 2011). Wildfire frequency and se-
verity are also factors controlling the hydrological and geomorpho-
logical implications of wildfires (Shakesby and Doerr, 2006), the
return periods being influenced by climate and more recently by
human action.
After a fire event, many factors influence post-fire erosion and soil
restoration. Aggregate stability is one of these factors and is of major
importance as regards many aspects directly and indirectly related to
soil erosion and degradation (Fig. 7). Soil structure influences water
movement into the soil profile and therefore controls soil system
functioning which facilitates a rapid restoration of vegetation cover,
and both indirectly affects soil erosion rates, and also directly affects
them due to the resistance of the aggregates to breakdown. Based
on the different responses that aggregates can show after fire, more
research is needed linking soil aggregation of fire-affected sites with
soil system functioning and also linking different scales of study of
post-fire erosion; from individual soil aggregates up to erosion mea-
surements at different scales (from small plots to catchments).
7. Conclusions and future research directions
Different patterns of aggregate stability can be found in fire-affect-
ed soils. Fire severity plays a key role in the response of aggregation,
but the behavior can be very different for a similar fire severity
depending on the type of soil affected and the main binding agents
implicated in the aggregation of particles of the particular soil.
Three different patterns of aggregate stability behavior as a function
of fire severity have been described in this review resulting from
the detailed analysis of results from different studies. Fires of low se-
verity in general do not produce important changes in aggregate sta-
bility, although in some cases an increase has been observed and
attributed to the development of water repellency by burning. In gen-
eral terms, high severity fires provoke important changes, but differ-
ent trends are observed depending on the affected soil type. Patterns
can vary from disaggregation as a consequence of the organic matter
destruction to strong aggregation if a recrystallization of some min-
erals such as Fe and Al oxyhydroxides occurs when they are present
in sufficient quantities in the soil and the necessary high tempera-
tures are reached. Because of the complexity of the different possible
patterns and reasons for the potential changes in the fire-affected soil
aggregates, the inclusion of other parameters in these studies is nec-
essary to understand the results. The suggested parameters to include
in the future studies are: quantity and quality of soil organic matter,
soil microbial parameters (e.g.: microbial biomass), water repellency,
texture, and aggregate size distribution together with accurate pa-
rameters to estimate fire severity.
Future research should also explore lack of knowledge in such
areas as the links between soil aggregation of fire-affected sites and
soil system functioning; for example, in the case of increased aggrega-
tion due to the formation of strong aggregates at high temperatures
caused by thermal fusion of clays, aggregates lost important quanti-
ties of organic matter fraction (including microbial biomass) and
they also suffered mineral changes. What are the implications for
the soil system in terms of fertility and hydrology as these types of ag-
gregates are so different? How much time does the soil need to form
new aggregates similar to those of the pre-fire situation? These ques-
tions remain today without a clear answer, and there must also be a
difference with varying climatic and vegetation conditions.
We think it is also necessary to determine for each type of soil and
pattern observed the real weight of aggregate stability as a factor con-
trolling the post-fire soil erosion. To arrive at clear conclusions, more
research is needed linking different erosion scale studies; from soil
aggregates to erosion measurements (small plots to catchments),
and for different scenarios which should include different type of
soils and fire severities.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Spanish Ministry of Science and In-
novation for funding through the HYDFIRE project CGL2010-21670-
C02-01, FUEGORED (Spanish Network of Fire Effects on Soil Proper-
ties http://grupo.us.es/fuegored/), Rick A. Shakesby and Mª Eufemia
Varela for valuable comments to improve the manuscript, Francis
Moreno for helping with figures design, Stefan H. Doerr for some of
the photos included and Frances Young for improving the English.
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