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    Pages 63 To 76 To From Linda Seligman, Lourie Reichenberg - Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy Systems, Strategies, and Skills-Pearson Education India (2015) PDF

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    Chapter 4 + Alfred Adlerand Individual Paychology 62. Alfred Adler moved away from Preud’'s sphere of influence to focus on psychosocial rather than psychosexual underpinnings of human behavior. Adler called his own theory of human develop- ‘ment Individual Psychology, to reflect the unique beliefs and skills that each person develops from early childhood and that serve asa reference for their atitudes, behaviors, and private view of self, others, and society. Adler's ideas are compatible with current thinking about mental health, Adlerian therapy pays considerable attention to social context, family dynamics, and child rearing. This approach is phe- rnomenological, empowering, and oriented toward both present and future. As a result, Adler's ideas are currently viewed as an important approach to psychotherapy, especially for clinicians working. with children and their families, ALFRED ADLER Alfred Adler was bon on February 7, 1870, in Vienna, Ausuia, the tied of six chilien. His father, Leopold Adler, was amerchant Alfred Adler ad «difficult childhood. When he was 3 years cl, & brother died in the bed they shared (Orger, 1963). Adler himself was prone to accidents and ill- nesses. Twice he was run over in the sueets: he had pneumonia, suffered from rickets and poor «eyesight, and was sickly and delicate. Because of his medial problems, Adler was pampered, espe- cially by his mother. However, when his younger brother was born, Adler felt dethroned as his, mother shifted her attention from him to her new baby. This led Adler to transfer his attention to his father and this peers, from whom he leamed “courage, comradeliness, and social intrest" (Orgler, 1963, p. 3). Adler's subsequent interest in birth order, inferiority, and parental verproteciveness may have originated in his own childhood experiences. ‘Adler was initially nota good student; teacher suggested that Adler's father apprentice his son to shoemaker rather than encourage his acidemie pursuits. However, Adler subsequently ‘became a strong student, demonstrating in his own ife that people can change their goals and the lives. From childhood on, Adler was interested in psychology and social issues. Even in his first professional postion as an eye specials) after he completed medical school, Adler was interested imthe total person; he sought to understand the conection between mental and physical processes and their impact on people's werk and soval lives. ler found his nest positon asa general physi- cian more rewarding because it meshed with his belief. However, he was troubled by felings of helplessness when treating people with terminal illesses. Tis led Adler to ancsher career change; hheentered the Feld of neurology while continuing to study psychology snd social science in an efor to understand people more fully. ‘Adler's insights into personality development brought him recognition in his field and prob- ably helped capture Fcud’s attention, In 1902, Freud wrote to Adler ane several ther leaders i the fields of neurology and psychology, suggesting they meet to discuss his work. Ths led to Adler's involvement inthe Vienna Peycho-Analytical Society. Descriptions of Adler's personal style are mized. Orgler's (1963) research suggests that Adler ‘was warm and friendly, whereas Jones (1955), Freud’s biographer, described Adler as "morose, cantankerous. contentious. and sulky" (p.130). Pethaps these descriptions reflect aspects of Adler's personality as well as his displeasure with Freud’s belie that sexual impulses are basic determi nants of psychological development ‘This ft finally led Adler to separate himself from the Psycho-Analytial Society, where he had achieved power and leadership to frm the Society for Individual Psychology. His work for the rest of his life had the goals of deepening his understanding of people and finding better ways to help them. Adler's strong sccal interest prompted him to write and speak on child rearing and ‘educational practices establish child guidance clinics inthe Vieanese public schools; and initiate Part 2 + Treatment Systems Enphasizng Background programs o tin teachers, social workers, physicians, and other professionals in ways to promete children’s meatal heath. Using live demonstrations and writing books forthe general public, he made is ideas and techniques accessible toa wide auence, which way importants bin. His wife Rissa, desribed a a “strong feminist and political activist.” wae an safest eapprter AF Ades social activism (Sherman & Nwaorgu, 2002, p. 181). Beginning in tha 29293, Aide? tase S1e- quently to the United States, where he generated considerable imeres ie less, Bly Hewtess involvement in his work continued until his death, On May 28, 1937, seh regen for ahocure in Scotland, he died of aheart atack. e THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY Adler's professional development falls roughly into four time periods. ‘The first phase of his career followed his completion of medical school Neither his inital work asa physician nor his subse- «quem work in neurological research seemed right for him, although he made contibutions in both axeas, His great interest was the mind rather than the body When he joined forces with Freud to furtier the fick of psychoanalysis, Adler entered the second phase and seemed, alas temporarily, to have found His place. His focus finally was on orroting healthy emotional development. However, before long, he felt stifled by th apparent gy of some of Freul’s beliefs and his limite interest inthe whale person. ‘Adler’s disengagement from Fread signaled the third period in his professional development This feed Ader to move forward with his own ides. According to Ansbacher and Ansbacher (1956), Ailer replaced “biological, external, objective causal explanation with peycholopial, inter nal, sbjetiveeausl explanation (p. 9). He replaced the concept ofthe sexta drive ar the ibid ‘vith the deve to gain power, superior, and become a fully functioning adu. The goal of Adler's Individual Psychology was to comprehend and help the unique individual, a departure from what he percived as Freud's overgencralired ideas. 