ee a, Planning rly, By = constructing a pines ——_skelch_o am =_use_ the night oppuredus independent ong folentity vonables i clependent me eentro| lorrelc Loss deritial exper b, Method > changing. anel_mecisuring Indepenclent Variable ~—keep control ariables ‘constant measuring Dependent Vaniable how volumes / scluticns ore _preparecl > __okscnbe control experiment — ensure _V_ciffects =__sequence__of _sleps pared. 2 co = olescribe how‘ ensure, quality of results inspect ver liolity relability 3 repeats risk assessment iclentify + cecluice recording + _dliéploying clei, crowing — conclusions PAPER 5 — PLANNING, ANALYSIS, BVALUATION LZ renge DV2, dealing with dexter = use. foble fo identify key points in cesta sketch] drew: graphs L5 confidence limit err tars 4 certain 5k. ef dota es ins the. range cory out ealaulations with cia L Caleulations : ~ mean, median, mode / mock! class 46 deta has nermal distribution — 3m's the same vey Aas Rare te 2 range + TOR - UQ- Le 9 -__STAM/sTics — _ siete null hypothesis + Standord — dewarton + stonclard error me: tells: 95h certoin ther _meon—yolue—is within. Aux’ S. null hypothesis: -ersseme—there—is 00 jo) i) ff. [2 12 18 18 1. 1 1) lf 8 [0 [fh (0 fa ff ff fd J {7 if) jeui. = error —_bors { — Bk conficlence limits ie L overbp: net a significant difference etween WoW Wi Wh Wa a a at = chi - squared a test test difference _betueen observed oncl_expected’ frequencies clue. chance, wethe e013 can be correct = Yellow, loge Yellow, small | white, large Wohite, enneu!! observed: O expected: £ WoW Wh hth ti eg. eggs = = eg 4.94 => compare with DoE ee clegree sof freeckm = _# of colegores> 4 =o bo Boos 9 probability et null hypothesis ——-being sortect ___ as iataemioee z ce E cs fs E = E => t-test: whether the means of & sels of clata Cuith roughly normal _olistribubon ) are significantly olifferent Sy v Fis f — calculile _clegrees of freedom + 1 a, - 2 S 5h confidence evel 2 eccept null hypothesis signifi camt _olffereMa: between the 2 t-test suitable — fer: eontinucus leita: = dlerfor normally _oltstvbuted > _s-cl. approx same. = samples 9 < 30 each saa a = = = = £ = = - 5 = = = s = £ = = = = = & = = = = = = = = * 5 = 5 * = = = = 5 bes ™~ i fal fa) [a [) Ja lti r [= T f 1 [- p = s re = c a z s x ce x Pearson's linear correlation suitable — for test for correlation _behueen 2 sets of normally distributes) dato Seater _cliogram inolicates _relakonshi'p =continueus clata = scleclly > 10 paired! observations | 5 - positive : x - negahve. correction - ne O Speoir man’s rank correlation + find out if there is eorrelation between 2 sets of variables, NOT normeslly olistributect ~ deta poinis independent - data collectecl can be ranked > sextter chagram - idleex! IOS n£30_ parred observations - data randomly selected) rank aif Quadrat| # R |Renk Rie S [Ranks 5 D pee | | O< rg sa +Vve correlation d= re OO =ve Risa ce ee no | eb ee beh eee beep ee) eet eS al 'Pb Hh We ee en a ah dian repecd - identify onomekus values 2p yger a 5 = suggest for 7 causes replicates effierenty ? assess ~ HESS 2. Z - assess mathed effectveness 2 measuring IN ,.PV CU controlled well? <= _eenclusran = all _kay..pointe_—==— explain =_occept | reject hypathesrs with support from___data > Lmeke_fucthers predichons. hows could experiment be improved ? Ls ethedls alfernahve > range.12é Energy ? Respiration 12.4. Energy ATP_is jhe universal energy currency provides tha _immedicte source of energy for_celluler purposes a) Need fr_energy in living organisms: anabolic. reactions ~ DNA replication, protein synthesis -—achkve transport -~ movement = maintenance of bocly 1° b) ATP-_ universal energy currency — 2_turn over > adenosine triphosphate:” = readily —hyclrolysed te release energy ~ small } easily transported ~ water-soluble around cell = rmmed energy dor or ce) ATP synthesis i suring _respiredion glycolysis — substrate ~ link el reactions < Krebs eycle ederine . \ See) ribose 7 €ectror franspert chain on__« Nene orep asts. (7.47 60° 13 DD 7 7 17 17 733 8 2 ho oe eed) Coenzymes Al carrier molecules coemyme A coenzyme. A f.) Energy values - FAD. Cflevin adenine dinuclectde ) ~ NAD FAQ - NAD. Cnicetinamde adenine inucleoncle ) ee / 45 _used_in_respirotion - Krebs cycle carrier of acetyl groups te the Krebs cycle Lipids > energy rich = _liprels: 2H, pee molecule —Cfoxtay = fats only broken down aerobically Heh th th Wh th Diehl Ee Respiratory Brecgy density / Respiratory subsrate te herts_ CRG) kg ss carbo hyclroite _ Lo 16:8 lipicl oF 69.4 protein oF 14.0 =e g A otems in struchare —> 1 energy —_veilue > produ mere reduced NAD > mere ATP per gram19.9, Respirotion cohereby energy — from complex erganie molecules tS transferred to _ATP. a) Aerobic. _respiredion 4.__glycolysis > st 2. link reaeton ext 3. Krebs cycle 4. cxrclechve — phesphorylahen 7 TDP ITIP Tt at at a af b) Glycelysis glucose Chexose) C6C) ATP fruciose_phosphate_(6C) fete phesphory lahon fructese bisphosphate (GC) 2 molecuks triese phosphate Gc.) —_\_—_aaiP. NAD at & recluced NAD interme dates ee RAT &_moleculer pyruvate C3) net yield: a ATP _ a reduced NAD Bf TP Ps PPPMN Me WM MMM ATT ttt ttt TA Clycolysis = _phosphorykxtion of glucose andthe subsequert splitting af fructese _4,.6 - bisphosphate Cet) into tuo _ tricse _phasphate_melecules, which are further _exclised te pyruvate with o smoll__yreld of ATP. andl reduced NAD c) Link — recietion + O, available via octive transport: pycuvoite _from_eytoplasm ———>_ mitochondrial _matrix Pyruvate = CO, => diffuse Hout sof call =_H = 4 WAD => _reckic3od NAD Cel Ls cosnzyme A_—? _ctcehy| coenzyme A _C2c) pycuvote + CoA + NAD == acetyl , CO, + recluced CoA NAD pyruvate. C3c) NAD = CG, aes reduced NAD cetyl C2¢) CoAd) Krebs cycle aceiyl Qc) CoA Nts 1. oxaloacetate C4c) citrate Cec) citric ocid ooo0 OoOCc0O . = eae NAD as ee | ETC NAD saliiaies | PADH, NAO —P— > co, to ETC FAD OOOO (se) reduaxdd NAD me) ~) Y ADP. oo JA sleccar ooootky SS co, is + decarboxylahon Gen de hydroqenciticn C=H) 4 _recluction of NAD incl FAD qield. - x&_ CO, molecules ~ A reduced FAD - x3 reduced NAD - <1 ATP molecule Ls fer each repeat of glycolysis, requires Krebs cycles (2 pyre 4 = = ] aMi Ma MM Mh Ma Ma Ab AM MMM MMA Ua Maat We TT d. Onicletive _phes pho ry ledion intermembrane space. 