This week we begin a five-partserieson developments in steel and concrete construction. Here, Peter Trebiloock, Mark Lawsonand Graham Owens focus on long- span structures for commercial buildings. 1 Composite construction has ‘become the norm for medium: to biti commercial buildings. 2 Space planning modules donot ‘change mach despite increasing spans. Peter Trebieockisan associate architect at BDP and eensaltant architect toSCI (he Stel Construction Tstitue, Mark Lavon eresearch manager forbuildings at SCL Graham Owen is acting eodrector ofSCl ak soe ee Init, St . STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENTS 1 STEEL FRAME DESIGN Too many architects leave the determination ofall structural matters to their consulting engineer when, with some general knowledge, valuable design timeeanbe saved and eto spent inpursing inappropriate or inadequate solutions minimised. The aimaf this article isto provide architects with guidanceon the prime factors tobe considered, the options available and the implications ofa given choice of structure. Composite construction Composite construction entails the use of sieel beams acting structurally withan insitu lightly reinforced concrete slab o steel decking used as permanent formwork. Shear connectors are often used to develop composite action between the conerete slab and thesteel beams, Allmaterials act together ‘compositely’ once the concrete has gained sufficient strength, toprovidea strong, efficient method of floor construction, 1. ‘Today, over 50 per cent ofall eommercial buildings are of eomposite construction including over 80 per cent of buildings of five storeys orhigher. The total office and retail floorspace created inthis type of construction is probably some 20 million sqm overtthe past eight years. ‘The main reasons for using composite construction in most instances are economic. Faster erection facilitates earlier completion which in turn reduces interest charges and advances rental income. There can also be savings in materials. A composite beam may betwice the strength of the equivalent non-composite beam in conventional steelwork, but up to four times stiffer. This means that shallower structural depths ean be achieved using composite construction Thispermits lower storey heights and subsequent savingsin cladding costs or rakes more room available for services Within the same overall oor-to-floor height. Although comparative design demonstrates that savingsin steel weight relative tonon-composite construction ean 'be80 t050 per cent, these savings do not necessarily translate directly into overall cost savings because of the need for shear connectors, which arenecessary to develop the composite action between the steel and conerete. Nevertheless, savingsin the overalleost of the superstructure (beams, bs, columns) of atypieal building ean be 15.20 percent, not including the savings on the cost ofthe external and internal fabric it the shallower storey heightsare achieved. Grid size ‘The choice of grid size (column spacing) is important because although stee!is popular due toits ability to span further than simple reinforced concrete for the same structural depth, costs per sq mise asthe column, spacing increases. However, these additional eosts may be smallin comparison with the economic and funetional benefits realised from greater areas of uninterrupted useable floor space. Internal columns are very unweleome in high-rise schemes, for example, as they become so large in plan area dueto high loading. Column grids for many office developments arein the6-9m range. However, work patterns are evolving rapidly due to changing commercial practice and the advent of modern communications and information technology, though the 1,5mmodule till dominates in space planning terms,2. Today’sideal layout may quickly become outdated and thereare many iments for longer spans, particularly in sal whenthey cabopeiove for on modest premium, say 2t03 per cent ofthe overall building cos. ‘A9m grid is more common today, anda minimum standard in Stuart Lipton'srecent schemes. Users and developers are constantiy demanding more column-tree space and 12-18m spansare becoming inereasingly popular. Agents are finding. column-free spaces easier tolet, especially in the current market; they may well eommand premium, A variety of structural solutions forspans above 9m will be considered later. Inarectangular gridit is most efficient to design the more heavily loaded primary beams tospan the shorterdistanees between columns so that the depths of A1wApmiser‘atte oat ef composite fons — Column spacings Bux Gm grid Tem oon grid Deck span 7 im 5.50 Seelteams 3s 46 Steel