CHAPTER Ill-HEAT GAINS wv in. Suppose only part of the heat coming in through the walls is removed. Then the balance will still raise the temperature of the building. Let's look at the water in Figure 3-A. In the center of the tank is a vertical partition separating the tank into two reservoirs. Water is continually flow- ing into reservoir 1 through the pipe A. Note the float valve on the outlet of this pipe. It maintains the water level in reservoir I at a point 96 in. above the bottom. A horizontal slot in the partition al- lows water to flow from reservoir I into 2. This slot is 76 in. above the bottom. Once reservoir 2 is filled to the level of the slot, the water level will be main- tained in it at exactly 75 in. providing B allows ‘only as much water to drain from the tank as the slot passes into the tank. Suppose valve B is opened too wide. Then more water will fow from reservoir 2 than flows through the slot. As a result, the water level will fall below 75 in. Now suppose valve B permits less water to drain out than is flowing in through the slot. The water level will then rise above 75 in. In the same way, the temperature in a room will fall if more heat is removed than is being added. Also, if less heat is removed, the room temperature will rise. So we can keep a given room temperature if we remove Just as much heat as enters the room from all sources. ‘Suppose an air conditioning system is started in a warm room. Then it must be able to remove more heat faster than comes in from all sources. Other- wise it will not cool the room and its contents down to the desired temperature. As an example restaurants and theaters are often precooled. They are cooled down to the desired temperature before crowds of people start coming in, Prior to the entry of the crowd, the cooling plant has plenty of excess capacity. That is, it can cool the conditioned room and its contents down to the desired low tempera- ture. After the crowd is in, the entire capacity of the plant is devoted to maintaining the necessary temperature. It does this by removing the heat as fast as it is released to the room. Flow of Heat Walls transfer heat to the air in a room because they are warmer than the room air. A wall continu- ally losing heat to a room would eventually cool down to the room air temperature. This doesn’t really happen. Why? Because the heat that the wall loses to the room air is being continually replen- ished from another source. This source of heat is the hot outdoor air. There is a steady flow of heat to the ‘outer face of the wall. This is just equal to the heat the room air gets from the inner face of the wall. Heat flow through a wall separating two spaces at different temperatures depends on three factors: 1. The area of the wall. 2.The difference in temperature of the ‘two spaces. 8. The heat-conducting properties of the wall. ‘The larger the area of a wall, the more heat it will conduct. A wall 200 sq ft in area will conduct twice as much heat as one of 100 sq ft. In regard to the second factor, suppose the differ- ence in the temperatures of the two spaces is 50 degrees. A certain amount of sensible heat will flow through the wall. If the temperature difference in- creases to 100 degrees, the flow of heat will be doubled. The principles just discussed are valid not only for walls, but also for windows, roofs, and all other building surfaces. These principles are summarized a follows: The flow of heat through any surface is d rectly proportional to its area. Also, itis di rectly proportional to the difference in the temperatures of the spaces separated by that surface. Example 3-1: If the outdoor temperature is 105 F and the room temperature is 75 F, and the heat flow through the walls of @ room is 230 Btuh, how much heat will flow through the walls of the room when the out- door temperature falls to 95 F? Assume the room temperature remains at 75 F. Solution: Initial temp diff = 105 - 75 30 degrees 95 ~ 75 = 20 degrees Heat flow at 95 F = 230 x 20 Final temp diff = 153.3 Btuh ‘The third factor involves the wall material and thickness. We will use the terms conductivity and conductance in discussing the heat flow through building materials. Conductivity It is common knowledge that the ability of various materials to conduct heat differs considerably. The best conductors of heat are metals. The poorer con- ductors (wood, asbestos, gases, cork, and felt) are called insulators. The ability of a substance to trans- mit heat by conduction is a physical property of the18 particular material. Itiscalled thermal conductivity. (This is generally shortened to “conductivity.”) ‘The common symbol is "k.” a FIGURES-B ‘CONDUCTIVITY DEFINED. heat in Blu flowing through one yeneous material in one hour when the orea is ome square foot nd when the diference ‘Sutwoen the faces Ts one degree.) Conductivity is the amount of heat in Btu flowing through a piece of homogeneous material one inch thick in one