5 nt 3 H pers = ) Lo) — ) {4 inner | | ee tditeghondnial [ Pa fe membrane. ee US \ matrix rm Ge reduced FAD AIP AS ne ADP? reduce NAD Map —— ee woter tg en! =_ electron transport — chain See - energetic electrons release ener os they poss 3 — ey through FIC. = transfer protons. across membrane = protons reharn_te_mectrix vio. fociliteted oli ffusion ATP. synthase La provide energy —_foc_ATP synthesis ! ©, final clectron _ecceptor 2 P£.. Mitochondria: structe and function ~ envelope of 2 phespholipid _mannbrones cuter | inner coh +_smeoth |. folded 2 erisiac, TSA |b ectve calls: th tenger, censy pack +—relahvely pecoecihle 4 less __permeable. to small molecules + Studlclecl_by tiny spheres by ATP. synthase Sona ~cl + sie ETC raat ey ey ey ec ee Ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ie ee —~—_ pH intermembrane space < pH _metrix___ A Ht protons releasecl by ETC Link recechen site = << Krebs cycle — matrix > - FOS. ribosomes a [copedcl_mnitechandnicil INA.MM MM AW a | J) Anaerobic respiration = ATP produced per gluccse. Ca: 32) = only — glycolysis k) glucose Alcoholic fermentation Ave 3 VS Nas Yeast - OH > reckices Ria ie ae NAD eT. a an So CO, Lactic fermentation glucose Lmennmatian muscle ____, fedueect | NAD . = eee Oxygen debt Oxygen debt _ x ' Se —_strenucus exercise [es poe = = lactic fermentation ine muscles = _buibls_up Cr deficit post ~ exercise uptake extra Ca | ©, deficit 0, debt v ured j bic respirogicn tt eS _ofter exercise te motabclige loctate from _sso) 740 +106 No. 12.1. g) Respireory quobent (R@): the roo of the uslume of carbon. dioxide given. out in respiration to that of oxygen _used aa mance fluid 1. w/ sede ime we _oxygen _consumptron em >mir a. wio _seda lime Nee ec e | ae | ies. — R@ = CC, _ x+y peut BGs 00, ey 2 OQ, x time OQ, pe m) #f = respiration rate T 7 ya Sheree Eee roe E et EEE EE me eT ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ar ek Pe eTww Rice odaptation to flooded areas - ethene ~ stmulates production of gibberellin = gidberellin shmulades cell alivisron / ® stem growth & leoves_/ flowers cbeve _Lwater + _ photosynthesis can occtr We Wh WwW Ws At _ sexual repreducticn / pollination can occur > agrenchyma + assists gas affusion 1 aircon be _trappecl by unolerwafer leaves submerged perti_qf plant: anaerobre respirediicn —- ethanol — ean telercte_ high ecne © ethane _dehiyarogenose_ _ a aa 5 -[Bs Photosynthesis 13.1 Photosynthesis as an. enemy transfer process a) - Energy fiom light trapped by chlorophyll (pk) + split. fonds im th@ > reltese H. + produce. ATP } produce complex organ’e molecules + reduce NADP eg: glucose oxygen glucose Light dependant Ar. light independent ir in reacton reaction. hE GNA grana~ CLoR) rn Bi Cur) Thglexkerd i f membrane light energy oi <) chloroplast pigments cherephylls “a red i Za oe blue. Sips mnect = tit). p violet : 6 coretene } blue - carctencicls xanthophyll violet d) * absorption spectrum: graph of absorbance of lifferent A of tignt by a pigment ¥ action spectrum: rate of _phetosynthesis ot different A of tight (graph) JF FAD AT DD AT AT D7 7 7 Td i a iiliic th dad kiaAa My Uy Uy My Ue th aa — Or #)._Light_depencknt rea.ctionCphetolyss 4s synthesis qf ATP in phesphory! ~ photolysis: split woter give H" iis? NAGP >>. ea peN — ae WH Bere d. picked up by chlerephyil in PSI 2 PSL Phote phosphorylation —— syelc. 8 SN es nor ~eyctic al follow 2 scheme gy a6) \ ede = \ > NADP. + et foken by Psi g' fice phetolysis of = 27 energy raised Cohbrophyil PSP absorb ightenegy ) 7 €- fase enemy along _ ETC =e" token oy Ps ~ energy 4 3 ~ ~ becomes pert of reckiced NAP molecule9) The light -indeperdent reaction: Calvin. cycle -_sife: _strema > emyme —~ rubisco’: ribulose _bisphesphete carboxylase. nor CO, Aor 7 7 Td 7 dT 17 7) & as gsnerote RuBP ax SC Se — 1 = e hexase __phesphate =) n 7 starch for storage : 7 sucrose for teas location. > cellulose for all walls glycerol. _farty acid —> _lepret + —calletlar nem brenes = + acetyl coenyme A = respiration, ewmine cid prookection 2. proein synthesiswee Envestigation of Geniting factors Environmental factors influence the reve of _photesycmhes's Act = light intensity: affect 40R > e wonstered in ght rays ot": affect Likes = KE 7 cone CQ, in_ atmosphere reactant in photosynthesis bs o.04k availability of unter reactant in photosynthesis L indirectly ¥H,0 = stomata = Q0, cant diffe inte leaf 2) Glasshouses for_crops = Sensors monitor: _, “ght intensiny +_humolity of otmesphere + ene CO, around plants grotun_hyclreponically - roots —>_ nutrient _sclechon => eentent voried ct _olif _stoges of _plort growth - - control fnsect pests + Fungal olseace $ > Maximite crop _yrekl. FM MM Uy Me My My ay MM My Me Ma ee AYcode for 13.3. Adlaptotions fer phefosynthesis — chlcroplost __praleinc loop of DNA ce St Upsd dreplet ieee a, } bophit thyexkod ‘aufer_ membrane envebpe rilbasenes FOS 7 __Membrane__system :_ sted LOR + has thylekords: flattened flud= Filed saes > stocks gro ___AIP._siea + grana: *8A_+ helds pigmenis, eeee = electron carries for LPR - stroma: site of LIR 2s epenmRn arson Ss + eenfains enzymes of Calvin cycle, suger, aac + —bethes grona > recetve product tram LIR- ue saad — tq sane = arranged pigment molecules acesscty —> light harvesting clusters pigments, cs papa en pm 2 sell. “19 43) 59 47 49 7599157 iMM MM AM eM MM WT b)_C4__ plants Se AD be ~ rubiso cafalyses — Co, + RuBP. CO, + BubP @ nt SS wasted Avciding _ phesphorespirahoan v cells —> vascular bundles + bundle sheadl cells no direct oir conact ~ CC, absorbecl_ by mesophyll cells BERS ee REE oxaloacetate exabocetate —3 malate ---5 bundle sheath cells ruibises SOS Sete BBP rR, * PEP corboxylose optimum t* C4 4S°c> €3 30'¢ per roused to higher energy lovel emiited . COLNH.), +H.