columns 10 i in ‘Trimmers, bracing, ote 4 4 4 Shear comectors 4 5 4 Eireprotection 10 2B 0 Steel decking and trimming 8 8 a Gonerete WO) & mesh 16 16 fi Totaly 0 units tT ant Erectiontime(steelwork) Joo units 7 units “60 units Construction time frame nd oor) 00 units SSunits 80 eeu secondary and primary beams are similar. Typical as-built costs ofthe 2 superstructure are in the range of £50-80/m' depending on the complexity ofthe building, Abreakdown of typical costs aid ‘construction times for composite floor structures in medium-rise buildings is given inthe table. The structural costs canbe up to 20per cent ofthe cost of the complete scheme, but are typically about 15 per cent. Composite beams Composite beamsbehave essentially ikea series of T-beams in which the conerete slab acts.as the compression flangeand the downstand sel section acts asthe tension- resisting element. The structural connection between the twomaterialsis made by shear conneetors, Composite aetion serves to increase both the strength and stiffness of the steel section, permitting it to span further or support heavier loads, ‘The overall structural depth not only includes the steel section but also the ‘composite slab. For efficient design of ‘composite beamsit is often found that the ratio of span to overal structural depthisin the range o! 18-20. (Reinforved concrete beamshavea 1:16-18.) Composite decking Thisis a profiled steel product, like roof sheeting, but with embossments or other ‘mechanical means of improving the conneetion between the decking and the concrete placed on top ofit. Slab depths of 120-150mm are common today. Current practiceisto design for the longest spans which can be achieved without the need for tengorary roping 3-9 mdeckspan appears tobe the most popular, Many deck profiles are availabe but generally they are of two broad types -— the Govetailand the trapezoidal. A 50!mm deep Bflecanusalysuportiadsovera mspan. "The embosements or indentations inthe profleareintended to improve the shear Gand behaviour ofthe composite slabs. There isno particular significance to the shape of these embossments provided they are deep enough toreduce the slip between the concrete and the decking by a mechanism Kenownas ‘mechonleal interlock. Composite deckingis usually aid as long sheets upto 12mlong andis fastened dows atevery beam. Inthis way itoffers anumber ofadvantages: tit supports lads during construction sitstablises the structural members and stiffens the frame against wind loads eit provides safe working platform Siceasasatty net gabe ling objects itacts as transverse reinforcement tothe ‘composite beams virtually eliminating the Deed forlarge amounts reinforcement bars tit dstributes shrinkagestrains, preventing serious cracking of the concrete ‘eit develops composite action with the onerete to resist the imposed latin ‘This formof construction ensures is uickand easy to erect Large bundles of Tecking can be lifted into place with limited ‘subsequent use of crane facilities. The extent aferane use often determines the eriicl path, soaserane use reducesso oes the Srerallerection programine. Decking out normally oecurschortiy after the math steel members have been erected. Conerting is Aone one rtivefoorstehind, aftershear connectors, mesh reinforcement and edge {rims have been positioned. Overall there frefewer elementsom the etieal path, This onstruction methodisnot very ssitiveto the weather. ‘Shear connectors Shear connectorsare usually 19mm in diameter, 100mm long Studs with a formed head and are individually welded through the steel decking tothe steel flange by a hand- operated welding gun, Each Weld takes about twoto three seconds. The gun requires 2415 V 3-phase supply oramobile generator. ‘This on-site process cannot be used for painted beams and is not reommended for usein freezing conditions. Inssuch circumstances the prewelding of studs may beappropriate, Alternatively a shot-fired connector could be used. This has the advantage ofnot requiring site power and can be used with painted beams. The shear strength ofa 19mm diameter welded stud can be up to 10tonnes compared to3.5 tonnes forashat-fired connector, 4a-d,5. Types of concrete ‘Twotypes of eonerete are used in the UK, a lightweight aggregate concrete or the more usual heavier version. The compressiye strengths are typically 30 to 40 Nimm’. Both canbe pumped into place, with the lightweight conerete being easier to work.opin ie ea ‘acd Typical details of deck attachment to beams. s, double ‘stud but jin; typical end cantilever; typical edge deta side cantilever wth stub bracket. Site welding of studs. ‘Web openings such as this canbe ‘sed for