Study Guide

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THE CELL AND CELLULAR NUTRITION Formatted: Font: 15 pt, Bold

OBJECTIVES COMPONENTS OF TYPICAL CELLS Formatted: Centered
1. Label the diagram of the main parts of a typical cell
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2. Describe the functions of the main organelles of the cells  Plasma Membrane  Mitochondrion
3. Explain the role of the nucleus  Cytroplasmic Matrix  Nucleus Formatted: Centered
4. Describe the different transport mechanism between cells  Golgi Apparatus  Endoplasmic Reticulum Formatted: Centered, Indent: Left: 0.5", No bullets or
Explain cell differentiation.
 Lysosomes  Peroxisomes numbering
5.
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 Structural and functional unit of an organism • Sizes vary • Two subdivisions
CELL
1. Cell membrane 2. Cytoplasm Formatted Table
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Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment:
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STRUCTURE OF THE ABSORPTIVE OF THE Formatted: Centered
SMALL INTESTINE
Formatted Table
Glycocalyx Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, Bold
Microvili
3 MAIN PARTS OF A CELL Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.
• The activity of an organism depends on the collective activities of its cells.
• According to the principle of complementarity, the activities of cells are dictated by their structure (anatomy), which determines function (physiology).
• Continuity of life has a cellular basis.
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1. Plasma Membrane Formatted ...
 Fragile, transparent barrier that contains the Formatted ...

cell contents and separates them from the Formatted ...
surrounding environment
 Formatted ...
 It is a selective barrier that regulates the flow of Formatted ...
materials into and out of the cell.
 Formatted ...
 Plays the key role in communication among Formatted ...
cells and between cells and their external
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environment.
 Has greater carbohydrate content due to Formatted ...
glycolipids & glycoproteins
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 Has greater cholesterol content for mechanical
stability & fluidity of membrane.  Membrane encapsulating the cell Formatted ...
 Flexible yet sturdy barrier that contains the cytoplasm Formatted ...
 Best described through a Fluid Mosaic Model
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FLUID MOSAIC MODEL: • “Ever moving sea of fluid lipids that contains a mosaic of many different proteins” – Formatted ...
Tortora Formatted ...
 membrane lipids allow passage of several types of lipid-soluble molecules but act as a barrier to the
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entry or exit of charged or polar substances
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Common Characteristics of Membranes: Formatted ...
1. Sheet-like structures composed of phospholipids and proteins held together by non-covalent bonds
2. Membrane phospholipids contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties Formatted ...
3. Phosphoglycerides and phosphongolipids comprise most of the membrane phospholipids Formatted ...
1.4. Membrane proteins give biological membranes their function Formatted ...
LIPID BILAYER: Formatted ...
• lipid bilayer portion of the membrane is permeable to nonpolar, uncharged molecules, such as oxygen, carbon Formatted ...
dioxide, and steroids
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• impermeable to ions and large, uncharged polar molecules such as glucose
- PHOSPHOGLYCERIDES: consist of fatty acid tails attached to polar heads. The polar heads are made Formatted ...
up of glycerol, phosphate, and a polar head group which can be ethanolamine, serine or inositol. Formatted ...
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2. Nucleus NUCLEUS (nucle= kernel) Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, Bold

 Headquarters; control center
 It has 3 recognizable regions/structures
o Nuclear Envelope Formatted: Right: 1.68", Numbered + Level: 1 +
o Nucleolus Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment:
o Chromatin Left + Aligned at: 0.04" + Indent at: 0.29"
 Nuclear Envelope: double membrane barrier
 Between the two membranes is a fluid-filled “moat,” or space.
 At various points, the two layers of the nuclear envelope fuse, generating openings
called nuclear pores.
 Like other cellular membranes, the nuclear envelope allows some but not all
substances to pass through it, but substances pass through it much more freely than
elsewhere because of its relatively large pores.
 The nuclear membrane encloses a jellylike fluid called nucleoplasm in which other
nuclear elements are suspended.
NUCLEOLUS
 Nucleoli: small, dark staining, essentially round bodies
 Sites where cell structures called ribosomes are assembled
 Ribosomes eventually migrate into the cytoplasm  actual sites of protein synthesis Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow
CHROMATIN
 DNA is wound around protein called histones to form a loose network of “beads on a string” called chromatin Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow
 Chromosomes (chromo= colored, soma= body)-
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OBJECTIVES
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Cell & Cell Nutrition
1. Label the diagram of the main parts of a typical cell

2. Describe the functions of the main organelles of the cells
3. Explain the role of the nucleus
4. Describe the different transport mechanism between cells
5. Explain cell differentiation.
Cell Theory:
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.

• The activity of an organism depends on the collective activities of its cells.
• According to the principle of complementarity, the activities of cells are dictated by their structure (anatomy), which determines function (physiology).
• Continuity of life has a cellular basis.
3 main regions/ parts of the cell
1. Plasma membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus
NUCLEUS (nucle= kernel)
 Headquarters; control center

 It has 3 recognizable regions/structures
o Nuclear Envelope
o Nucleolus
o Chromatin
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 Nuclear Envelope: double membrane barrier