© Uren, 399917 7 9 dd) so 8 Urea: main _nitregencus excretory product bs diffuse from liver — blcod plasma — kidney filters. urea —> excreted bronch of (iS ide receives blood > renal cirtery Nee renal ed cote = cortex reductase 1a el Van og ; ~ ureter: norretu tube comes uci e ae rele fier kidney fo blade er / urethra: urine te oufstle body J. meskelle, > kidney sovered_by dough. ‘capsule = beneath is the “cor ten”. a _ = wepheenlweos' 2 mpeduyllo., — icglicnNT a Aa ttt tA otferent = The nephica arteriole efferent, renal artery / arteriole i ) ) — renal vein * en convoluted tubule woprute: of descending { limb gi Lo. (cop of ascending Fen limb ¢ bo. Each nephron hex a network af blood! vessels associated withit * blood from renal ortery > efferent cirtericle —> glomerulus inthe cup of Bowman's eapsule —> efferent arteriole > network of _eapilbries fuNNING * edeng site. The. _nephcor\ renal vein ea Bowman's capsule — _preximol convoluted rrbule —> locp of tlenle distal echveluted tubule —> collecting cluct_—> pelv's kidney —mokes —_unne 4. uttrofiltrahion in 2 -sioge procese___ 2. _ selective reabsorp tion4. Ultrecfittietion Blood in glomerulus separci-ecl fom spoce insele. Bowman’ eapstile : + endothelium: capillary wall- 4 -col-thick , with pores + fasement membrane «network of callagen + glycoproteins = fiter + podocytes Cepitheticd cells): inner lining of Bowsrnep’ capsule; tiny, frger lke Prgectons with gops in. between “bleed! in glomerulus: | high pressure \efferert smaller _than > _ molecules pass through 3 shuehures vie pores and gaps ~ basement membrane = fiter foc smaller molecules Glomerulsr fitfrote_ |__.cont. pass. Spier. ~-¢ells rhe = glucose. Lael, whe - i inerganic fons Na’, Kf Ce i: plasma proteins = Uren ORS hee* RB Reabsorpticn inthe _proximou_ecnvolutecl tubule Selectve _reabserption: The movement of cern substances from the fithate back inte the bleod and kreiney nephron Single layer of cube ical epithelial cells (pct tining ) = microvilli. 4 SA__ surface facing lumen _, folded = tight junctions: held adjacent cells iegether % flud cant pass between cells > mmibcheneirer: energy fer Nat + K* peshp proteins - _ cohansporter protein out of into Blood from glomerulus = Ne! ~ K*_ pumps in__basal. membranes of pet actively pump Net out of cell’ <> > bewers CNe"] inside ceil omint > Ne! tom fluid in tubule diffe inte ceil through —¢c- transporter proteins G cary glucose with Not to___blood Creve through cellt, oliffise into bloat > mevement Na + ghicose = bP in blac water Cua csmess): fom tubule —» cell > — Hood ints: Celiffitsion) Key: = THI Na-gtucose symporter ~ = Glucose facilitated diffusion transporter +15 Ditusion GF Settum-potassium pump Oo haa‘ - a ~ Reabsorpb the _| f Henk allect Avot 3. eabsorphon inthe leap _o lenle_# collecting duct ‘a Loop of tlenle: _bwld high cone of Nat and Ot” in medulla a * S calles highly corcentrated urine to be produced oa = preserve unter — prevent dehyelration a desaanding + permeable to Ma", tO S ® 2 Gentine ie Ma te S | \o\ impermeable te +H. 5 + 4.0 | Net ~ I| I ‘S eer 7 \ het @® Not, Ct” achvely transperted = a fp\_ cut ascending umb —> neue flud og S77, 7 > @ MLno*, &] in tissue fluol = VP - “Ne Naty / - ay TY in_deseandling tinnb = wot : @ thO infiltrate — osmosis —> tissue thud a frerin descending Umb _ @: Nat, Cl” diffuse into loop a | fluid mere eancentaxtecl _toware hattom of loop aA ®. sO© cone > Nat Cl” deffisse cut of Mimb —> tssue fluiol a | best as go up a | * * a 2 .Osmorequlahon © control of ¥ of body tluicls invelves © hypothalamus, _posten'er prbaitary glarels, kidney posterior priuitory Le Se a ee ee Uh dba aaa < Vi in biting aiced Osmoreceptors > _ 7 along neurone simulate ADH release | detect Canticiureche hermene) 4 specialized sensory Sas, hermone. neurones in _ hypothelomus + ¥ #46 loss in urine Chatting H,© reabsorption. in_kidneys ADH: acts on cell - surface. membrone.of collec ducts > mere permeable to water zh OF: ie Thermorequihon = eentrel ef bedg t* (cere t*) s central thermcreapiors in hypothalamus anol spinal eral oletect A blecdl 1° > send impulses Tn_the ciel Tn _ the heat - Voxo censtric ben | physio =| = Vasekiclation. = Shivering logical {= lewering body hairs = Rausing kody hours | ress { * wect preduchion | - V sweet production | ( J , = adrenatine secretion / + curling —upe-/spreacling cut + behewicural responses << erie con J thick ofctiroy, hypothalamus _releate hormone —> stimulate anterron ' Pituitary gland secrete tyres shmulating hormone C1SH) { ~~ stimulete thyrord gland to secrete thyroxine * thyroxine |! metabelic_rote_- 1 hoot ipreduction espn Liver y produ ction§ : = Contreling bleod_glucose: glicese <= _glyecgen af Sb comtoiled by hermenes secreted! by ering. tise iL pancreas E islets of tangerhons 7 = a cell « seerete glucagon > = receplors 9 —_seamtinate_antans % = cells + secrete «sulin ~ centred central of effectors § CL negative feedback centro! mechanism J] 5 = fess glucagon x z (= mere insulin ee 7 Recepters Effecters:* = A+ cells > liver responds ess glucagen a detect rise > _na__glycogen breakdown 2 hgh 2D glucose uptoke 4 EFe Ly lowers [iced glucose’ a a /—— * cyclic ANP* second messenger ;respense 1o_ glucagon + adrenaline ~ ¢ell__signeding inthe corttrol_of bleed ghicase. > hormone. - receptor teraction at cell _sut face. = formodion ef cyclic AUP — binds to _ kinase. eis ag pe = an enzyme casede involving —achvation. of enzymes F Phosphorylation to amplify the signal phot iy qaD * hormone - receptor interaohons—af_cell surface membrane. gktecrgen binds to receptor me ecules at — activates © protein —— > achvates enayme | a as and are —> Gyeue [AMP )” mesenger eyche AMP + bincls with _ kindse enzymes — phorphorylates other emymes L.