runing services of ‘modest se, because ofits rounded ageregate. Although thelightweightmixisabout percent more expensive, thisis more than offset by the savings resulting from the weight reduetion ofthe floor. However, suppliers ofready-mixed conereteare sometimes reluctant to store the more expensive lightweight aggregate unless they are convinced they willenjoy a Jargeand regular demand Design methods and codes ‘Thedesign of omposite slabsis covered in BS5960 Part 4:1982. Ironically, BS5950 Part, which deals with composite beams, was only published in September 1990. As 1992approaches Eurocode dis being repared. Itlargely reflects BS 5950 Part 3 Batwillaiso cover the design of eomposite slabs and stee! decking. Long:span alternatives One ofthe principal advantages ofsteel over conerete sits ability tospan further with Jess material. Fabricated tapered girders, haunched beams, parallel beam composite trusses, stub girders and + castellated beams may allbe viable. The optimum solution depends on: spans of primary and secondary beams span/depth ratio necessity tocontribute to sway resistance sross-sectional area of service ducts location of major duets across span, ding consideration of gener distribution routes and erassover positions @looseness of fit between serviees and structure, especially important for shell and core developments where particular tenants may require additional servicing, Ofeourseas spansincrease sodoes the depth ofstructure, Toavoid inereasing the floor-to-loor depth to accommodate the integration of services, there area number of solutions which ineorporate these services within the overall structuralzone. Itisnow almost inevitable that building services will change significantly during the life ofa ‘commercial building whereas the structure will not and the designer should take this fundamental prineiple into aecount when determining structural solutions, inwebs of composite beams is appropriate for lightly serviced ings, and is one of the most commonly. used methods of incorporating services within thestrueturalzone, 6,7. Upto 70 per cent of the depth of the beam can be safe used provided that openingsare located towards the centre of the span. The advantage of this system is that modest sized openimgs can be formed wherestubs leaving space for secondary beams and services distribution ‘9 Castellated beams —long spans with gt loads LO Stub girder floor under ‘construction. 11 Haunching of beam at columa, herein composite construction. 12 Haunched beams at Grand Buildings, Trafalgar Square. 13 Typical tapered beam profiles (Ward Structures) and bottom, an ‘example of running larger services ‘where the beam shallower in ‘order to minimise floor sandwich depth 114 Example of tapered beam oor structure. 15,16 Composite trus wth service ‘routes in principle and onsite. 0 AszeAptit they areneeded. The composite action around openings means that the loss of strength ofthe beam dueto web openingsis often not significant. Castellated beams Castellated beams have been used as secondary beams in some buildings, but they suffer from low shear resistance and cannot. readily resist heavy point loads. They have primarily been used aslong-span roof beams where theirattractive shape s often expressed architecturally. With only light loading they can readily span 15 m without intermediate supports, 9. ‘Stub girders Inthissystem, tension is resisted by the bottom chord (usually a stee! column section) and compression resisted by the slab. Shear istransferred by stubs on the bottom chord and the slab openings are located adjacent to the stubs. Secondary beams are designed as continuous beams spanning over the bottom chord. Stub girders are most efficient in the 12-15mspanrange, but they have been designed up to27m span, 8, 10. Haunched beams Inthis system the beams are stiffened at the connection with the column, thus minimising, the structural depth and allowing the servicesto pass underneath the beams, 11,12. (The main beams are usually too shallow for holes tobe formed in the web.) Unfortunately the column size increases significantly and there may be difficulties in arranging service around the haunehing. Sometimes tis difficult to achieve continuity at the corners ofthe building. Haunched beams were used in the construction of Grand Buildingsin Trafalgar Square in London. Tapered beams Fabricated seetions are most likely tobe ‘economie for spans above 12m, These are fabricated from steel plates rather than standard sections. The taper of the bottom flange is usually 5 to6°—such that the beam depth is reduced by halfat the supports relative tomid span, Services are located in the triangular