NUTRITIONAL PHYSIOLOGY
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: HISTORY consequence of improper functioning of the human body
ARISTOTLE: developed theories of human anatomy
HIPPOCRATES: “Anatomy is the foundation of medicine”- it
should be based on the form of the human body.
HEROPHILUS: treatise “On Anatomy”, synthesized the
results of many hundred human dissections.
CELSUS: Roman physician, first century AD, refer to the
resurgent taboo on human dissection
GALEN: second century AD; refer to the resurgent taboo on
human dissection
▪ With the loss of the text “On Anatomy”,
descriptions of human anatomy presented as fact
returned to the untested and largely incorrect
domain of --- theory.
RENAISSANCE ANATOMY
- progression toward critical analysis and accuracy
▪ LEONARDO DA VINCI
▪ ANDREAS VESALIUS
• ANATOMICAL SCIENCE: begun in 1543; on the
publication of De humani corporis fabrica (On the
structure of the Human Body)
o It was invented by Andreas Vesalius (1514-
1564)
• MODERN PHYSIOLOGY: begun in 1543
• REBIRTH OF ANATOMY: relied on human dissections
performed by Vesalius, his colleagues & students.
• Vesalius opposed Galen (whose authority has been
sacred for 14 century)
ANATOMY: VESALIUS PHYSIOLOGY: WILLIAM HARVEY
1628: Harvey published EXERCITATIO ANATOMICA DE
MOTU CORDIS ET SANGUINIS IN ANIMALIBUS (Anatomical
Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals)
- Describes the circulation of the blood (used in
live dissection)
➢ JOHANN CHRISTIAN REIL (1759-1813): first scientific
journal of physiology
- ARCHIVE FUR DIE PHYSIOLOGIE in 1795
- Investigated tissue metabolism, neuroanatomy,
neurophysiology vitalism which posited a “life
force” behind biochemical processes.
ANATOMY: Ana- up - tomy: process of cutting
- Science of body structure and relationships
among structures
- Studied by dissection (dis- apart, section- act of
cutting)
- Careful cutting apart of structures to study their
relationships.
PHYSIOLOGY: physio- nature -logy- study of
- Science of body functions (how the body parts
work)
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY: branch of science that describes the
parts.
- How the body part functions during illness,
diseases or disorders.
6 BASIC LIFE PROCESSES
1. METABOLISM: sum of all chemical processes that
occur in the body.
a. CATABOLISM: (catabol: throwing
down; -ism: condition)- breaking down
of complex chemical substance to
simpler one.
b. ANABOLISM: (anabol: raising up)
building of complex chemical substance
from smaller substances,
e.g. Digestive processes catabolize (split)
proteins in food into amino acids. These amino
acids are then used to anabolize (build) new
proteins that make up body structures such as
muscles and bones.
2. RESPONSIVENESS: body’s ability to detect and
respond to changes in its internal and external
environment
3. MOVEMENT: includes motion of the whole body,
individual organs, single cells and even tiny
structures inside the cells.
4. GROWTH: an increase in body size that results
from an increase in the size of the existing cells,
the no of cells or both.
5. DIFFERENTIATION: process a cell undergoes to
develop from an unspecialized to a specialized
state.
STEM CELLS: precursor cells that can undergo
differentiation to divide
6. REPRODUCTION: refers either to a (1) formation
of new cells for tissue growth, repair or
replacement or (2) to the production of a new
individual.
production of a new individual occurs
through the fertilization of an ovum by
a sperm cell to form a zygote, followed
by repeated cell divisions and the
differentiation of these cells.
HOMEOSTASIS: conditions of equilibrium in the body’s
internal environment produced by the interplay of all the
body’s regulatory processes.
➢ CLAUDE BERNARD (1813-1878): first one to
proposed that cells flourished because they live in
the relative constancy “le milieu interieur”- the
internal environment despite changes in external
environment
➢ WALTER B. CANNON (1871-1945): coined the term
homeostasis to describe this dynamic constancy.
BODY FLUIDS: maintenance of homeostasis is highly 2. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM: reverses a change
dependent on regulation of body fluids; it contains in a controlled condition. It tries to negate the
dissolved chemicals found inside cells original stimulus (high BP) e.g. increase in blood
o INTRACELLULAR FLUID: fluid within the cell glucose level
o EXTRACELLULAR FLUID: fluid outside the body cells
- Dissolved in ICF & ECF are oxygen, nutrients,
proteins & variety of ions.
✓ INTERSTITIAL FLUID: the ECF that fills the narrow spaces
between cells of tissues
DIFFERENT KIND OF ECF (accdg to location)
✓ BLOOD PLASMA: ECF within blood vessels
✓ LYMPH: within lymphatic vessels
✓ CEREBROSPINAL FLUID: within brain & spinal cord
✓ SYNOVIAL FLUID: within joints
✓ AQUEOUS HUMOR & VITREOUS BODY: ECF of the eyes