'A final sage in Adler's career came afer is service as pychiarst in World War I. Seeing the bonds among soldiers during their war expediences convinced him that the drive toward socal interest was even stonger thn the drive for supeinity and power, He proposed tht people's baie motivation i “an innate predispottion for vcial interest” (Grey, 1098, . 8) and viewed people a driven primarily by needs for significance, seli-worh, and sccial involvement. Adler's thinking moved in directions that are compatible witn wtat many now view asthe fundamental purpose of therapy to help people feel empowered and self-actulized andbuid rewarding social involvement and relationships. IMPORTANT THEORETICAL CONCEPTS Adler’ theories, lite Freud's, have considerable depth and richness. Adlet’s concepts emphasize the unity and uniqueness of each individual. He believed thet understanding people grew from knowledge oftheir goals and drives, their family constellations, ther privat logic thie social con- texts, and their styles of life. According to Adler, people are not victims of bialogy or circumstance ‘but ean chooseto ckange both their goals and their behaviors. Adler shared Freud's belie tha much of what determines the direction of people's lives is unconscious and needs tobe analyzed to bring ‘heir goals andlifesylesinto conscious awareness. View of Human Nature Ader, like Freud, acknowledged the importance of the first 5 years of life ininfluencing people's future development. However, Adler’s view was less deterministic. He believed that biological ‘Chapter Alfied Aller nd Individual Prychology 65. and physiological factors provided probabilities for future growth but shat “the self, with creative power as part ofits inner nature, is the important intervening variable” (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, p. 179). For Adler, those characteristics of the person that were determined by heredity and exely upbringing were less imporaant than what the person made of them. He believed that bebavior is purposeful and goal directed, and that we can channel our behavior in way’ that promote growth. Adler believed that what matters to people is developing and working to achieve meaningful and rewarding goal, along with a lifestyle that leads toa positive sense of ourselves, connectedness to ‘other people and our communities, and satisfying work (Adler, 1963). ‘The Importance of Feelings of inferiority Striving to achieve superiority isan important element of Adkrrian thecry. Not to be superior over ‘hers, but to achieve mastery in one’s own life and to overcome feelings of inferiority, becomes a goal as srong as Freud's drive theory, and Carl Rogers's theory of self-actualization. Adler (1963b) believed that feelings of inferiority during the early childhood years have a great impact on devel- ‘opment. Neavly all children experience these feelings, perceiving themselves as small and power- lessin relation to their parents and older siblings. How young children are treated and how they deal ‘with their feelings of inferiority are impoxtant in shaping them. I is through mastering an issue, through the attainment of superiority, that one achieves a sense of accomplishment. Human beings create their own internalized goals and then strive to meet them. Through effort, improvement, suc- ‘cess, and completion, they live up to their own high standards. Every person has an internalized leal self they are trying to live up to. This striving for superiority is an attempt 0 overcome feel 1 of inferiority. ‘Acler developed this theory after his own struggle lo overcome multiple childhood illnesses. He believed children who succeed in reducing their feelings of difference and inferiority by build- ing their strengths and abilities, making wise and creative choices, and striving in healthy ways toward growth and power are likely to develop in positive ways. On the other hand, children who are pampered or neglected and whose efforts toward empowerment are thwarted are far less likely tw experience poslve growih and development. Adler believed that pampered children often grow ‘up expecting others to care for them and so do not develop their own resoarces, while neglected children may become discouraged and hopeless when their efforts o overcome an inferior role are ignored or rejected. Individual efforts to overcome inferiority can have an impact on a person’s overall lifestyle For instance, a child who cannot compete in sports with his older brother who is physically stronger and more mature, may choose instead to stay home and study. ultimately surpassing his brother in academic ability. Similarly, a middle child who cannot keep up with her popular and successful folder sister may elect instead to drop out, look at alternative lifestyles, and become the leader of a Wiccan community. It is through the attainment of superiority, regardless of venue, that one achieves mastery, achievement, and life satisfaction. Family Constellation and Birth Order ‘Adler paid considerable attention to other early influences on development including family con- Stellations and birth order. This isin Keeping with Adler's emphasis onthe socal nature of human problems, Hebelieved that, through an examination of the faily constellation, we ean understand People's lifesyles. Conversely, by understanding thir outlooks on lif, we can understand the roles people have in their faniies (Dreikus, 1973): Pat 2 + Treaiment Systems Emphasizing Background ES trees ‘Oldest ots Second chi isa chit Veungost hl om FIGURE 4.1. Girth Order Examples. AA person's family constellation includes the composition of the family, each person's roles, ‘and the reciprocal transactions