 Between the two membranes is a fluid-filled “moat,” or space.
 At various points, the two layers of the nuclear envelope fuse, generating openings called nuclear pores.
 Like other cellular membranes, the nuclear envelope allows some but not all substances to pass through it, but substances pass
through it much more freely than elsewhere because of its relatively large pores.
 The nuclear membrane encloses a jellylike fluid called nucleoplasm in which other nuclear elements are suspended.
NUCLEOLUS
 Nucleoli: small, dark staining, essentially round bodies
 Sites where cell structures called ribosomes are assembled
 Ribosomes eventually migrate into the cytoplasm  actual sites of protein synthesis
CHROMATIN
 DNA is wound around protein called histones to form a loose network of “beads on a string” called chromatin
 Chromosomes (chromo= colored, soma= body)-
PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell contents and separates them from the surrounding environment
 It is a selective barrier that regulates the flow of materials into and out of the cell.
 Plays the key role in communication among cells and between cells and their external environment.
Fluid Mosaic Model
 It consists of two-phospholipid (fat) layers arranged “tail to tail” with cholesterol and floating proteins scattered among them.
 There are also some sugar group attached forming glycolipids.
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PARTS OF A CELL
Cells are the basic, living, structural, and functional units of the body. The scientific study of cells is called cell biology or cytology.
3 MAIN PARTS OF A CELL Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow
DESCRIPTION FUNCTION
1. PLASMA MEMBRANE Selective barrier that regulates the flow of 1. It is the cell’s flexible outer surface, Formatted: Left
materials into and out of the cell. separating the cell’s internal Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
environment from the external
environment. Formatted Table
2. It plays the key role in Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
communication among cells and
between cells and their external Formatted: List Paragraph, Numbered + Level: 1 +
environment. Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment:
3. Acts as a barrier separating inside Left + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
and outside of the cell.
4. Controls the flow of substances into
and out of the cell.
5. Helps identify the cell to other cells
(e.g., immune cells).
6. Participates in intercellular signaling.
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 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL The membrane lipids allow passage of The protein in the plasma membrane Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
several types of lipid- soluble molecules but allow the movement of polar molecules
act as a barrier to the entry or exit of and ions into and out of the cell.
charged or
polar substances.
STRUCTURE OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt

LIPID BILAYER  two back-to-back layers made up Bilayer arrangement= lipids are
of three types of lipid molecules— amphipathic molecules (with polar and Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
phospholipids, cholesterol, and nonpolar parts) Formatted Table
glycolipids PHOSPHOLIPID: hydrophilic head=
 75%- phospholipids, 20%-cholesterol, polar, hydrophobic fatty acid tail= Formatted: Normal, No bullets or numbering
5%- glycolipids nonpolar Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt, Bold
 The head face the extracellular
fluid and the cytosol in the Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
inside. Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt, Bold
CHOLESTEROL: weakly amphipathic;
the steroid rings and hydrocarbon tail of Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
cholesterol are nonpolar; they fit among Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt, Bold
the fatty acid tails of the phospholipids
and glycolipids. Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
GLYCOLIPIDS: appear only in the
membrane layer that faces the
extracellular fluid, which is one reason the
two sides of the bilayer are different.
These are lipids with attached
carbohydrate group.
ARRANGEMENT OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
Membrane proteins are classified as integral or peripheral according to whether they are firmly embedded in the membrane.
INTEGRAL PROTEINS: extend into or through the lipid bilayer and are firmly embedded in it; they are transmembrane protein (they span the entire lipid bilayer and protrude
into both the cytosol and extracellular fluid)
 (i.e.) GLYCOPROTEINS: proteins with carbohydrate (oligosaccharide) groups attached to the ends that protrude into the extracellular fluid.
 MHC proteins (cell identity marker): Distinguishes your cells from anyone else’s (unless you are an identical twin). An important class of such
markers are the major histocompatibility (MHC) proteins.
 recognize other cells of the same kind during tissue formation or recognize and respond to potentially dangerous foreign cells.
 GLYCOCALYX: an extensive sugary coat; molecular signature that enables cells to recognize one another, enables cells to adhere to one another in some tissues
and protects cells from being digested by enzymes in the extracellular fluid.
 The hydrophilic properties of the glycocalyx attract a film of fluid to the surface of many cells (e.g.) makes red blood cells slippery as they flow
through narrow blood vessels and protects cells that line the airways and the gastrointestinal tract from drying out.
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PERIPHERAL PROTEINS: attached to the polar heads of membrane lipids or to integral proteins at the inner or outer surface of the membrane.
 peripheral proteins help support the plasma membrane, anchor integral proteins, and participate in mechanical activities such as moving
materials and organelles within cells, changing cell shape during cell division and in muscle cells, and attaching cells to one another; it acts
as both an enzyme and a linker.
FUNCTIONS OF INTEGRAL MEMBRANE PROTEINS Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
 Membrane proteins largely reflect the functions a cell can perform
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
 Integral proteins form ion channels, pores or holes that specific ions  It selectively move a polar  It serves as a cellular
recognition site. Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
(e.g. K+) can flow to get into out of the cells. substance or ion from one side of
 They are selective that they only allow a single type of ion to pass the membrane to the other.  Each type of receptor Formatted Table
through. recognizes and binds to a
specific type of molecule.
 Ligand: specific molecule that Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
binds to the receptor
FUNCTIONS OF INTEGRAL & PERIPHERAL MEMBRANE PROTEINS Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
Formatted Table
 It easily rotates and move sideways in  It depends on the number of
their own double bonds in the fatty acid Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
 It allows the lipid bilayer to self-seal of tails of the lipids that make up
torn or punctured. the bilayer.
MEMBRANE FLUIDITY Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
 It allows the procedure called  It also depends on the amount
intracytoplasmic sperm injection. of the cholesterol present. Formatted Table
 It enables the movement of the
membrane components.
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 Each double bond puts a kink in the fatty Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
acid tails which increases membrane fluidity
by preventing them from packing tightly in Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
the membrane
 Cholesterol makes the lipid bilayer stronger
but less fluid at normal body temperature.
 At low tempt – cholesterol increases
membrane fluidity.
MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY Selective Permeability (of plasma membrane) – permit some  More hydrophobic or lipid-soluble= greater Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
substances to pass more readily than others because it has a nonpolar permeability
hydrophobic interior.
o Allows cell to maintain different concentrations of certain substances
on either side of the plasma membrane. Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
High Permeability (of lipid bilayer) to nonpolar molecules such as O2 ,
CO2 and steroids, moderately permeable to small, uncharged polar Formatted: Left
molecules such as water and urea and impermeable to ions and larger Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 9 pt
uncharged polar molecules such as glucose.
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: difference in the concentration of a chemical from one place to Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow
another.
DEFINITION OF TERMS: : difference in electrical charges between two region constitutes. : Na= more concentrated in the extracellular fluid (positively
 Concentration Gradient charge) Formatted: Normal, Indent: Left: 0"
: the charge difference that occurs in the plasma membrane. Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
: CO2 and K+ are concentrated in cytosol (negatively charge)
: combined influence of the concentration gradient and the electrical Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow
 Electrical Gradient gradient on movement of a particular ion Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
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 Membrane Potential
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 Electrochemical Gradient Formatted ...
TRANSPORT ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
Passive Processes Active Processes Formatted ...
substance moves down its concentration or electrical gradient to cross the cellular energy is used to drive the substance “uphill” against its concentration or electrical Formatted ...
membrane using only its own kinetic energy (energy of motion). gradient. The cellular energy used is usually in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
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 substances move down from its concentration or electrical  – cellular energy is used to drive substance uphill against its
gradient to cross the membrane using only its own kinetic energy concentration or electrical gradient Formatted ...
 No input of energy from the cell Formatted ...
DIFFUSION: passive process in which the random mixing of particles in a solution ACTIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES
occurs because of the particles’ kinetic energy. 1. Primary Active Transport: Molecule attaches to a carrier protein in the Formatted ...
Several factors influence the diffusion rate of substances across plasma membrane; energy from the hydrolysis of ATP changes the shape of a Formatted ...
membranes: carrier protein which pumps the substance against its concentration
 Steepness of the concentration gradient. The greater the difference in Formatted ...
gradient.
concentration between the two sides of the membrane, the higher the rate of  The molecule moves through the protein from low concentration Formatted ...
diffusion. When charged particles are diff using, the steepness of the
to high concentration Formatted
electrochemical gradient determines the diffusion rate across the membrane. ...
a. Sodium Potassium Pump: expels Na+ ions from cells & brings K+
 Temperature. The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion. Formatted
2. Secondary Active Transport: energy stored in Na+/ H+ concentration gradient ...
 Mass of the diff using substance. The larger the mass of the diff using
is used to drive other substances against their own concentration gradient; it Formatted
particle, the slower its diffusion rate. Smaller molecules diffuse more rapidly ...
indirectly consumes ATP.
than larger ones. Formatted
3. ENDOCYTOSIS: – Materials move into the cell by their inclusion into ...
 Surface area. The larger the membrane surface area available for diffusion,
the faster the diffusion rate. For example, the air sacs of the lungs have a vesicles Formatted ...
large surface area available for diffusion of oxygen from the air into the blood. a. Phagocytosis: cell eating
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Some lung diseases, such as emphysema, reduce the surface area. This b. Pinocytosis: cell drinking
slows the rate of oxygen diffusion and makes breathing more difficult. 4. EXOCYTOSIS: Materials move out of the cell; releases materials from cell Formatted ...
 Diffusion distance. The greater the distance over which diffusion must a. Cellular secretion Formatted ...
occur, the longer it takes. Diffusion across a plasma membrane takes only a 5. TRANSCYTOSIS: vesicles undergo endocytosis on one side of a cell, move
fraction of a second because the membrane is so thin. In pneumonia, fluid across the cell and then undergo exocytosis on the opposite side. Formatted ...
collects in the lungs; the additional fluid increases the diffusion distance Formatted ...
because oxygen must move through both the built-up fluid and the membrane
to reach the bloodstream Formatted ...
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3 TYPES OF PASSIVE DIFFUSION
1. Simple Diffusion: substances move freely through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membranes of cells without the help of membrane transport proteins; solute transport is Formatted ...
from the left to the right; movement of the solutes is due to the concentration gradient. Formatted ...
Examples: nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules, O2, CO2, N, fatty acids, steroids, fat-soluble molecules (A,D,E,K) water, urea, small alcohols.
Formatted ...
2. Facilitated Diffusion: integral membrane protein assists a specific substance across the membrane. The integral membrane protein can be either a membrane channel
Formatted Table ...
or a carrier; Molecules move across a membrane with the aid of a carrier protein
Example: polar or highly charged solute passing through the plasma membrane Formatted ...
Channel-Meditated Diffusion: a solute moves down its concentration gradient across the lipid bilayer through a membrane channel
Formatted ...
3. Channel-Meditated Diffusion: a solute moves down its concentration gradient across the lipid bilayer through a membrane channel; most membrane channels are ion Formatted ...
channels that are selective for K+/ Cl-; allow specific, small, inorganic ions to pass across the membrane by facilitated diffusion.
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4. Carrier Meditated Facilitated Diffusion: moves the solute down its concentration gradient across the plasma membrane; the solute binds to a specific carrier on one
side and then released to the other side after the carrier undergoes a change in shape. Formatted ...
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5. Osmosis: Water molecules move from an area of lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane
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6. Filtration: Molecules are forced through membranes by mechanical pressure Formatted ...
1. Cytoplasm Formatted ...
a. Cytosol: thick fluid; contains suspended particles; fluid portion of cytoplasm; enzymes in cytosol catalyze glycolysis Formatted ...
b. Cytoskeleton: network of three types of protein filaments—microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules—that extend throughout the
INSIDE THE CELL MEMBRANE cytoplasm; (1) serves as a scaffold that helps determine a cell’s shape and organize the cellular contents. (2) Aids movement of organelles within the Formatted ...
cell, of chromosomes during cell division, and of whole cells such as phagocytes.
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c. Organelles: perform specific functions; perform specific functions necessary for cell structure, maintenance, and metabolism; membranous or non-
membranous Formatted ...
MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES NONMEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES Formatted ...
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2. NUCLEUS: “Control Center” (contains DNA) 1. Cytoskeleton: Formatted ...
a. Nuclear Envelope (w/ Nuclear pores) a. Protein framework
i. Microfilaments: thinnest elements of cytoskeleton; composed of Formatted ...
a.b. Nucleolus (composed of RNA); manufactures ribosomes proteins actin & myosin; provide mechanical support; anchors
cytoskeleton to integral proteins; provide support for cell Formatted ...
GENE EXPRESSION: gene’s DNA is used as a template for synthesis of a extensions called microvilli Formatted ...
specific protein ii. Microtubules: largest of the cystoskeleton; long unbranched
 DNA and RNA store genetic information as a set of three hollow tubes; composed of the protein tubulin; its assembly Formatted ...
begins in centrosome; helps determine cell shape; helps in the
nucleotides called a base triplet movement of organelles such as secretory vesicles, chromosomes Formatted ...
I. TRANSCRIPTION: information encoded in a specific region of during cell division & cilia. Formatted ...
DNA is transcribed (copied) to produce a specific molecule of iii. Intermediate filaments: thicker than microfilaments; help stabilize
RNA (ribonucleic acid) the position of organelles such as nucleus & attach cells to one Formatted ...
another.
I.II. TRANSLATION: RNA attaches to a ribosome; the information Formatted ...
2. Cilia: Projections of cell membrane – Short, many •Formed from microtubules • Cause
contained in RNA is translated into a corresponding sequence of currents at cell surface; move substances along surface of cell or move entire cell Formatted ...
amino acids to form a new protein molecule 3. Flagella: Projections of cell membrane – Few, long • Cause currents at cell surface –
Move entire cell Formatted ...
a. CODONS: Each DNA base triplet is transcribed as a 4. Ribosomes: Attached to rough ER • Scattered throughout cytoplasm • Sites of protein
synthesis – Receive messages from RNA – Assembly of amino acids into proteins Formatted ...
complementary sequence of three nucleotides, called a codon; 5. Centrioles: • Near nucleus • 9 bundles of microtubules • Function in cell reproduction
specifies a particular amino acid Formatted ...
b. GENETIC CODE: is the set of rules that relate the base triplet INTERCELLULAR ATTACHMENTS Formatted ...
sequence of DNA to the corresponding codons of RNA and the 1. GAP JUNCTIONS- Binding of membrane proteins hold cells together • Allow Formatted ...
amino acids they specify small molecules to pass through
c. BASE TRIPLET: sequence of 3 nucleotides in DNA 2. TIGHT JUNCTIONS: Partial fusion of the lipid parts of adjacent cell membranes Formatted ...
hold cells together • Block water and solutes Formatted ...
3. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: • Network of channels running through the 3. DESMOSOMES: • Layer of proteoglycan and intermediate filaments hold cells
cytoplasm Formatted ...
together • Dense area binds to the cytoskeleton • Very strong, resist stretching
- Rough ER synthesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids that are transferred into Formatted
cellular organelles, inserted into the plasma membrane, or secreted during exocytosis.
and twisting ...
- Smooth ER synthesizes fatty acids and steroids, such as estrogens and testosterone; Formatted ...
inactivates or detoxifies drugs and other potentially harmful substances; removes the
phosphate group from glucose-6-phosphate; and stores and releases calcium ions that Formatted ...
trigger contraction in muscle cells. Formatted ...
 Functions
 Surface for chemical reactions Formatted ...
 Transport
 Storage Formatted ...
 Secretion Formatted ...
 Rough ER &Smooth ER
Formatted ...
4. Golgi Apparatus: located near the nucleus; associated with ER. Formatted ...
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FUNCTION
- Packaging and secretion of proteins, carbohydrates & lipids
- Forms secretory vesicles that discharge processed proteins
via exocytosis into extracellular fluid; forms membrane
vesicles that ferry new molecules to the plasma membrane;
forms transport vesicles that carry molecules to other
organelles, such as lysosomes.
5. Lysosomes: “suicide packets”; produced by Golgi Apparatus;
contains digestive enzymes
FUNCTION
- defense against disease
- Brak down cellular debris
- Recycling of useful molecules in the cell
- Digest substances that enter a cell via endocytosis and
transport final products of digestion into cytosol.
- Carry out autophagy, the digestion of worn-out organelles.
- Implement autolysis, the digestion of an entire cell.
- Accomplish extracellular digestion.
6. Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell; production of ATP; double
walled cristae & matrix; mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA)- inherited
from the mother
MITOCHONDRIA Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow
- Primary sites of oxygen use in the cell & are responsible for most of the metabolic energy (adenosine triphosphate or ATP) produced in the cell.
- Size & shape of the mitochondria in different tissues vary according to the function of the tissue. Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, Not Bold
- Mitochondrion consists of a matrix (interior space) surrounded by a double membrane Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow
- Carry out the flow of electrons through the electron transport chain.
- Capable of both fission & fusion, depending upon the needs of the cell.
- Reproduce by dividing in two.
- Matrix contains a small amount of DNA and a few ribosomes, so limited protein synthesis occurs within the mitochondrion.
- Electrons that are removes from the H+ atoms to cause the H+ ionization immediately enter an electron transport chain of electron acceptors that are an integral
part of the inner membrane (the shelf membrane) of the mitochondrion.
- Important members of this e- transport chain include flavoprotein, several iron sulfide, proteins, ubiquinone & cytochromes, B, C1, C, A and A3
- Each e- is shuttled from one of these acceptors to the next until it finally reaches cytochrome A3 called as cytochrome oxidase.
- Genes contained in mtDNA, unlike those in the nucleus are inherited only from the mother.
- Primary function of mitochondrial genes is to code for proteins vital for producing ATP.
- All cells in the body with the exception of the erythrocyte possess mitochondria. Formatted: Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 0.5" +
Indent at: 0.75"
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CELLULAR METABOLISM/ RESPIRATION Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow

Amino acids from digested proteins are added to the cell's pool. Some are used directly for protein synthesis in ribosomes (tiny cell's organelles scattered mainly
throughout cytosol (fluid between cell's nucleus and the outer membrane), but also bound to the membranes of endoplasmic reticulum). Some are transformed into amino Formatted: Centered
acids needed by the cell by transamination, and the rest is degraded by transferring their amino groups to glutamine (formed mainly in the muscle tissue and transported to Formatted ...
liver for deamination and removal of toxic ammonia through urea cycle), while their carbon skeletons are turned into pyruvate, acetyl CoA, or into one of Krebs cycle
intermediaries. Amino acid components are also used for the synthesis of purine and pyrimidine bases, which are built from amino groups and ammonia (from glutamine). Formatted ...
The bases combine with 5-carbon monosaccharides (pentoses), specifically ribose and deoxyribose, produced in the Pentose phosphate cycle, to form nucleotides - the
essential building blocks of RNA and DNA. Fatty acids from digested fats are also added to the cells' pool, and either used directly for lipid synthesis, or combined with CoA Formatted ...
(coenzyme A) to form acyl CoA, which in a 4-stage enzymatic reaction (β-oxidation) loses two carbon groups from its carbon-group chain to form acetyl CoA; the cycle
repeats until all carbon groups from the fatty acid chain are transformed into acetyl CoA. Acetyl CoA can either enter Krebs cycle for energy production, or be transported via Formatted ...
citrate shuttle out to cytosol and used for fatty acid synthesis. Oxidation and synthesis of fatty acids are coordinately regulated by hormones and by enzymatic activity, both
guided by the levels of specific metabolites. Simple sugars (monosaccharides) from digested carbohydrates are converted to glucose 6-phosphate immediately after entering
cytosol; from there, the two most significant routes are: (1) transformation to pyruvate (glycolysis), which is converted to acetyl CoA to enter Krebs cycle, and (2)
transformation to 5-carbon sugar molecules (pentoses) for DNA/RNA synthesis. Both glycolysis and Krebs cycle produce some energy in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) and, more importantly, feed the main main source of cellular energy, electron transport chain, with high-energy electron donors (NADH, FADH2).
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CELL GROWTH AND REPLACEMENT CELL DIVISION Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow
1. Mitosis • Occurs in somatic cells • Results in diploid cells
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2. Meiosis • Occurs in reproductive cells • Results in haploid cells