> emoyme cascade + amplifies onginal signal glucagon presence of _gluccse_ and _kefores in urine #& diccbetes GP] Pabeve renal threshold = Net all. glucese was recebsor bet from filfrate me —_ PCT. ~ protein in urine for feng perrods of hme x kidney demage / infecticn = hgh blood pressure 4. Dip. sticks + test toc glucese, pt, ketones. proteins sure _anedysrs. Pe glucese oxiclase - 2 immebrteal enzymes peroxidase glucose. oxidase Fb tare _ glucose lucene lactone + HM, O, 3 v Hy i a bret ee eroxidlase HO, 4 colerless chemrenl > darker ecmpeund * shows sugar level in urine fom blader NOT current blood sugar Level2. Biosensors - blood analysis ~ quantitative data > a pad impregnated with glucose oxiclase He catalyses seachen to form glucene lactone f ie — > generates tiny electric current Cetected by electrocle._—> read _by meter 14.8. Homeostasis in plants Sfemata have. daly rhythms ef epening _andelesng ancl ails respond. to __Qenvironmental ecndiiticns ta - alle diffusion of CO. > fegulate weiter loss by transpiration open stomec clesecd stoma >t legit intensity ~ darkness - 4 £00,] in air spaces = PLce, in-air spaces > levehumiolity = Pt* ~_weter stress Opening ond closing of stomata 4. ATP pawered proten punaps 7 actively transport 1" out Aw tow CH andl -ve'nmdide cell —_K* channels _cpen_— diffuse in. So highl"l in cell VY sa 4. HO moves in _vicc_osmmesr's S- water enby 1 Virced ce! > exparel a ”hs6if RSME ia ela bb We ed, AY Sidi ie be pe che de dan da de}FF FP) Structure of stoma. ~ each stomatal _pere surroundect by 2 guarcl cells - guard cells turgicl: —>- epen__ Cain 4.0) flaccid: = close Ulese 4,0) Absersre ace 4 stomatal closure. 1s ABA = stress _hermene. guts - closes stomata reduce trangpiration > wb wader loss ABA: binds to surface cell_recepters > inhibits __preten_pumps: step #1" pumped out -_stimulates movement Ca’* , cytoplasm, toncplast threugh C8. membrane Catt: gre messenger > achvate channel proteins“; -ve ions ave cell = > __ apen — # ie alla) 2 ocive: se mevement close" 4 se SS enter K* baves loss of sens = TY ingle cell -~ 450 posses cut by, osmasis = guarel cells —> flacaid = stemete elese.15. Control and__co-ordination 18.4 Control and coordination in. mammals a) Communication systems thet co-erelincte responses to changes in the internal + external — environment *endecrine._ systems» glanch secrete hormone ¢ chemical messengers travel. in bod + Nervous systems: nerves transmit info 7 impulses b) Structure of sensory 4 motcr neurones =_Sensery neurone = transmit 7 recepters — CNS - intermediate / relay -/ sensory neurone —* moter neurone = motor neurone: 4 > ONS — effectors Se Ee Ze Sensory neurone : An s-ene [eng axon with cell_body cell body axon = near source shmult / swelling dendrite 2s “ =e Schwann cell —— 9 ie =i eek Wu a KD MU UU TT Me We a oe ae, synaptic; = Fe kno’ a Mefe_nourone cell body — - = call badly wes in spina cord/ brain (nucleus within) = = dark specks in cyfopiosm: RER synthesize protein 33 == lencirstes: highly branched SA fer enclings of _cther_neurones axon, conduct impulse over long distendes , T mtecherdiqg + if 5 , vesicles + tonsmi'ssion substances0 SS ee e) Sensory receptor cells: detect stimulr — stimulating transmission of nerve impules in sensory neurones 3) Reflex ave pothuay aleng which inpulses are. transmr thed from. recepior — an effector without involving 'ecnerous’ regions of the broin _ ( eat Lught_/ pressure /poun) sensor, tor receptor Se eIS aie treator neurone neurone ncaa Sea erica + sensory, relay, moter neurene found! in _serres ‘—eentols fost, autemahe responses to shmul e) Myelin: Schwann cells (specialized ) wrappecl along axon uprds + proteins _— myelin sheath v affect speed 4 71 eonduchon Transmission of nerve impulses b 3 - z - = amined = . 1 Es _ a a impulses / signal + briet changes in disinbution g 4 charge across__cell surface membrane —> acho potentials cause: rapid mevement of Na’ and «+ ite} cut axon,Te Tete ea Wh Wh VW mui OR ee ee Pe ea ae ee ee @ Resting pctential ae inside gf axon slightly ye. =—Poltential clit: = 6O.m\l_to =40 mi + resting potential : tess’ than cuter * 3Na* ~ potential produced + mainteined by — Not-K* pumps membrane proteins mouse energy from _hydlrolyws qf ATP + actve tramport - * wore channel tor K* 2 large, “Ve molecules inside cell attract Kt sracaniees ChE = overeell > membrane diffuse out exceS& ve rens _ inside mem brane relatively impermeable io Na * = + steep cone eee electrochemical fee at. charged inside > inward gradient movement No" during op @®_ Acton potential 2 taped =A pid. imeross' medelenbemt: souse + permeability ol membrane te Na* and K* + voltage - gated channels + epen j close depend on dpa acress membrane. he ania ipad sm | ov threshold cata : potential festing. __ psterttiak time Jims, 4. depclanzation: Noa channels open = Nea’ enter = pd. less negative en the inside. a Cove feedback : small depol lead te. larger depol-) a. pol. reach threshold _petenticel — generate action potential 3. repclarizatren: No” channels close, K*-channels open = eutward movement of K* removes tve charge inside aren 4. refractory perved= axon is unresponsive. recevering from an a.p: > ancther asp. cannet be generated oN ooops oases op ois i i soit sat in sit in transmission of a.p.