that a person has, during the early formative years, with siblings and. parents. The child is not a passive recipient of these transactions; rather, children influence how Parents and siblings respond to them. Each child comes to play a role in the family that is deter: ‘mined by the interactions and transactions within that family (Adler, 1963), families. According to Ader, siblings who are most gives us the opportunity to compare and contrast ourselves with others, See new possibilities, and rethink the choices and roles we have taken on in our ov lives. Birth order is another aspect of families that, according to Adler (1963t), has a profound impact on development. Five psychological positions inthe family, described by Adler, and charac- teristics believed to be associated with each position (see Figure 4.1) are as follows: 1. Oldest children tend to be the most intelligent and achieving of the five groupe. Their verbal skills are especially strong. Firstboms, who initially grow up in a family of adults, tend to be dependable, well organized, and responsible. They generally are well behaved and cooperative, conforming to sotietal expectations and being fairly traditional. Their many stengths often help them attain positions of leadership. While firstborns are the oaly child in the family, they tend to be the center of attention and sometimes are spoiled. However, when siblings are born, oldest children tend to feel dethroned and ‘may feel threatened, angry, fearful, and jealous in response to losing their special role as only child Dealing successfully with the binh of a sibling can help firstborns to become more affiliative and self-confident. Laird and Shelton (2006) found that in later years a significant number of frstborns| hhad developed substance abuse problems, which they relaied to loss of attention and the need 0 oversee their younger siblings. 2. The second child feels pressure to catch up and compete with te oldest child, Because second ‘bom children usually realize they cannot outd the successes the firstborn has already achieved, they gravitate toward endeavors in which the older sibling is either unskilled or uninterested. A ‘common pattem is fora firtbom to excel in a traditional area such as English or mathemstics and for the second-bom to seek success in @ more creative and less conventional arca such as singing or drawing and to emphasize social rather than academic success. The more successful the firstborn, the more likely itis thatthe second-born will move in directions opposite to those of the typically Chapter + Alfred Adler and Individual Psychology 67 ‘well-behaved and achievement-oriented firstborn. Second-bom children tend to be more caring, friendly, and expressive than their older siblings ‘3. The middle child is often the second child and is likely to manifest many of the strengths of the second-bom. However, some middle childrea fee! squcezed between older children who have already found their place and younger children wko seem to receive more love and attention. Middle children sometimes have difficulty finding a way to become special and can become discouraged, viewing themselves as unloved and neglected. This patter is usually less evident in large families ‘where two or more childcen share the role of middle child but is particularly likely in families with only three children. With encouragement and positive parenting, however, middle children often become well adjusted, friendly, creative, and ambitious, prizing their individual strengths 4. Youngest children encounter three common pitialls: They may be pampered and spoiled by the rest ofthe family, they may feel a need to goat top speed at all times just to keep up With their ‘older siblings. and they may become discouraged about competing with their brothers and sisters, Decisions may be made for them, and they may not need to take on much responsibility for them- selves or others. Adler expressed concern that these children would experience strong feelings of inferiority. However, last-born children also ean acquire considerable power in the family and thrive on the special attention they receive. They often become adventurous, easygoing, empathic, le, and innovative. They typically pursve interests thit are all their own to avoid competition with siblings. Their most likely ally isthe oldest, who alsohas feelings of being differen. 5. Only children have much in common with both firsborn and last-born children. They seek ‘chicvement like fistboms and usually enjoy being the center of attention like the youngest. They may become pampered and spoiled, focusing only on their own needs, but also may integrate the achievement orientation of the firstbom with the creativity of later-born children. Because other family members are all adults, these children typically matare early and learn to cooperate and deal well with adults. However, if their parents are insecure, only children may adopt parental worries and insecurities Research has validated many of Adler’s assumptions about the impact of bh onder en pe sonality, but seme disrepant results sogges the impertance of caution when drawing conclasions about the connections between personality and birth order (Grey, 1998; Herrera, Zajone, ‘Wieczorkowska, & Cichomski, 2003; Lombardi, 1996; Parker, 1998) Variables within families can fave a complex impact on these patteras. For example. when twins are born. families tnd t teat one child as older than te other, antficially determining their bith order. When a firstborn isa gil or is impaired in some way, families may inadverenty promot the seecnd ehild into the pos af fistbor, High expectations willbe held for tht chil, while the firstborn wil be treated like a second-bom, Large families may perate as though they have more than one group of children, with ach group having achild who Funotions as the oldest one who Functions as the youngest, and c dren in the middle. This is especially likely in families in which many years separate groups of

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