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CELLS AND AGING APOPTOSIS
1. All cells show changes as they age. The cells become larger, &  From Greek word meaning “to fall out” Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt, Bold
their capacity to divide & reproduce tends to decrease.  Programmed cell death Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Level: 1 +
2. The ability of cells to repair themselves decline as we age.  Notable because research into the proper regulation of this event Aligned at: 0.5" + Indent at: 0.75"
3. When the DNA is damaged, changes in membranes & enzymes has many therapeutic applications
occur in the cell. Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow
4. Cells function less efficiently as we age. Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt, Bold
Left + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
Formatted: Centered, Tab stops: 5.75", Left
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Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 12 pt, Bold

Formatted: Centered
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow

1. TRANSCRIPTION: the information encoded in a specific region of DNA is transcribed to produce a specific molecule of Formatted: Font: Bold
RNA
3 types of RNA are made from DNA template: Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA): directs the synthesis of a protein Formatted: Normal, No bullets or numbering
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): joins w/ ribosomal protein to make ribosomes
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA): contains anticodon; binds to amino acid Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt
RNA polymerase: catalyzes the transcription of DNA Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, Bold
Promoter: segment of DNA where transcription begins, a special nucleotide sequence.
Formatted: Centered
GENE EXPRESSION 2. TRANSLATION: RNA attaches to the ribosome; the info from RNA is translated into an amino acid sequence to form Formatted Table
new protein molecule.
a. Initiator tRNA attaches to a start codon. Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow
b. Large and small ribosomal subunits join to form a functional ribosome and initiator tRNA fits into P site. Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, Bold
c. Anticodon of incoming tRNA pairs with next mRNA codon at A site.
d. Amino acid on tRNA at P site forms a peptide bond with amino acid at A site. Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow
e. The two-peptide protein created from the formation of the peptide bond becomes attached to tRNA at A site. Formatted: List Paragraph, Numbered + Level: 1 +
f. Ribosome shifts by one codon: tRNA previously at P site enters E site and is released from ribosome; tRNA previously Numbering Style: a, b, c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment:
at A site is now at P site.
g. Protein synthesis stops when the ribosome reaches stop codon on mRNA.
Formatted: Font: 10 pt
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TISSUE LEVEL ORGANIZATION Formatted: Font: 15 pt