* a.p. in d cell triggers a.p in oncther 15 temporary _dlelecalisation of membrane sett ujs_o “lecod cirouit’ between depelarized + resting regions Cae Vea = Ree = a > generate _a.p. /depelorizcben in adjoining regions a a x aHow ap. carry _ info: a.p. have same = size Csame amplrhice) speed which o.p. travels by dif + frequency \s get info of strength of stimulus of neurones carryin ap qo — * notre of stimulus deckiced ftom pesitien of sensory neurone Tnitiatin of an _a.p. + + recepicr cell ' respends te stimulus — generate a.p 4 transducers + transform energy of ene ferm (light, heat —) —>_7_impulse in neurone MTT PUT Uh HT Ua depetarired — ZL > recepiers stimulated + recepler potential above threshald 2p inifioted — stimulates senscry neurones send impulses. to CNS + oll-er- nothing lave + neurones either deo/de net transmit 4 = thresh id _avebr_rorely stay constant strong stimulus wesk — stroulis OT Gh Wi Tt TTSa oe node of recovery Ranvier Speed of conduction : = Myelin insulcdes axon membrone — speed up rote that ap. trovel ~ local cireuiti” exist from _ene_nede te the next — setiatory. conduction O.p. jump from one noce te the next with myelin: speed of) transmission x SO diameter f= VY resistance = faster transmission * refractory periocl determines mov. frequency _cf_impulses g) Synopses + AP occur at membrane of presynaptic synoptic presynaptic neurone pee bud +L relboseneurotansmitters inte —reaptors synoptic cleft synoptic cleft + 4 neurotransmitters diffuse synaptic vesicle neurone + 4 neurone response + _depclarisings containing teach ‘thresholcl_~> senol_inpudses neuire transmitters across cleft, bine temporcire'ly pestsynophe to receptors on_post spmphe neurone Pj jpop i hat ea ae 2 2 i 2 i ts 2 2 2 itSynapse: point where 9 neurones meet but de net touch & encl_q presynoptic neurone + synaptic. oleft + endl of postsynaphe neuion Mechanism of synoptic transmission @ stimuledtes_ opening q. voltage ~ gated! channels for Ca7* @ Ca’* cause vesicles ? diffuse > saisplae = 5 containing acetylcholine ia was move toivorels presynaptic O20 > mambrane > fuse arrives. 2} La i g vA @ ACh relecicedt, olrffisses acrosé cleft @ 7 Ach binds io. reaptor proteins on ba a pestsynoptic membrane = } = > chemically - gated jen channels fer Net open eee ©} NatLs XN ©No" dittuse through > depolarizes._ membrane £9 AP generated Cthreshoic!_reciclect.) ® recycling ace hy leheline sterase. ACh + ACh _—————" acetode_+ choline © Teen. back into presynaptic neurone product ARS choline + acetyl ecenrayme A — ACA eee ee a ACh > transported ic presynaptic vesicles s G@ : J yu dh“fohances AP generedect and impulses sent - > 4 presyneiptic neurone releases ACh ot tha same time om : : = "ever short time perrod Role of _synopse 4. ensure one-weyy frongnission + neurotansmittess released from one. side; reapiors en the ether -srole of synapses 2. integration of impulses Beclyainf elec ntieene.- tes esvereel tet terminations ¢. relay neuron only transmit impulses + initrote AP if threshold 1s reached — brain not cverlocoled with sensory info impulses qd frequency den't travel __te bray 3 allow cennection of nerve pathuays — wider range of behaus cur In. clangercus. situcuiens -infe from. 4 neurone —- sprecd througheut becly reach rechny releuy neurones + effectors Coxons brinch eut > form f-synopses with many “neurones ) sit in ie ip bt de dp in fe dm inde in is it dp it de degen decision ~making in brown: moter _neurones_have many dendrites —> 7 SA_toc_ Psynapses 4 neurone ear integrate imfe coming fronn mony body _powt 7on 1 4. involved in memory ainel learning @.g + brain receives —info_cibeut 3 thing s_of=the same —fme. — new) synopses form & a a aMuscle contraction + striated muscle: attached to skeleton Gore neurogenic: centrocs when stimulated te do so by im pulses that arnive vicy_meter neurones Structure. of strate! muscle. pode > muscle contains mang muscle fibres 5 + muscle fibres + specialized “cell” = syncytium tronsverse_section. Tee habla ss Ge site sarcclomma oper = deep. infldings 4 \ -* into interice a muscle _hbre \AS saree plas topla: TAN 2.9 *.q) mitochondria. packed between myphbrils 7 TY myofbril > AIP; cecobic respiration sarcoplasmic reticulum C&R) ~_ cell surface hor 1 © of protein pumps_to transport Co.™* into _exsternae_q SK : 4 Stricctiong + stopes on muscle bre — . + porallel groups q thick + thin _Alaments | + myofibrils regula Striped this —_+ muscle fibre. thick filament thin _ filament myosin actin By ay TTTing r = fr myohbrl behoan 3 2 linesoit on Ws 2 7 screamer H une = thick 2 SS ee £ & Filament =o. = a a ft & se a ee ~ —— eee C ee —— = path aa : SH — : 2 eye (A wand /-— overlap thik + thin é disc Ta vond | zeend | f thick thin filament only g cnly F = Structure. of thick and thin filaments x t * Thick floments: = ieee f + myosin + fibrous protein. SAR Ree , with globular _ head : 3 G point away from M-line— phe z : * Thin _ filaments: = 3 ‘ + achn globulor protein 3 FP % form ehans *2 chains = thin filament tropomyosin __\ < actin + topomyosin (fibrous protein) as huisted around a _oheuns z 3 = + treponin « cttached te actin ehain ed regular intervalsPITA TA Aa TTT How muscles contract - The sliding filament model of muscle contraction ~ 2 olises pull closer 9 sareemeres in mycfibrils get sherter jg energy fer movement [ TR. bine ATPase or head ) @ Huscle centrocts > Ca’! releosed from stores in SR 4s bincl_t0._trepenin @ _Treponin_ molecules change shape @_ Treponin and Fepomyosin move to lif. positions en thin flamenk > expese _bincling sites_cn actin chain fer myown Sg Riloments ‘>. forms _eross~ bridges bemveen 2 typ © mp hyciblysis = ATR force heel to kt go cf actin ©__ Hacer speing back > repect process as long as Pepenin + trepemycsin. molecules dent bleck birding site > muscle hoa supply cf ATP. heads alt “ muscles contract by = dCnmStimuleeting muscles to contract Ze @® stimulates oping of vltage -gafect | ® Co” causes vesicles channels for Ca?'