voids adjacent tothe columns, 43,14. (Foradetailed treatment of tapered ‘beams see AJ 1.10.86 p65.) Composite trusses ‘The benefits of composite action inthis instance lead to areduction in the sizeof the topchord and permit offset ofthe bracing member from its regular position where this ‘would, say, interfere with a servicesroute. Itisalso possible to provide a greater zone for services by omitting bracing members at mid span. The main disadvantage of the truss is the expense of fabrication and additional fire protection. Composite trusses re only likely to be the preferred solution forspansin exeess of 2m, 15,16 Parallel beam systems Inthis method developed by consulting engineer Peter Brett, the primary or spine ‘beams are arranged in pairs with one beam passing either side ofeach column, Shear s transferred intothe columnsby means of brackets. The secondary or'rib beams pass over the spine beams at right angles, 17. Because ofthis continuity, beam lengths are only limited by handling and transportation requirements. The piece’ count is significantly lower than for conventional construction saving both erection time and costs. Superficially this approach appears to lead todeeper construction. But because ofits continuity, both primary and secondary| 17 Aparalel beam system, where members do not haetobe cut to bay size lenths, 1BThe ASW-Cuble system, providing alarge clear service void, Srectalinear cousin ofthe {tiangulated space frame though the surface can act compastely witha concrete or, ‘beams ean be very shallow for their spans and overall depths are comparable with conventional construction. Its suitable for spansupto 15m. “Aunique steel and conerete flooring. system will be launched in 1991. The ASW-Cubic system isa two-layer structural grillage of steel members made up ina modular arrangement from standard steel sections and bolted together onsite, 18. It mits alarger, regular zone for services Between the structural layers thansome of the other beam arrangements. Todateit has ‘been used for long-span roof applications suchas the award-winning 170m span Stansted Airport jumbo jet hangar, but will beapplicable to commercial buildings providing greater floor spans in twodirections while offering a smaller depth to: span ratio, he difference bet ween the flooring and roofing systemsis that forthe floor the top chords ofthe framework are embedded in, and act compositely with, aconerete floor slab. Thisallows the use of shallower overall onstruction depth than the roof but retains the facility for services installation in the void between conerete slab and suspended ceiling. Construction of the conerete floor slab follows established techniques for constructing metal deck ‘composite flooring but omits the time coneumingand expensive installation of shearstuds. Vibration response Asspans inerease soo concerns about possible floor vibrations in high specification commercial buildings. Contrary to what right be expected, long-span composite beamsare no more prone to vibration problems than others because composite action increases the monolithie behaviour of the whole structure. Thenatural frequency of efficiently designed composite beamsis common the range of 4 to Geycles/see, decreasing with increasing span. Similar values are appropriate for non-composite beams, which willbe deeper and heavier than composite ‘beams for the same loading and span characteristics. A lower limit of natural frequency of cycles/see can be used in long-span composite buildings, provided cheeks are made on the likely response of the structure (see the Steel Construction Institute's Design guide on the vibration. offtoors).. ‘The natural frequency of atypical composite floor structure should not exceed 4 eyclesisee without doing more detailed calculations ofthe structural response. (People walk at 1-2 eycles/see.) The vibrati Frequency can be tested by special though thisisrarely necessary. Care should be taken when delicate machinery needs to beinstalled. Vertical cores ‘These not only provide forstairs lift shafts, service ducts, toilet accommodation and so on, They usually act asa key vertical structural element offering lateral stability tothe main structural frame, Concrete cores canbe slowerto construct and openings for doorways and service penetrations must be carefully predetermined as later alterations may be expensive and dificult. The number ‘and size of the openings may be limited due to structural requirements. That they donot require additional fire protection isa strong advantage and perhaps explains why they are the most common farm of core inthe UK. Vertical steel bracing or plated steel cores are