hour when the area is one square foot and when the difference in temperature between the faces is one degree. See Figure 3-B. The heat trans- fer by conduction through a homogeneous material can be calculated by the following equation: a=A k(e-u) (1) where q= Heat flow rate, Btuh A= Area, og ft = Conductivity, Beu in. per hr per 9g ft per degree F. x Thickness, in. (te — 10) = Difference in temporatare betwoen the two surfaces "x" inches apart," F. In the system of units used here the “per” indi- cates the line of a fraction. This means everything before the “per” is on top of the line and everything after the "per” is under the line. For example, con- crete has a conductivity of 12. Written with appropriate units this is: k= 12_Btu in_ ir sq it F TRANE AIR CONDITIONING MANUAL ‘This is the simple way to write conductivity. But it takes up more space. That's the reason the units for conductivity are often written all on one line. For example, for concrete k = 12 Btu in. per hr sq fF. Example 3-2: ‘An old window sash 5 ft x 8 ft was not worth re- pairing so it was removed and 4 in. face briek was laid in the opening. On a particular winter day the outside surface of the brick was 18 F and the inside surface temperature was 68 F. What is the heat flow through the bricked up opening? Solution: From Table 3-3, under Masonry Materials, we find that face brick has a conductivity of 9.0 Btu in. per hr sq ft F. Using equation 3-1, a=Akie—t = (6 x 8) (9.0/4) (58 — 18) = 3,600 Btuh Conductance Conductivity is a property of a homogeneous ma- terial. There are many materials used in the con- struction of buildings that are not homogeneous. Materials such as glass blocks, hollow clay tile, and conerete blocks are nonhomogeneous. That is, each succeeding inch of thickness is not identical with the preceding inch. So it is necessary to indicate the heat flow rate through the entire tile or block. The term conductance is used for the heat flow through nonhomogeneous materials. Conductance is defined as the heat flow rate in Btu per hour through one square foot of a nonhomogeneous material of a cer- tain thickness for a one degree difference in temperature between the two surfaces of the ma- terial. See Figure 3-C. The symbol for conductance is"C” Care should be taken not to confuse conductivity and conductance. Conductivity is the heat flow through one inch of a homogeneous material; con- ductance is heat flow through the entire thickness of a nonhomogeneous material. Heat transfer by conduction through a nonhomo- geneous material can be calculated by the follow- ing equation: a=AC(e-t) (32)CHAPTER IIl—HEAT GAINS 19 where q= Heat flow, Bruh Ax Areasa C= Conductanes, Btu per hrsq ft F (ts — &) = Difference in temporature between the two sur- faces, F. FIGURE 3. ‘CONDUCTANCE DEFINED. (The amount of heat in Bluh flowing thr Romegenecvs material when the area i 0 foot foro one degree diference in temperoture Betwoen the two faces.) Example 9-3: ‘A house has 25/32 in. asphalt impregnated sheathing in the walls. On a summer day the out- side surface temperature of the sheathing is 90 F and the inside surface temperature is 84 F. What is the heat flow through 100 sq ft of sheathing? Solution: Under Building Boards in Table 3-3 0.49 is the conductance of 25/32 in. impregnated sheathing. Using equation 3-2, q=AC (= ty) 00 sq ft x 0.49 Btu x (90 — 84) F br oq 0 F = 294 Biuh Example 3- ‘The heat flow rate through a concrete cinder block wall is 6.96 Btuh per sq ft. The blocks are 8 x 8x 16 in. and are 8 oval core type. The surface temperature on the cool side of the wall is 95 F. What is the surface temperature on the other side of the wall?” Solution: From Table 3-3, the conductance of the block is, 0.58 Btu per hr sq ft F. Using equation 3-2, C (tet) (e-) =a AG (te — 95) F = 6.96 Btu x hr sq ft F req ft 0.68 Btu (2-95) F= 12 F ta= 12495 ta=107F Surface Conductance ‘The transfer of heat from air to a surface or from a surface to air is called surface conductance. Some people call it film conductance or film coefficient. Surface conductance is the amount of heat transfer in Btu per hour from a surface to air or from air toa surface per square foot for one degree difference in temperature. The symbol for surface conductance is “Q" The steady flow transfer of heat from a surface to air or from air to a surface can be calculated by the following equation: a=Af(b-b) (33) where = Heat flow, Bru A= Area, sa ft Surface conductance, Btu per hr oa fe F ference in temperature between the surface and {he surrounding ar, F ‘The surface conductance of building materials de- pends upon the color and smoothness of the surface. ‘The average value of popular materials used for walls is 1.46 to 1.68 for still air. For a wind velocity of 15 mph the average value is 6.00; a surface con- ductance of 4.00 is used if the wind velocity is 7 mph. Example 3-5: Suppose there is a 7% mph breeze on the outside of the wall in Example 3-4. Assume