— obffuse 525 \ ecatamning neurotanynitter (ac) > gytcplasm | moves fowards — fuse with 3 { oe “o | >| presynaphic menbrane one fyssanashss 7 @ Ach reliased > diffuse conrives ee ° | fo — neviromuseceker junction @ Ne ceffise: into-tececdecrics @ Ach binds to receptors on > depolarize_ membrane sarcolemma — Na "channels open = initole AP > spreads v4 cipetaitieee BN sorcoplasme refeubim (OR) “(GE tr ot @ Co’”" bind 16 = e = = = Woks a aoa ots os os 7} 1738 i it 4 troponin \b ee | Trepomyosin moves to T- tubule Wy Gr} pong 2. tubules {py Bh | expese_mnyasin ing z @® Cteamel_proteins_cpen + Ca** 2 2 > diffise out SK = 5 © Mycsin heacls form ercss- bridges & with thin filaments 3 = — sareomere shortensTL Providing ATP for muscle contraction © aerobic. respiredion in mitechondhic leche fermentation in sarcoplasm + creatine phosphate = stevecl in. screoplasm > immediote source cf energy when ATP im sorcoplasm runs cut creatine phosphate + ADP —> creatine + ATP = demanel__for energy 1s slewedl / stopped 4s ATP. molecules “recharge” ereatine creatine + ATP — creatine phosphate + ADP * demand fer energy & high, but-no ATP spare to. regenerate creatine — > creatinine excreted in urine. 2) Hormonal eommunication = cell-signalling molecules Endocrine. glands make hemenes [er of dell, that secrete Cprecluce + release) 2d substances sterol hermenes + liprol soluble = = poss through phesphouipid bilayer > dincl_to_recepters mokeules_insicle cytoplasm /nucleus activate processes Menstrual cycle + changes thet ccaur inthe eveng cand uterus ae AS doug s tnvel wing, ovulation * ovulation * menstruchon’ breakdew + loss q uterus uining cserdinoded by glyceprctein hermanes secreted! by anterior pihutary glow *Uuterine cycle_and_evanian_cycle are synchronized __,* Overiex, 3® During menstruation , anterior prturtory gland. secrete follicle sémuleting hermone CFSH) | over next few cays + luteiising hormone. CLH) J Cesn sent L contol activity of ovaries Si @ Th the cvory , one follicle becomes ‘oleminant’ ene > presence g FSH * 2H —> Stimulcite cestregen secretion from cells. surrounding fetlicle V_ productos and CLM+ PSH Degertve - feedbemk 7 estrogen shmulate endometrium to > grow, thicken olevelop numerous. bleod capillaries ®_ Suge q LH and a bit * FSH secretion dominant follicle burst — shecl gamete inte oviduct v collapse. > focm’.cerpus. luteum ‘(yelle. * corpus luteum secretes =__ progesterone. | -maintoun uterus lining some. cestiogen | — ready to receive embryo if ferbliscabion occur inbibiis a pit. gland secreting _FSH_+ ec mere follicles deve +14 @ G tess stimulation of corpus kutewn degenerates less _cestragen + progesterone secreted Pp ye yy PP ayD 7 Tso 2 i 7 7 Ly endometrium net mamtarned — menstruaben begins Ls release a.p.glane inhibin Ly FSH _ secreted > __beginancther cyte !is Ha I Birth control prevenbing pregnancy 4. The birth eontrol_ pill : SG centains _stercd hormones thet suppress cvuletion + synthehe hormones: breaks down more shwly in body — act tenger > type (4). progesterone only 2) oe + ceAtrogen Synthetic. ec ud. ~ 21 days pills cotve; 4 days als inactwe * certragen + progesterone. suppress secretion a) FSH and LH fom anterior prhutary gland Creative P 49 : = preventi CFSH + LH reaching levels that would stimulote_ovulestion after Ql days, LO + E) tall > uderine lining re lenger. maintained — mansruction. eccurs * progesterone: may allows ovulahon to eccur BUT contraceptive be ~ Viability of perm to fertilise egg = making MuUcuA in cervirA more Viscous less easily penetrated by sperm 3. The morning - atter pill ; * taken afier_woman hos heol unprotectect_sex Cup to Tahrs) + synthetic. progesterone. - Uke hormene. ~ ¥ chances of sperm reaching + fertilsing egg = prevent pregnaney: stepping embryo implanting into uterts .aA Whroian 15.2. Contrel and eordination in plants Venus tly job & : aps glands secrete digestive emymes top a & hidrib age Trsect : Nz scuree : - o § | each lobe x 3 semoy - hairs ~ responds when deflectect s § nectar-recreting —glancls SbF cuter -ediges Cinterlock ) ci > affect insects = trap insects ’ poe 4 Sensory hair cs cleflectect 2. Co** channels at base opens . Ca** flows in ' — generote receptor potentiod 3. Within 20- d58+ <= 2 hairs stimulated pee 4 heir stimulated durce_ Lap spreads across lobe = trap closes + further stimulation: deflectten of —harrs & edges of lobes forced tc seal L PCa** enter cells — exocytosis _of vesicles centouning — dligeshve. enzymes. + trap closes era week, opens when celh on cuter surface ? length. due to auxin 4 2 Adaptations te reduce waste of energy = + 4 hear stimulated will not close trap e.g. wind, reuindrep gop between shfF cuter edges alloca smell insects te escape _ notaiite eeevy Plant hormones - 4. Auxin f " + synthesized in meristems Chp of shoots + rects; Sell division eccurs ) auxin cetvely tromported away. fom meristem Cc + function : growth 4. cell olivision: mitosis absorbing H,0 TAG) Sa cell elongaten 3 contrelled by cuxin 3. cell differentiation Kf HL @.Auxin binds to receptor __ @. Expamins (proteins) activated @. Simulates ATPase 5 _lecsen Linkage behween pump Ht across. cell cellulose microfibr'/§ surf membrane. G. disruption ccours briefly Cfrom_eytoplasm to cell_expands without losing cell wall overall strength = Vp ) “Kt me =tP > HOm E x = i 3 [ FS cs 3 » = E = = =]seed! _germincition 2. Gibberelling - growth requiatoe ‘>< eontrolling stem elengabion + synthesized in mest ports cf plants (meunly in young aves + seeds) + function: 4. stem elongation = dominant allele Le ~ plant grows tall G codes fer functional emyme of achive form of gibberedin GAL - stimuledes cell olivision ; elorigertion ~ recessive allele Le — plant remains short © substitution mutation Calonine > theorine o.0.) + homeaygous recessive Lele - neactive form of gibbere din oo. seed germination F wheat and barley seeds are dormant when 1‘ shea fem pee pleat © wanting fer optimum condi tien — __irttle 4,0. + metabo lreoully inach ve. endosperm. tissue contains storch reserves. Q@. Absception g tH.0 @_ AMeuwone layer synthesizes stimulates. germination amylase in response to gibberellin @. amylase mobilizes eneegy reserve @. Embryo synthesizes > hydleolyses torch __ gibberellin in response te S maltese eT ote dj weter uptcike qtuccre, Lp WwatinwnthanAanhnnnabparnpTrRpAil iri16. Thherited Change. 