o The four basic types of tissues in the human body contribute to homeostasis by providing diverse functions including protection, support, Formatted: Centered
communication among cells, and resistance to disease, to name just a few
Factors that affect the structures and properties of tissue:
1. Nature of the extracellular material that surrounds the tissue cells and the connections between the cells Formatted: Font: 10 pt
2. Kinds of cells present
3. How the cells are arranged
A tissue is a group of cells that usually have a common origin in an embryo and function together to carry out specialized activities. Formatted: Font: 10 pt
CELL JUNCTIONS contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells.
5 MOST IMPORTANT TYPES OF CELL JUNCTIONS
TIGHT JUNCTIONS ADHERENS JUNCTIONS DESMOSOMES HEMIDESMOSOMES GAP JUNCTIONS Formatted: Font: 10 pt
consist of web-like strands of o Contain plaque (dense layer of o Contains plaque and o Do not link adjacent cells CONNEXINS: membrane Formatted: Font: 10 pt
transmembrane proteins proteins) have cadherins o Anchor the cells to the protein that form
CADHERINS: transmembrane o It attaches to basement membrane connexons (fluid-filled Formatted: Font: 10 pt
glycoproteins that join the cell intermediate filaments INTEGRINS: tunnel) that connect cells
@: epithelial tissues o Prevents separation transmembrane o Allow communication,
@: epithelial tissues at during tension and glycoproteins muscle impulses
stomach, intestines and contraction between the cells
urinary bladder @: epidermis & cardiac o In embryo, it regulates
muscle growth and cell
differentiation
FOUR BASIC TYPES OF TISSUES Formatted: Font: 10 pt
EPITHELIAL TISSUE CONNECTIVE TISSUE MUSCULAR TISSUE NERVOUS TISSUE
o covers body surfaces and lines hollow o protects and supports the body o composed of cells specialized o detects changes in a variety of
organs, body cavities, duct & glands. and its organs. for contraction and generation conditions inside and outside Formatted: Font: 10 pt
o bind organs together, store of force the body and responds by
Formatted: Tab stops: 0.23", Left
energy reserves as fat, and help generating electrical signals
provide the body with immunity called nerve action potentials
to disease-causing organisms. (nerve impulses)
EPITHELIAL TISSUE Formatted: Font: 10 pt
2 general patterns 1. Surface Epithelium: covering and lining various surfaces Formatted: Font: 10 pt
a. E.g. inner linings of blood vessels, ducts, body cavities and interior of repiratory, digestive
urinary & reproductive
2. Glandular Epithelium: forming the secreting portions of glands
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a.2. B
FUNCTIONS Protects, secretes (mucus, hormones and enzymes), absorbs (nutrients in the gastrointestinal tracts) Formatted: Font: 10 pt
and excretes substances in the urinary tract.
Different Structures 1. Apical (free) surface – faces the body surface, body cavity, the lumen of an internal organ; with cilia or Formatted: Font: 10 pt
microvilli; most superficial layer of cells
2. Lateral Surfaces- face the adjacent cells on either side; with tight junctions, adherens, gap &
desmosomes
3. Basal Surface- adhere to extracellular materials such as the basement membrane; deepest layer
BASEMENT MEMBRANE: thin extracellular layer consisting of:
a. Basal lamina (thin layer): consist of laminin and collagen
b. Reticular lamina- contains collagen produced by connective tissue cells called fibroblasts
AVASCULAR (without vessel)- it only rely on the blood vessels of the adjacent connective tissue
1. Arrangement of cells in layers:
a. Simple epithelium is a single layer of cells that functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration,
secretion, or absorption.
b. Pseudostratified epithelium (pseudo- = false) appears to have multiple layers of cells bcos it
lies at different levels
c. Stratified epithelium (stratum = layer) consists of two or more layers of cells that protect
underlying tissues in locations where there is considerable wear and tear.
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE 2. Cell shapes Formatted: Font: 10 pt
a. Squamous cells (SKWĀ-mus = flat) are thin, which allows for the rapid passage of substances
b. Cuboidal cells are as tall as they are wide and are shaped like cubes or hexagons. They may
have microvilli at their apical surface for secretion or absorption.
c. Columnar cells are much taller than they are wide, like columns, and protect underlying
tissues.
d. Transitional cells change shape, from squamous to cuboidal and back, as organs such as the
urinary bladder stretch (distend) to a larger size and then collapse to a smaller size.
single layer of flat cells that resembles a tiled floor when viewed from apical surface; centrally located
Description:
nucleus that is flattened and oval or spherical in shape.
Location: Most commonly (1) lines the cardiovascular and lymphatic system (heart, blood vessels, lymphatic
A. SIMPLE vessels), where it is known as endothelium (endo- = within; -thelium = covering), and (2) forms the
SQUAMOUS epithelial layer of serous membranes (peritoneum, pleura, pericardium), where it is called mesothelium
EPITHELIUM (meso- = middle). Also found in air sacs of lungs, glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule of kidneys, inner surface
of tympanic membrane (eardrum).
Function: Present at sites of filtration (such as blood filtration in kidneys) or diffusion (such as diffusion of oxygen into
blood vessels of lungs) and at site of secretion in serous membranes.
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Description: a single layer of cube-shaped cells; round, centrally located nucleus.

