Chemicals

A chemical is any substance consisting of matter. This includes any liquid, solid, or gas.
A chemical is any pure substance (an element) or any mixture (a solution, compound, or
gas). They can either occur naturally or can be created artificially.

•Spectrophotometry

Spectrophotometry is a method to measure how much a chemical substance absorbs

light by measuring the intensity of light as a beam of light passes through sample solution.
The basic principle is that each compound absorbs or transmits light over a certain range
of wavelength. This measurement can also be used to measure the amount of a known
chemical substance. Spectrophotometry is one of the most useful methods of quantitative
analysis in various fields such as chemistry, physics, biochemistry, material and chemical
engineering and clinical applications.

A spectrophotometer is an
instrument that measures
the amount of photons (the
intensity of light) absorbed
after it passes through
sample solution. With the
spectrophotometer, the
amount of a known chemical
substance (concentrations)
can also be determined by
measuring the intensity of light detected. Depending on the range of wavelength of light
source, it can be classified into two different types:

UV-visible spectrophotometer: uses light over the

ultraviolet range (185 - 400 nm) and visible range (400 - 700
nm) of electromagnetic radiation spectrum.
 IR spectrophotometer: uses light over the infrared range (700 -
15000 nm) of electromagnetic radiation spectrum.

Figure 1: Basic structure of spectrophotometers (illustrated by Heesung Shim)

Spectrometer: It produces a desired range of wavelength of light. First a collimator (lens)
transmits a straight beam of light (photons) that passes through a monochromator (prism)
to split it into several component wavelengths (spectrum). Then a wavelength selector
(slit) transmits only the desired wavelengths. After the desired range of wavelength of
light passes through the solution of a sample in cuvette, the photometer detects the
amount of photons that is absorbed and then sends a signal to a galvanometer or a digital
display, as illustrated in Figure 1.
•Extraction
Extraction" refers to transference of compound(s) from
a solid or liquid into a different solvent or phase. When
a tea bag is added to hot water, the compounds
responsible for the flavor and color of tea are extracted
from the grounds into the water (Figure 2)

Figure 2: Example of Extraction: Tea

In the chemistry lab, it is most common to use liquid-liquid extraction, a process that
occurs in a separatory funnel (Figure 3). A solution containing dissolved components is
placed in the funnel and an immiscible solvent is added, resulting in two layers that are
shaken together. It is most common for one layer to be aqueous and the other an organic
solvent. Components are "extracted" when they move from one layer to the other. The
shape of the separatory funnel allows for efficient drainage and separation of the two
layers.

Figure 3: Schematic of extraction.

Compounds move from one liquid to another depending on their relative solubility in each
liquid. A quick guide to solubility is the "like dissolves like" principle, meaning that nonpolar
compounds should be readily extracted into nonpolar solvents (and vice versa). The
compounds responsible for the taste and color of tea must be polar if they are readily
extracted into hot water. When allowed to equilibrate between two liquids in a separatory
funnel, the majority of a compound often ends up in the layer that it is more soluble.

•Titration
Titration is the slow addition of one solution of a known concentration (called a titrant) to
a known volume of another solution of unknown concentration until the reaction reaches
neutralization, which is often indicated by a color change. The solution called the titrant
must satisfy the necessary requirements to be a primary or secondary standard. In a
broad sense, titration is a technique to determine the concentration of an unknown
solution.

Figure 4: Titration Set-up

 Titration is a technique to determine the concentration of an unknown solution. As
illustrated in the titration setup above, a solution of known concentration (titrant) is used
to determine the concentration of an unknown solution (titrand or analyte).

Typically, the titrant (the solution of known concentration) is added through a burette to a
known volume of the analyte (the solution of unknown concentration) until the reaction is
complete. Knowing the volume of titrant added allows us to determine the concentration
of the unknown analyte. Often, an indicator is used to signal the end of the reaction,
the endpoint. Titrant and analyte is a pair of acid and base. Acid-base titrations are
monitored by the change of pH as titration progresses.

 Titrant: solution of a known concentration, which is added to another solution whose

concentration has to be determined.

 Titrand or analyte: the solution whose concentration has to be determined.

 Equivalence point: point in titration at which the amount of titrant added is just enough
to completely neutralize the analyte solution. At the equivalence point in an acid-base
titration, moles of base = moles of acid and the solution only contains salt and water.

What is Titration Curve?

A titration curve is the plot of the pH of the analyte solution versus the volume of the
titrant added as the titration progresses.