46.14. Resoge of infrmation tom parent to offspring a) Hemalagous chromosomes: _ in dipleicl cell - sone structure, gene, loci - por together (bivalent) during first division of _meicsis b) haploid: cell: possesses 4 complete set of chromesomes » 1 dipleiel cell : 2 Sie ao Be 2n - meioas Crecluction elivision) + * ef chromosomes would cleuble au + intreduces genetic yaritten —> mutation d. Hevosis \ ane chome somes | coe y Heicsis I Prophose = centile aa ae =_cemtnicles dlivicle —> oppasite pale s me 2 = spindle__foomaton aan) chromosomes condense _Cerossing ever) seh +> form bivalents pair up) > pucledus disappears : = Nuclear envelope breces down Metaphase = = bivalent form at equator = \ = spindle attach te centromere_ St et PP) PF PP) fd d _lohele chremasomes move. to_oppasite end /pales of spindle. Cpulled by microtubules) Telophase. 2 << SS SE 4 haploid laughter Horo meiosis cases _yarierhion << erassing, over calls “independent assortment + eM WW poi hove diferent =I hemclogaus combination = chomesomes cous of allelles ee a= et on =c.)_ gametegenesis SPERMATOGENES |S diplord oO | mitosis spermoatogonig oR == growth clipleid ) primory spermatocyte merosis heplod si secenclory spermato ey te Oo 7] ; spermatticl haploid spermate2con maturotion of embryo sac Cn) a 3 crushed ot gg cell Cemale gamete) EO) 2S ™icrophyle mitosis, a Vv16.2. The roles af genes in dletermining phenotype a) - gene Fength of DNA That coder for a particeletr protein / “palypeptcle - Jeeus postion at which a particular gene is founcl ona parhcular chramosome 5 same gene on same locus = allelle: — parheular teriety of gene = dominant: ailelle > one _whese effect en the Phenotype. of @ heferozyge ss ene that is only expressecl when no cbminant allele i's present = codeminant: cillelles > feth have an effeat on the Phenotype Of a heteroaygcus organism 7 - linkage. the presence of o& gees. on the sare chromosome, se that they fer to be inhentted together and donot essort _independtly. > test crass: _a genetic cross _in_which an organism _shewing a choraderstic ecusset by a deminont cillelfe +s crasveci wit an organism thot 1s homoaygous recessive x 4 phenctypes_of offspring — guile 1 organism pom ofheteroapous” + Fe_generetron of offspring + home = clem x hema fee genokype eotes "eros _belveen 9) Fy erganism ¢ = pherchype © organisms’ characteristic’ ; often resulting from an interaction behveer its genotypeand the environment ~gencty pe: allelles _possessec by On. ergeinisM™ “home2ygeus having 2 identical ailelles of « gene > heteroz yous nosN SecolPerent "eh 9 5 i ’ n ’ : DE ee ieee eeeS ETT Ta TT TT 6) Gerctye Prenetype Ee normed Pt normal ff cystic fibrosis Monchybrid Taheritance + inheritance. of 4 gene Parent genctypes FE x FE. Cametes’ genotype ©. © i) a Off spring genotype and __phenctype firs oat pat Parent genotype « Ef Fe ® © ere) £99 | see aie ay sperm F [FE Ft | nermeat | normal a er rico ci fF an nermal cystic fibrosis OR: expect ratio nemal . of lw -Codominance. Genes ype Phenct ype SG. rel coat Cee pink caot cao white coat > Multiple allele ee ae ee Sr Rarent _phenetype : bleed group A a blood goue & aos 8 see =Die @-G ©-@ r Dy 2 :| ee Lech aps bg. AB bg & ee ee per! a bg-A bg Sex Linkage genes present en _X_ chromosome, not _cn_¥ — sex linked gene e.g... celer blindness Raert phenetype ® permal _visten «G7 ermal _uision genotype see ey. O-&) Q-@ |x" xe x* x x xh xe 9 rie Re - Y xo ys ey. - Crom — eater blind 49 AB) 12 12d) 4D? waa DGd 8) A 9) Ad) : a x a " JAD 48319 173). 02 454 ig 4gSUN MW MA a aT ae WW Dihybrid inhen'tance: inhentance of 2 genes —Genctype | __Phenetype A brown have <= alletle fox a | black hair ie long legs z { short legs Parents’ phenctypes: brown, long x Broun, long Ao Lh AaLlt ©. G2@Q GE OSD |. AD |e Ak aL ad AL | AALL L_AALL AolL AalL& ‘ = | ies long _brown, long brewn,leng brown, Ieng, Ee ne | a oe ate AL |aack AKU malt Aakt _ brown .Jeng brown, short brown Jeng _ bret. short al | Aa te Aalt eoll aol ae Lbrown, long brown, long bkxek, long black, ng, ol Aalg Aol oath era bh _ Brew, long, brown, short block, Jong“ Herek’ short ~_ roto Gh f of dlipybrid cress between 2 Aetero2rygotes_, _culelles of — bath genes_shorwdeminance. 2 = genes on different ¢hremesomesTnterachoas._ betiveert Ike, different bc’ interact —1o._affe ot 1 phenctypic character e pres! Gf : 7 sh 4 loci 2 Autosomal linkage > 2. gene _leci_en_some chromosome. Vs f assert independently in _meios's appeals = 5 CERGEA) Raveritel__phenctypes Bisons Buse is Cea) Cea) Cea) Cex) eo EA Cea) Cea) ea Cea) Cea) e) Mutation + unpredictable change in genetic. material of cn orgenism 4D structse o DNA melecule > dif ofleile of gene + gene roudetion, = rendem environment —— fenising radicdtien 1A, o. ¥ factors uv Cmutagen ) chemiccds =' ve Wa We Whe fb Wh Wh Wh Gene _mutaticas Type Effect = base _ substtuhen . = silent: same amine acd, no effect S “missense : dif * 7, effect on organism base. ee bese__deletion SS 77 nensense : stop coden > frenne_shift.—> protein mccles is useless Human ecndiiticns b5 _ X_ structure function 4. Sickle cell angemig > — base sub. on ( pepide cullelle Hb” allelle Hb * Crk iia CAT glistanice etcidl > valine Set mere x le £ ess soluble * Bffect: Hb molecules stick together. —> foun icng fibres in RBC RBC pulled cut of shape Chalf_meen. / sickle) > _disterted,_ can't transport ©, — stuck th smell capillaries, block other R&C A can ce from lacks “of. O, 2. Albinism — mutetien in gene for _fyrosinase. i ebsence of — tyrosinase presen _inactive.