Location: Covers surface of ovary; lines anterior surface of capsule of lens of the eye; forms pigmented epithelium at
B. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL Formatted: Font: 10 pt
posterior surface of retina of the eye; lines kidney tubules and smaller ducts of many glands; makes up
EPITHELIUM
secreting portion of some glands such as thyroid gland and ducts of some glands such as pancreas.
Function: Secretion and absorption.
a single layer of nonciliated columnlike cells with oval nuclei near base of cells; contains (1) columnar
epithelial cells with microvilli at apical surface and (2) goblet cells. Microvilli (fingerlike cytoplasmic
Description:
projections) increase surface area of plasma membrane thus increasing cell’s rate of absorption. Goblet
C. NONCILIATED cells are modified columnar epithelial cells that secrete mucus, a slightly sticky fluid, at their apical surfaces. Formatted: Font: 10 pt
SIMPLE COLUMNAR Location: Lines gastrointestinal tract (from stomach to anus), ducts of many glands, and gallbladder.
EPITHELIUM
Function: Secretion and absorption; secreted mucus lubricates linings of digestive, respiratory, and reproductive
tracts, and most of urinary tract; helps prevent destruction of stomach lining by acidic gastric juice secreted
by stomach.
Description: a single layer of ciliated column-like cells with oval nuclei near base of cell
D. CILIATED SIMPLE Location: Lines some bronchioles (small tubes) of respiratory tract, uterine (fallopian) tubes, uterus, some paranasal Formatted: Font: 10 pt
COLUMNAR sinuses, central canal of spinal cord, and ventricles of brain
EPITHELIUM Function: Coughing and sneezing speed up movement of cilia and mucus. Cilia also help move oocytes expelled from
ovaries through uterine (fallopian) tubes into uterus.
have several layers because the nuclei of the cells are at various levels; give the false impression of a
E. NONCILIATED Description: multilayered tissue—thus the name pseudostratified epithelium (pseudo- = false). Contains cells without cilia Formatted: Font: 10 pt
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED and also lacks globlet cells.
COLUMNAR Location: Lines epididymis, larger ducts of many glands, and parts of male urethra.
EPITHELIUM
Function: Absorption and secretion
have several layers because cell nuclei are at various levels. Contains cells that extend to surface and secrete
F. CILIATED Description: Formatted: Font: 10 pt
mucus (globlet cells) or bear cilia.
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED
Location: Lines airways of most of upper respiratory tract.
COLUMNAR
EPITHELIUM Function: Secretes mucus that traps foreign particles, and cilia sweep away mucus for elimination from body.
has two or more layers of cells; cells in apical layer and several layers deep to it are squamous; cells in deeper
layers vary from cuboidal to columnar. Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium develops tough layer of
G. STRATIFIED Formatted: Font: 10 pt
keratin in apical layer of cells and several layers deep to it. (Keratin is a tough, fibrous intracellular protein
SQUAMOUS Description:
that helps protect skin and underlying tissues from heat, microbes, and chemicals.) Nonkeratinized stratified
EPITHELIUM
squamous epithelium does not contain large amounts of keratin in apical layer and several layers deep and is
constantly moistened by mucus from salivary and mucous glands; organelles are not replaced.
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Location: Keratinized variety forms superficial layer of skin; nonkeratinized variety lines wet surfaces (lining of mouth,
esophagus, part of epiglottis, part of pharynx, and vagina) and covers tongue.
Function: Protection against abrasion, water loss, ultraviolet radiation, and foreign invasion. Both types form first line
of defense against microbes.
Stratified cuboidal epithelium has two or more layers of cells; cells in apical layer are cube-shaped; fairly rare
Description:
H. STRATIFIED type. Formatted: Font: 10 pt
CUBOIDAL Location: Ducts of adult sweat glands and esophageal glands, part of male urethra.
EPITHELIUM
Function: Protection; limited secretion and absorption.
Basal layers in stratified columnar epithelium usually consist of shortened, irregularly shaped cells; only apical
Description:
I. STRATIFIED layer has columnar cells; uncommon.
COLUMNAR Location: Lines part of urethra; large excretory ducts of some glands, such as esophageal glands; small areas in anal
EPITHELIUM mucous membrane; part of conjunctiva of eye.
Function: Protection and secretion.
Transitional epithelium (urothelium) has a variable appearance (transitional). In relaxed or unstretched state,
looks like stratified cuboidal epithelium, except apical layer cells tend to be large and rounded. As tissue is
Description:
J. TRANSITIONAL stretched, cells become flatter, giving the appearance of stratified squamous epithelium. Multiple layers and
EPITHELIUM elasticity make it ideal for lining hollow structures (urinary bladder) subject to expansion from within.
(UROTHELIUM) Location: Lines urinary bladder and portions of ureters and urethra.
Function: Allows urinary organs to stretch and maintain protective lining while holding variable amounts of fluid
without rupturing.
Type pf EPITHELIAL TISSUE GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM Formatted: Font: 10 pt
A. ENDOCRINE Endocrine gland secretions (hormones) enter interstitial fluid and then diffuse into bloodstream without Formatted: Font: 10 pt
Description:
GLANDS flowing through a duct.
Location: Examples include pituitary gland at base of brain, pineal gland in brain, thyroid and parathyroid glands near
larynx (voice box), adrenal glands superior to kidneys, pancreas near stomach, ovaries in pelvic cavity,
testes in scrotum, thymus in thoracic cavity.
Function: Hormones regulate many metabolic and physiological activities to maintain homeostasis.
B. EXOCRINE GLANDS Exocrine gland secretory products are released into ducts that empty onto surface of a covering and lining Formatted: Font: 10 pt
Description:
epithelium, such as skin surface or lumen of hollow organ.
Location: Sweat, oil, and earwax glands of skin; digestive glands such as salivary glands (secrete into mouth cavity) and
pancreas (secretes into small intestine).
Function: Produce substances such as sweat to help lower body temperature, oil, earwax, saliva, or digestive enzymes
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1. Unicellular Glands: single-celled glands. Goblet cells are important unicellular exocrine glands that secrete mucus directly
onto the apical surface of a lining epithelium
2. Multicellular Glands: composed of many cells that form a distinctive microscopic structure or macroscopic organ. Examples
include sudoriferous (sweat), sebaceous (oil), and salivary glands.
CATEGORIES
I. Simple glands
A. Simple tubular: tubular secretory part is straight and attaches to a single unbranched duct. Example: glands in the
large intestine.
B. Simple branched tubular: tubular secretory part is branched and attaches to a single unbranched duct. Example:
STRUCTURAL Formatted: Font: 10 pt
gastric glands.
CLASSIFICATION OF
C. Simple coiled tubular: tubular secretory part is coiled and attaches to a single unbranched duct. Example: sweat
EXOCRINE GLANDS
glands.
D. Simple acinar: secretory portion is rounded, attaches to s ingle unbranched duct. Example: glands of penile urethra.
E. Simple branched acinar: rounded secretory part is branched and attaches to a single unbranched duct. Example:
sebaceous glands.
II. Compound glands
A. Compound tubular: secretory portion is tubular and attaches to a branched duct. Example: bulbourethral
(Cowper’s) glands.
B. Compound acinar: secretory portion is rounded and attaches to a branched duct. Example: mammary glands.
C. Compound tubuloacinar: secretory portion is both tubular and rounded and attaches to a branched duct. Example:
acinar glands of the pancreas.
FUNCTIONAL 1. Merocrine Glands: released from the cell in secretory vesicles via exocytosis (e.g. pancreas, sweat & salivary glands) Formatted: Font: 10 pt
CLASSIFICATION OF 2. Apocrine Glands: accumulate their secretory product at the apical surface of the secreting cell
EXOCRINE GLANDS 3. Holocrine Glands: accumulate a secretory product in their cytosol; products are secreted by the rupture of gland cells Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Not Bold
(how their secretions (e.g. sebaceous gland) Formatted: Font: 10 pt
are released)
CONNECTIVE TISSUE Formatted: Font: 10 pt
FUNCTIONS o binds together, supports, and strengthens other body tissues; protects and insulates internal organs;
compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscles; serves as the major transport system within the body
(blood, a fluid connective tissue); is the primary location of stored energy reserves (adipose, or fat tissue)
o main source of immune responses.
PROPERTIES o highly vascular (w/ rich supply) Formatted: Font: 10 pt
Mesenchymal Cells- give rise to the cells of connective tissue.
FIBROBLASTS o are large, flat cells with branching processes. They are present in all the general
TYPE OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE connective tissues, and usually are the most numerous; secrete extracellular matrix Formatted: Font: 10 pt
accdg to TYPE OF TISSUE MACROPHAGES o phagocytes that develop from monocytes, a type of white blood cell. Fixed
macrophages reside in a particular tissue; examples iI nclude alveolar macrophages in
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the lungs or splenic macrophages in the spleen. Wandering macrophages have the
ability to move throughout the tissue and gather at sites of infection or inflammation
to carry on phagocytosis.
PLASMA CELLS o found in many places in the body, but most plasma cells reside in connective tissue,
especially in the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts; (secrete antibodies
MAST CELLS o involved in the inflammatory response, the body’s reaction to injury or infection and
can also bind to, ingest, and kill bacteria.
ADIPOCYTES o fat cells or adipose cells, connective tissue cells that store triglycerides (fats). They are
found deep to the skin and around organs such as the heart and kidneys.
LEUKOCYTES o not found in significant numbers in normal connective tissue. However, in response to
certain conditions they migrate from blood into connective tissue. For example,
neutrophils gather at sites of infection, and eosinophils migrate to sites of parasitic
invasions and allergic responses.
DEFINITION OF TERMS: Formatted: Font: 10 pt
HYALURONIC ACID o viscous, slippery substance that binds cells together, lubricates joints, and helps maintain the shape of the
eyeballs
CHONDROITIN SULFATE o provides support and adhesiveness in cartilage, bone, skin and blood vessels.
FIBRONECTON o Binds to both collagen fibers and ground substance, linking them together.
COLLAGEN o very strong and resist pulling or stretching, but they are not stiff , which allows tissue flexibility
FIBERS FIBERS Formatted: Font: 10 pt
o From extracellular ELASTIC o smaller in diameter than collagen fibers, branch and join together to form a fibrous network within a
matrix FIBERS connective tissue. An elastic fiber consists of molecules of the protein elastin surrounded by a
o provide strength glycoprotein named fibrillin,
and support RETICULAR
FIBERS
Two Major Subclasses of Connective Tissue Formatted: Font: 10 pt
I. Embryonic: found in embryo and fetus II. Mature: present in the newborn Formatted: Font: 10 pt
A. Mesenchyme A. Connective tissue proper
B. Mucous (mucoid) connective tissue 1. Loose connective tissue
a. Areolar connective tissue
b. Adipose tissue
c. Reticular connective tissue
2. Dense connective tissue
a. Dense regular connective tissue
b. Dense irregular connective tissue
c. Elastic connective tissue
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B. Supporting connective tissue

