Shabbir Hussain

Chapter # 02

1
 Manufacturing and Atomic
Structure
Manufacturing was defined as a transformation process of the
material that is transformed;

It is the behavior of the material that defines success and quality of

the manufacturing process
• Forces,
• Temperatures
• Physical parameters of the process

The response to the force, temperature etc., depend upon the

atomic structure of materials

2
 Manufacturing and Atomic
Structure
Almost a 100 materials/elements are known which are there in
the periodic table

The constituents of their atomic sturucture are same

• Electrons
• Protons
• Neutrons
• Bosons
• …….

But the combinations in atoms and the arrangement of atoms in

different materials is different; HENCE DIFFERENT PROPERTIES
3
Atomic Structure and Elements
Metalloid and
In Center and Left Semimetals Right

ALL of these elements can exist in all

phases i.e, SOLID, LIQUID, PLSAMA and
GAS. It’s the effect of the parameter
called TEMEPRATURE.

Look for similar properties along the columns 4

 Atomic Models
Planetary Model For Elements

hydrogen, helium, fluorine, neon sodium.

Maximum Electrons per orbital = 2 n2

When this is true for any atoms outer most shell it is a stable element. When this
not true the materials forms bonds to stabilize to come to the minimum energy
level of its electrons

Example in Manufactuirng related problem is RUSTING OF IRON

Bonding of Atoms and Molecules
Primary Bonds: generally between atoms to bring them
to minimum energy levels

• Ionic
• Covalent
• Metallic

Secondry Bonds: generally between molecules

• Dipole forces,
• London forces
• Hydrogen bonding
 Ionic Bonding
Complete Transfer of electron
Ions formed
Low Packing density
Generally one to one

Therefore:
• Poor Electric Conduction
• Poor Ductility
• High melting points

Examples: NaCL, NaFl etc

 Covalent Bonding

Sharing of electron, stabilization

Higher Packing density
Can be many to many

Therefore:
• Poor Electric Conduction
• Very high hardness
• High melting points

Examples: Diamond, Graphite etc

 Metallic Bonding
Sharing of electron large
number of atoms
Clouds of electrons that holds
the atoms together.
Generally same element

Therefore:
• Good Electric Conduction
• Good Heat Conduction
• Good Ductility

Examples: Al, Cu etc

 Secondary Bonding
Dipole Forces: molecule comprised of two atoms that have
equal and opposite electrical charges.

London Forces: due to motion of electrons momentary dipoles

formed between molecules

Hydrogen Bonding: due to position of hydrogen atoms on

hydrogen based compounds, i.e., H2O

Video: Heat Treatment Metal and Alloy structures

 Crystal Structures

From Molten Form in Primary Industries metals are solidified

That is when they assume a particular crystal structure

Depending on the nature of the particular material and

temperature, pressure and chemical parameters of the
process they solidify in the following types of microstructures

• Crystalline Structure
• Polycrystalline / grainulated
• Noncrystalline / amorphous
 Crystalline Structure
Crystalline structure: is one in which the atoms are located at
regular and recurring positions in three dimensions

A basic repeating unit of structure is called UNIT CELL

A basic example is Body Centered Cubic Structure.

Three ways to visualize:

 Crystalline Structure
Three basic types
• Body Centered Cubic
• Face Centered Cubic
• Hexagonal Closed Pack

BUT THERE ARE MORE

When metal changes structure with temperature it is called Allotropic

Example: Iron, is BCC at room temp; FCC above 912C (1674F)
and back to BCC above 1400C(2550F)
 Crystalline Structure

• Perfect Crystal Structures are not a reality of easy to get but

very important in some cases like diamond
• As the devices are getting smaller, the perfection of single
crystal structure is very important, e.g., silicon in electronic
devices
Imperfections in Crystal Structure
Sometimes

• Undesired (defects), e.g., silicon oxide layer in

electronic devices
• Intentionally for specific application, e.g., alloys and ion
implantation

DEFECTS are of three types

• Point Defects
• Line Defects
• Surface Defects
 Point Defects
Vacancy: a missing atom within the lattice structure

Ion-pair vacancy: (Schottky defect), which involves a missing pair of ions of

opposite charge in a compound creating charge balance

Interstitialcy: presence of an extra atom in the structure

Displaced ion (Frenkel defect): an ion removed from a regular position and
inserted into an interstitial position not normally occupied by such an
 Line Defects
Many types but our book discuss two types of line dislocation

• Edge dislocation: is the edge of an extra plane of atoms that

exists in the lattice. Ex, Fault lines in materials for failure
• Screw dislocation: spiral within the lattice structure wrapped
around an imperfection line, like a screw is wrapped around its
axis. Ex, Electric and electromagnetic properties change at
these

These may arise during casting / machining. Example of

Single crystal turbine blades.
 Surface Defects
Discontinuities or dislocations along the two dimensional surfaces
of a material.