__qyrosinase tyrcsinase- Tyrosine. —» _BOPA > depaquinene > _mekrnin Fifect: — dork pigment melanin portally / tetally missing fom eyes,_skin., haic ~ poor _wision, rap dy jerky eye movement ., avid bright light - classic fern + homey gour_coutesonal recessive other feren + sex - Linked3._Hurctingten’s __diseage_-__ dominant _allelle nermeul sufferer AC CAG CAG CAG CAG CAG CAG CAG...» “Stutter” gene cede fer‘ huntingtin ’ 6. Effect: reurolngical _clisomer > imoluntary —_mevemenk _" Ccherea) - progressive mental detericravhon ~cige of onset usually edt patelolle. rage but varies %. Haemophilia sex linkecl ; on X_ chromacme = gene cece _fer_preckiction of protein for blood = clotting 6 “foveter vill” A dominant allelle h recessne blood faxil fa clot Properly Bid eid ha da) dapat dat pt falda dd did df) 0 7 dD DD 7 1712 9 7.MM Me TT Ute 16.3. Gene control vin prokaryctes a) genes: structural: code — for proteins required hay cell reguledory +" f "that regulate _expressien of other genes enzymes repressible: synthesis of enzyme canbe _ prevented by bincling repressor protein tee specie site Coperater) cn bactenun’s DNA indlucible +. requires substrate —> inducer inducer intercct_w/ regulatory enayme — anseription occurs Ine lac operon - ouster of 3 structural genes + a lengthy qf —ONA *foc2 + code for - galactosidase njctrolyse _\¢ 3 2 eae eg eg - lee A z - Transacety Ase. NO Lactose. {. EACTOSE PRESENT. regulatory gene cocles for lactose taken up hy bactenum repressor protein” +L bine te repressor protein 5 bind to _cperector region _~ distort DNA binding site. close to ~ galactosidase. gens? sect bind to operator site RNA cannet bind to * feansenipticn me longer promoter regren_o DNA inhibited ne transenptren 3 structuel gene +! avoid waste of energy ancl_meateriedsGene contr!) iin eukeryotes. “Transcription _ footers: ain gene Se eesen bind to promoter region of gene make sure gene expressed in comect cell, ® > extent Effects: of gene AIRE Gr ctain. anon plemeeateachiecicded spematemirenion > 4 par P P P <9 + achvette appropriate genes. in sequence : + determinate of sex in mammals + allow responses jo envienmented simul : : regulate. cell cycle, growth , opeptosis ‘ Procluct of Proto eneagenes_, tumour _suppressar_genes |! + hormones have. their effect threugh —tremceription factors GIBBERELLIN - controls seed germination by simulating amylase synthesis + _DEULA proteins _inhibrt binding _of__trans cription factor P41 fo_a gene__prometer “ i. > gibberellin causes the. breakdown of DELLA => PIF can bird te target promoter = =f amylose production1#. Selection «Variation Tht vemeer 4 ¢ — eq a= hecgnt- + ¢ |. blood, individuals) mass individuals MH Sear | | | > Li tt measurement measurement: continuous discantnucus > quontitative differences ~ qualitative. diflerences = genetic basis = genetic basis + dif alleles @ 4 gene locus + olf alleles @ 4 gene locus — small effect on phenotype large effect on phenotype + cif genes have same/ additive. + at genes. have quite od effect on phenotype : effect on phenchype - + lage * of genes (palygenes) = combined effect on a Phenotypic trout Environmental affect on phenotype. e-g- har eclor in Siamese carts 5 Himalayan ~ dark extremities + tips fo ears, nese, paws, tal Sollee allows —_fermortion of clark pigment only. @ 11" pk \ e.g 3 _In__plants different growth * ewer tht intensity, fewer nutrients — ¢ 4d pe ay ad ep PD 9d 8 23 8 os F9 _ 7 7 9 7 2a ~ use t-test to compare variation of & dif populodens ~ importance. of genetic variation in selection. base for natural and artificiel selection %6 act upon Causes of genetic varicstion -_ independent assortment of chromosomes duning metosis ~ eresing over between ehramarids of hemolegous ehromosemes during _meresis = rendom mating = ranclom. fertilisation of gametes ~_ mutetion. Me a a aT17.9. Natural and artifeial selection 2) Noturaf selection ~ occurs as populations have. capacity to produce many offsprings —» compete for rescurces — individucds best adapted survive ‘+ breed , pass on alleles fic + caused by other living organisms > predadion , food competition , infecton by pathogen sabictc: caused by non-living components. of environment - water supply, nutrient level of soil Selection pressures + controls chances cf alleles being passed on Ls effects allele frequency in. population = Nedural selection Stabi lising selection A s ach against _ extremes << SA \ ~ favours the environment Sa iii). \ = e.g birth weight ta oma ey - | sina pee Gaines Directional selection > favours variank of {1 extreme when ne allele appears «3g - * envirenmantal facter 2 7 =| ante SPA aah ARR aaa pP ARP aa —e-g peppered moths __slaek celer ef individualDisruptive _ selection | . = conelitions favour both extremes L ane Le aN = maintains. dt phenotypes +f \ T_popteledtion ( = e.g + Galapages. finches small i large beck size g inclivicluork #4 individuals 3 Biro a Genetic drift: . 4 gene peol et a small pepuletion ~ due te chance. Lrandem ] e_orgon each generations reproduce Feuncler effect: ~ genetic drift resulting. fom the colonization of a new lecation by small # af inclividuadl’s > random 4 gene. pool > affecl allele frequency Hardy - Weinberg _prinicple. : 4 calculate aileite frequencies and _preportrons of genotypes of _a_partieular gene in & papulation MM a ea We Bad: — oe Pas ceminant recessive allletle. Frequency elle -frequencey pis Qpq tg? = 4 AWW di Wi does not apply when + small population a * significant selective pressure against 4 genotype Hi WM s nen=random mating migration into/out ot oa pepulahen sinelivideals conry 1 of a allelese) Artificial selection ~ selective pressure} humans - indinduals with olecirable features are__chosen to interbreed > Selectye _breeching — alleles passed on to offspring e.g + progeny teshng + measure bull's value te breecler + performance. cf milk production of the bull's offspring +> used to assess brill. Crop improverrent by Sekctive breeding + inbeduction of disease resistance to varieties of wheat + rice + incorporate mutant alleles for. gibberellin synthesis _irite dwarf varieties —~> 1 proportion of energy put inte grain i> 14 ujeldl E inbreeding a hy bridi'sechon — produce vigorous, uniform varieties of maine oN a ae a eT Ty i eT aT TO