the air is still on the inside of the wall. What is the air tempera- ture on both sides of the wall? eu Solution: ‘The heat flowing through the block wall first passes through the air film on the outside of the wall. So the heat flow rate through the air film is 6.96 Btuh per sq ft. Now use equation 3-3: q=Afite-t)20 TRANE AIR CONDITIONING MANUAL ta is the air temperature surrounding the wall and tr is the surface temperature of the wall. The sur- face conductance for a 7% mph wind is 4.00. Thus, (te — 107) F = 6.96 Btu x hr sq ft F hr sqft 4.00 Btu (2-10) F=17F t2=17+107 ta = 108.7 F ‘Thus the air temperature surrounding the hot. side of the wall is 108.7 F. ‘The same method is used to find the air tempera- ture on the cool side of the wall. Heat flows at the same rate through the outside air film, through the wall, and also through the inside air film. But this time in equation 3-3, ts is the cool side wall temperature and ts is the temperature of the sur- rounding air. The surface conductance for still air is 1.46. Thus, q=Af(te—ti) (at) = Af (95 ~ ty) F = 6.96 Btu x hr sq F hraqft 146 Btu (95 ~t) F=48F t= 95-48 t= 90.2F Air Space Conductance Heat transfer across an air space is called air space conductance. It is defined as the heat flow in Btu per hour through an area of one square foot of an air space for a temperature difference of one de- gree between the bounding surfaces. The common symbol is “C,.” The steady flow transfer of heat across an air space can be calculated by the follow- ing equation: =A Cy (te- b) G4) where = Hest fow, Btah rea, 24 fe i apace conductance, Bta per hr aq fF ference in temperature between the bounding surfaces, F For an air space in a wall between ordinary build- ing materials having a thickness between % and 4 in, the air space conduetance will be approximately 1.08. If one side of the air space is covered with aluminum coated paper, the air space conductance will be approximately 0.48, Air spaces in roofs will have slightly different values for air space conductance for thickness be- c, (ene tween % and 4 in. This is because the direction of the heat flow is vertical instead of horizontal (as in a wall). For roof air spaces bounded by ordinary building materials, the air space conductance is about 1.24 for heat flow up (winter), and about 0.87 for heat flow down (summer). If one surface of air space is faced with aluminum coated paper, the winter value is about 0.68 while the summer value is approximately 0.31. Over-all Heat Transfer Coefficient Equations 3-1 through 3-4 each has one or more surface temperatures. While the outside and inside surface temperature of a wall can be found, it isn’t always easy to do. Also, it is really inconvenient to find all the surface temperatures for a wall made up of four or five materials. But it’s easy to find the air temperature on both sides of a wall with an ordinary thermometer. So what is needed is a heat flow equation written with air temperatures. And the equation should work for homogeneous materials, nonhomogeneous materials, and for a wall or roof made up of several material Equation 3-5 will accomplish this. It is for air temperatures and will work for a wall or roof made of different materials. The new term in the equation, U, is the over-all heat transfer coefficient. It is de- fined as the heat flow per hour through one square foot when the temperature difference is one degree between the air on the two sides of the wall or roof. a@=AU (e-t) 35) where feat flow, Blu per hr Area, sa ft verall heat transfer eoeficient, Btu per hr 9q ft (tts) = Difference in temperature between the air on the two sides ofthe wall or rot Equation 3-5 is also written a-AUTD (3-5) where TD is the temperature difference and re- places the term (tz ~ t1). Equations 3-5 and 3-5a are used in figuring the heat flow for a wide variety of heat transfer problems. Example3-6: ‘The over-all heat transfer coefficient for the wall in Example 3-5 is 0.38 Btu per hr sq ft F. For an inside air temperature of 90.2 F and an outside air temperature of 108.7 F, what is the heat flow rate through the wall? Solution: Using equation 3.5,CHAPTER III-HEAT GAINS. 21 AU (tt) = 1g ft x 0.98 Btu x (108.7 - 90.2) F hrsqitF = 7.08 Btuh, This checks the heat flow rate of 6.96 Btuh from Example 3-5. It does not agree exactly because the over-all heat transfer coefficient of 0.38 is a rounded off number. The U value to three decimal places is, 0.376; if this is used it will give 6.96 Btuh. It is cus- tomary, however, to write k, C, Cay f, and U only to two decimal places. Any further refinement is not justified. Materials used under field conditions will vary in quality and installation much more than the value in the third decimal place. Resistance Resistance to heat flow is defined as the reciprocal of a heat transfer coefficient. For example, when the heat flow through bricks in Example 3-2 was caleu- lated, the term K was used. Remember that k was 9.0 