Grain Boundaries
Surface compression
to stabilize
Twin Boundaries
 Deformation in Metallic Crystals
Normal State Elastic deformation Plastic Deformation

HCP has the fewest slip directions, BCC the most, and FCC falls in
between.
HCP show poor ductility at room temperature.
BCC should have the highest ductility, if the number of slip directions were
the only criterion. However, nature is not so simple. Ex: Low crabon steel
FCC: most ductile, many slip directions
 Dislocations Promote Failure
It requires lesser stress to deform a crystal with defect than the single
crystal of the same material.

Makes it good for manufacturing and bad for application of product

 Dislocations Promote Failure
Twinning can be defined as a mechanism of plastic deformation in
which atoms on one side of a plane (called the twinning plane) are
shifted to form a mirror image of the other side of the plane.

• Metals like Magnesium, zinc and low carbon steel twin more
readily than slip.
• This makes it an important factor while their manufacturing
 Grains and Grain Boundaries
Each grain has its own unique lattice orientation (single crystal
within the boundaries); but collectively, the grains are
randomly oriented within the block. Such a structure is referred
to as polycrystalline.

• Random nucleation sites when solidification of molten metal starts.

• Each cite builds a grain of it uniform crystal structure as
solidification progresses
• When sites coincide the grain boundaries are formed
• Faster cooling smaller grain size and vice versa
• Smaller grain size higher hardness ma have its applications
• Larger grain size more stable, stronger but ductile
• Deformation produces strain hardening
• Grain Boundaries are fault lines for failure during vibration based
operations
 Non Crystalline Materials
Liquids and Gases are Non crystalline

Metal when melted turns Non Crystalline

Mercury is a liquid metal at room temperature, with its melting

point of 38°C (37°F)

Some materials are non-crystalline in their solid form. These

materials are called Amorphous. Ex: Glass, many plastics,
and rubber fall

They exhibit:
• Absence of a long-range order in the molecular structure
• Differences in melting and thermal expansion
characteristics
 Non Crystalline Materials

Single Crystal Non Crystalline

Regular Irregular
Repeating Random
Denser Loosely Packed
Lighter
 Non Crystalline Materials
• Metal experiences an increase in volume when it melts
• For a pure metal, this is abrupt, at a constant temperature (i.e., the
melting temperature Tm)
Thermal expansion—the change in volume as
a function of temperature, usually different in
the solid and liquid states

Supercooled liquid: is a phase through

which glass goes before solidifying

Glass-transition temp Tg. change in the

thermal expansion slope. thermal
contraction slope

Heat of fusion causes the atoms to lose

the dense, regular arrangement of the
crystalline structure
Example of glass SiO2``
 Non Crystalline Materials
• Metal experiences an increase in volume when it melts
• For a pure metal, this is abrupt, at a constant temperature (i.e., the
melting temperature Tm)

So if you change the rate of cooling you can

control the crystal structure of SiO2 and make
it either amorphous (glass) or single crystal
SiO2

Example of glass SiO2``

 Engineering Materials (Metals)
Metals: Metals have crystalline structures in the solid state mostly

BCC, FCC, or HCP structures

Metallic bonding (clouds of electrons)

High electrical and Thermal conductivity

Opaqueness (impervious to light rays)
Reflectivity (capacity to reflect light rays)
Engineering Materials Ceramics
Ceramics: Ceramic molecules are characterized by ionic or covalent
bonding, or both. Therefore:

High hardness and stiffness (even at elevated

temperatures),
Brittleness (no ductility),
Electrical insulation (nonconducting) properties
Refractoriness (being thermally resistant)
Chemical inertness

Most ceramics have crystalline structure except for glasses

28
Engineering Materials Polymers
Polymers: A polymer molecule consists of many repeating
“mers” to form very large molecules held together by
covalent bonding. C with H, N or O. Secondary bonding
(van der Waals)

• Thermoplastics: long chains of “mers” in a linear

structure. Materials heated and cooled without
substantially altering their linear structure
• Thermosetting: the molecules transform into a rigid,
three-dimensional structure on cooling from a heated
plastic condition and change their structure
• Elastomers: have large molecules with coiled
structures. The uncoiling and recoiling of the molecules
when subjected to stress cycles
29