usually easier and quicker toerect, are lightweight and can be prefabricated. Zones for services and door openings should be positioned in general termsat anearly stage inthe design although exaet dimensioningis not required until later provided that bracing members remain unaffected, 19abc, 20. Steel cores can be built simultaneously with the main frame whereas conerete ones ‘must generally be built inadvance. Itis not ‘unusual fora building to have more than one type of core depending upon the structural requirements nd relative positions of the coreson plan. Thefire prot coresis the most diffieult problem to salve. Often the steelworkis protected by a fire protecting wall. 2 A0eapeion 1819abe Steel-braced core configurations. bracing with ny bracing which s convenient for door =) Sie “be Steel plate cores may be used where more stiffhessis required than with the usual k’ braced cores. The stiffened plates are more akin to bridge construction than to buildings, and are more efficient when designed for heavy shearloads. Fire protection Current Building Regulations require all structural steel which supports more than the roof ofa building or isused in buildings of more than one storey tobe protected ayainst fire. This can be achieved by encasing the steel neoncrete or protecting it by the application of sprayed insulation, {ntumeseent coatings, insulated blankets, ‘board casings or ined metal casings. The choice depends on matters such as cost, whether the steel will remain exposed visually, what other elements will be fixed to the members (such as partitions), how long the method will take and whether it can be satisfactorily executed simultaneously with othersite activities, Ttisnot unusual forthe perimeter steelwork tobe encased inconerete, regardless of the method used elsewhere due toconerete'shigh durability in this potentially corrosive conditions along the cladding ine, Hollow steel sections, ifused may be filled with concrete or water to improve their fire resistance but interflling for fire protection has only been used on one ‘major project todate. Steel members ean be delivered tosite pre-encased where later shuttering around sections would prove difficult. However, this, often eaves pockets around the joints which require time-consuming mamual filling, ‘Typically 40 per cent of steelwork used in modern buildings is protected by spray- applied material which isusually the cheapest method, 40 per cent by board casings, and 10 per cent iseneased in conerete, particularly perimeter members and columns. Intumescent paint isonly used onabout 2 percent of total application but, thisis likely toincrease as off-site painting ‘becomes more accepted and paint thicknesses, and hence costs, are reduced Spray material is most inconvenient when it 420 isapplied adjacent to perimeter areas where cladding tradesare performing their workat thesame time. Despite the decreasing costs offre protection the need tofire protect steels, Viewed by the majority ofits specifiersasits major weakness, as the processis disruptive and isa separate and additional site activity. ‘The controversial proposals to change the Building Regulations relating to fire safety may reduce the degree of protection required and/or provide alternative ways of achievingit. The draft amendments suggested eliminating all four-hour and most two-hour fire-resisting periods, exeept in high buildings, increasing compartment sizes, allowing the greater use of combustible materials and redueing the levels of structural fire resistance, However, due tothe level ofprotest at these government measures, which also include greater reliance upon active fire protection ystems, no changes will be introduced without further detailed consideration, Future systems Most ofthe alternatives discussed above relate tothe choice of floor systems which in ‘one way or another are supported by a grid of columns. The resulting visual effect is usually lost or suppressed behind suspended ceilings and under raised fcors. This isnot necessarily undesirable but it may become possible to express the structure ifarchitects and engineers develop other systems which canbe implemented by fabricators and rectors. Overview Steel and composite construction providea freedom to span longer distances more economically in commercial buildings. Seleetion of the optimum system depends on balancingarchitectural, structural, services and cost erteria, and on evaluating the options early enough in design. Barly advice ‘onseleetion and detailed design information ‘ean be obtained from the Stee! Construction Institote’spublieationsand its Advisory Service (O34 23345). Met apniven sa B19q26