and x was 4; so K = 9.0. If the bricks were 8 inches x 4 thick in the window opening, would be sub- 8 stituted for the K term. The result would be half as ‘much heat flow. This would be expected because the bricks were twice as thick and offered twice as much resistance to heat flow. The resistance offered by the 4 in. bricks is ¥= -4 = 0.44. Fora thickness of 3.0 in, twice the resistance is obtained by writing x =8 -o0.88 k 90 ‘The resistance to heat flow offered by a nonhomo- geneous material is merely 2. ‘The resistance to heat flow by an air space is t ‘The resistance across an air film is the reciprocal of the surface conductance: What is the resistance to heat flow offered by a wall or roof made of several materials? From the air on one side to the air on the other side the resist ance is the reciprocal of the over-all heat transfer coefficient, ¢ Example 3-7 will show how easy it is to find the U value for a wall by using resistances. Example 3-7: A masonry wall is built of 8 in. hollow concrete blocks and 4 in. face brick. The blocks are made of sand and gravel aggregate. Cement mortar ¥ in. thick is between the blocks and face brick. Gyp- sum plaster (% in. thick) with vermiculite ag- gregate is the inside finish on the wall. Assume a 15 mph wind. What is the U value for the wall? 4 coneyr wortan ¥ cresum FIGURE 3-0 WALL FOR EXAMPLE 3.7, Solution: See Figure 3-D for a sketch of this wall. Prepare a table, in solving this problem, and write down each item that offers resistance to heat flow. The item numbers in the table match those at the bot- tom of Figure 3-D. Resist Item Description ance. 1 Inside ar film, Uf, W146 0.68 2 Plaster, x, 8 0.30 ko 3 Block, UC, 10.90 aan 4 Mortar, x, U2 0.10 Ko 5 Brick, x, 4 os 90 6 Outside air tlm, Uf, 16.0. oat ‘Total resistance 2.89 ‘The over-all heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of the total resistance. Thus,22 TRANE AIR CONDITIONING MANUAL Pataca + Figure 3. ROOF FOR EXAMPLE 2-8 Example 3-8: AA roof is made by welding a metal deck onto steel Joists. Glass fiber insulating board (1% in.) is laid on top of the metal deck and roll roofing built up on top of the insulation to a thickness of % in, Metal lath is wired to the underside of the steel Joists and plastered (gypsum lightweight aggregate) to a thickness of % in. See Figure 3-E for construction. (a) What is the U value for this roof for summer conditions? (b) For winter conditions? Solution: Part (a) — Summer: Item Description 1 Outside air lm, Vf, 1/3.00 (7% milked 025 2 Build-up roofing, UC, 1/8.00 038 3 Insulation, =, Th k 025 6.50 4 Metal deck. 0.00 5 Air space, 110g. O87 oon 115 6 Metal lath and plaster, 1/C, 1/213. oat 7 Inside air lm, Vif 1.48 0.68 ‘Total resistance 9538 u=1 R a 9.38 107 —(Use 0.11) Part (b) — Winter: tom Deserntion _ Tne air fm, 1, 11.48 6 Metal lath and plaster, 16,1313, 5 Air apace, 10, 11.24 4 Metal deve 00 3 Insulation, %, 1% 6.50 © ogg 2. Builtup ring, .00 sew 039 1 Outside air Bm, 16.00 (18 mis) on Total resistance 896 usb R = 396 = 0.112—(Use 0.11) The resistance of the outside air film and the air space both dropped for winter conditions. The total change in resistance of the roof is 0.42 (9.38 - 8.96 = 0.42). Butthe change is small when compared with the total resistance of the roof. Note that for this construction the U value is the same for winter and summer. Example 3-9: For a wall, U = 0.30. The area of the wall is 100 1q ft. Ifthe air temperature on one side of the wall is 108 F and is 70 F on the other side, how much heat will flow through the wall per hour? Solution: Using equation 3-5 a= AU (te— ty) 100) (0.30) (103 — 70) = 990 Btuh Equation 3-5 (or 3-5a) is fundamental and is used in the calculation of many types of heat trans- fer problems. ‘The U values for many types of walls, floors, and ceilings have been determined; they are tabulated in Tables 3-4 to 3-13 inclusive. Example 3-10: ‘The wall of a conditioned room is constructed of 8 in. of common brick. The inside surface is covered with plaster % in. thick. The wall area is 100 29 ft. The indoor temperature is maintained at 85 F ‘when the outdoor temperature is 105 F. What is the heat flow into the room through the wall?REFERENCE TABLES Is arena Desenierion vivir | ance ‘Gvesum om rcasren ooand. sis th aas Sneatning (pmesnateD On COATED) 2/98 MINERAL WOOL FIBERS (ROCK SLAG, Om ‘oun oz Mwcrat woot (ota, sas, on ROCK | 27 | wanmieuuire (exeanoeo) eae ‘inbca AsoneoATEsse ret IN i, ‘noun acanesare. i | ose Stone, Line on eno, t2s0 | T Plastering Tevet SonKaAr. t/t aia faveniacs Ue Nase ow wera tara in ais Sino acomeonte On METAL LAT af In 770 soncrur moorina.-a/ i S00 sions ‘sncsros cement, Wai. Larre. 476 fevremians ‘Senact inoucating (ie tne ponno) aed ‘wooo, neve, it Xm, tare vas Fim ine a aime worrwoooe tafe hc oe | tee “Extracted with permission ‘fom ASHRAE Guide and Data Book, 1965, ‘#Conductivity given in Btu in per hr oq fF “HConductanoe given in Btu por hr aq ft 361