CONTROL OF HOMEOSTASIS
DISORDER: abnormality of structure or function.
1. FEEDBACK SYSTEM: cycle of events in which the status
DISEASE: illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs
of a body, conditions is continually monitored,
or symptoms.
evaluated, changed, re-monitored, re-evaluated and
Local Disease: affects one part/region of body.
so on.
Systemic Disease: affects the entire body
Controlled condition: monitored variable
SYMPTOMS: subjective changes in body functions not seen
Stimulus: disruption that changes a controlled
by observer
condition
SIGNS: objective changes that can be seen.
COMPONENTS OF A FEEDBACK SYSTEM
11 MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEM
a. RECEPTOR: body structure that monitors, changes in a
Integumentary System Skeletal System
controlled condition & sends input to a control center.
Muscular System Respiratory System
This pathway is called afferent pathway (towards the
a. Axial Muscles
control center). E.g. nerve endings in the skin that
b. Appendicular
sense temperature
Muscles
b. CONTROL CENTER: sets the range of values within
which a controlled condition should be maintained, Nervous System Digestive System
evaluates the input it receives from receptors and a. CNS
generates output commands when they are needed. b. Peripheral
This pathway is called efferent pathway (away from Nervous System
control center). Endocrine System Urinary System
c. EFFECTOR: a body structure that receives output from Cardiovascular System Male & Female
control center & produces a response or effect that Reproductive System
changes the controlled condition. e.g. skeletal Lymphatic System
muscles become the effector when the brain sends
nerve impulses for shivering to commence which BODY’S LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION:
generates heat & raises body temperature. Atom – molecule – cell – tissue- organ – organ system –
organism
TYPES OF FEEDBACK SYSTEM
1. POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM: strengthen or BODY POSITIONS:
reinforce change in one of the body’s-controlled 1. PRONE POSITION: lying facedown
conditions (breastfeeding, childbirth, blood clot) 2. SUPINE POSITION: lying faceup

ANATOMICAL REGIONS
1. Abdominal – anterior trunk just below the chest
2. Acromial – point of shoulder
3. Antebrachial – forearm
4. Antecubital – anterior surface of elbow
5. Axillary- armpit
6. Brachial – arm
7. Buccal – cheek area
8. Carpal- wrist
9. Cephalic – head
10. Cervical – neck region
11. Coxal- hip
12. Crural – anterior leg, shin
13. Deltoid – curve of shoulder formed by large deltoid
muscle
14. Digital – fingers, toes
15. Femoral – thigh area
16. Fibular – lateral part of leg
17. Flank – fleshy area along each side between the lower
ribs & top of the hip bones.
18. Inguinal – area where the thigh meets the trunk; groin
19. Mental – chin
20. Orbital – eye area
21. Patellar – anterior knee
22. Pectoral – on the chest
23. Pubic – genital region
24. Sternal – breastbone area
25. Tarsal- ankle region
26. Thoracic- chest
27. Lumbar- area of the back between ribs and hips
28. Umbilical- navel

ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS: particular quadrant have

a common organ; for the location of the association of
pain.

ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS

Anatomical Position: the subject stands erect facing the PLANES & SECTIONS
observer with the head level and the eyes facing forward Unequal Left & Right: Parasagittal Plane
In the midline; equal right & left: Midsagittal Plane
 Front & Back: Frontal Plane
Up & Down: Transverse Plane

BODY CAVITIES
BODY CAVITY LININGS
- Body is divided into cavities that contain organs
o Pericardial Cavity: between the two serous membrane
- Body cavities have membranes that line the cavity
A. Visceral Pericardium: covers the surface of the heart
themselves as well as cover the organs
B. Parietal Pericardium: lines the chest wall
- SEROUS MEMBRANE: covers thoracic & abdominal cavi
o Pleural Cavity: between the 2 serous membrane
1. Visceral: adheres to the viscera w/in cavities
A. Visceral Pleura: clings to the surface of the lungs
2. Parietal: lines the walls of cavities
B. Parietal Pleura: lines the chest wall; covering diaphragm
3. The space between the two is filled with serous
o Abdominopelvic Cavity- peritoneum
fluid.
A. Visceral Peritoneum: covers the abdominal viscera
B. Parietal Peritoneum: lines the abdominal wall; inferior
surface of the diaphragm.
o Retroperitoneal: posterior/ behind peritoneum
o Kidney, adrenal glands, pancreas, duodenum
SI, colons of LI, abdominal aorta & inferior
vena cava.
RECEPTORS STIMULUS
Apmullae of Lorenzini Electric Fields, salinity &
(electroreceptors) tempt.
Baroreceptors Pressure in blood vessels
Bulbous corpuscle Stretch
Chemoreceptors Chemical stimuli
Cutaneous Receptor In dermis/epidermis
Electromagnetic Radiation Electromagnetic radiation
receptors
Electroreceptors Electrofields
Free nerve endings Pain, tempt change
Hair follicle plexus Movement of hair
Hydroreceptors Humidity
Infrared Receptors Infrared radiation
Lamellated corpuscle Deep pressure (high
frequency)
Magnetoreceptors Magnetic fields
 Mechanoreceptors Mechanical stress - Reduced absorption of macro- and
Muscle spindle Muscle contraction & micronutrients
stretch - Increased losses or altered requirements
Nociceptors Pain perception; tissue - Increased energy expenditure (in specific disease
damage processes)
Osmoreceptors Osmolarity of fluids
Photoreceptors Visible light CHRONIC MALNUTRITION: This is a condition that develops
Proprioceptors Sense of position when children do not eat the correct balance of nutrients
Tactile corpuscle Light touch vibrations in the first 1,000 days of life (from conception to the age of
Thermoreceptors Temperature two), resulting in the irreversible stunting of their cognitive
and physical development.
Ultraviolet receptors Ultraviolet radiation
UNDERWEIGHT: form of undernutrition that includes
elements of stunting & wasting.
MICRONUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES (hidden hunger): This is a
consequence of inadequate intake of essential
micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), such as vitamin A,
iron, zinc and iodine. Such deficiencies manifest when the
body does not have sufficient amounts of micronutrients
due to insufficient dietary intake and/or insufficient
absorption and/or suboptimal utilization of the vitamin or
mineral.

CONSEQUENCES OF MALNUTRITION

1. MUSCLE FUNCTION: declines before changes in muscle

AGING & HOMEOSTASIS
Aging: normal process characterized by a progressive
decline in the body’s ability to restore homeostasis.
NUTRITION HIGHLIGHT
MALNUTRITION: CAUSES & CONSEQUENCES
MALNUTRITION
- Describes a deficiency, excess or imbalance of a
wide range of nutrients, resulting in a measurable
adverse effect on body composition, function and
clinical outcome
- It is both a cause & consequence of disease and
exists in institutional care and the community.
CAUSE OF MALNUTRITION
- Reduced dietary intake
mass occur, suggesting that altered nutrient intake has
an important impact independent of the effects on
muscle mass.
2. CARDIO-RESPIRATORY FUNCTION: reduction in cardiac
muscle is recognized in malnourished individuals.
3. GASTROINTESTINAL FUNCTION: chronic malnutrition
results in changes in pancreatic exocrine function,
intestinal blood flow, villous architecture & intestinal
permeability.
: colon loses its ability to reabsorb water and
electrolytes and secretion of ions and fluid
occurs in the small & large intestine.
4. IMMUNITY & WOUND HEALING: immune function is
also affected, increasing the risk of infection due to
impaired cell mediated immunity & cytokine,
complement and phagocyte function.
5. PSYCHOSOCIAL EFFECTS: psychosocial effects such as
apathy, depression, anxiety and self-neglect.