1. Cartilage
a. Hyaline cartilage
b. Fibrocartilage
c. Elastic cartilage
2. Bone tissue
a. Compact bone
b. Spongy bone
C. Liquid connective tissue
1. Blood 2. Lymph
MUSCULAR TISSUE Formatted: Font: 10 pt
consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers or myocytes that can use ATP to generate force
3 TYPES (accdg to location) Formatted: Font: 10 pt
SKELETAL CARDIAC SMOOTH Formatted: Font: 10 pt
o consists of long, cylindrical, striated o consists of branched, striated fibers with o consists of nonstriated fibers (lack
fibers usually only one centrally located nucleus striations, hence the term smooth).
o Usually attached to bones by tendons. o Heart wall o It is a small spindle shaped cell thickest in
o Motion, posture, heat production, o Pumps blood to all parts of body. middle, tapering at each end, and
protection. containing a single, centrally located
nucleus.
o Iris of eyes; walls of hollow internal
structures such as blood vessels, airways
to lungs, stomach, intestines, gallbladder,
urinary bladder, and uterus
o Motion (constriction of blood vessels
and airways, propulsion of foods through
gastrointestinal tract, contraction of
urinary bladder and gallbladder).
NERVOUS TISSUE Formatted: Font: 10 pt
Description: Nervous tissue consists of: Formatted: Font: 10 pt
(1) neurons (nerve cells), which consist of cell body and processes extending from cell body (one to multiple dendrites and a single axon); convert
stimuli to electrical signals (nerve action potentials/ nerve impulses)
(2) neuroglia, which do not generate or conduct nerve impulses but have other important supporting functions.
Location: Nervous system.
Function: Exhibits sensitivity to various types of stimuli; converts stimuli into nerve impulses (action potentials); conducts nerve impulses to other
neurons, muscle fibers, or glands.
o Most neurons consist of a cell body and two types of processes:
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a. Dendrites: (dendr- = tree) are tapering, highly branched, and usually short cell processes (extensions)
b. Axons: (axo- = axis) of a neuron is a single, thin, cylindrical process that may be very long
: It is the output portion of a neuron, conducting nerve impulses toward another neuron or to some other tissue.
Excitable Cells Formatted: Font: 10 pt
1. Electrical excitability is the ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signals such as action potentials.
2. Because neurons and muscle fibers exhibit electrical excitability, they are considered excitable cells.
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INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Formatted: Font: 15 pt

FUNCTIONS integumentary system contributes to homeostasis by protecting the body and helping regulate body temperature. It also Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Bold
allows you to sense pleasurable, painful, and other stimuli in your external environment.
Integumentary System: (in- = inward; -tegere = to cover) is composed of the skin, hair, oil and sweat glands, nails, and Formatted: Font: 10 pt
sensory receptors
2 MAIN PARTS OF THE SKIN 1. Epidermis (epi-above) superficial, thinner portion, which is composed of epithelial tissue Formatted: Font: 10 pt
2. Dermis: deeper, thicker connective tissue portion is the dermis
Hypodermis or Subcutaneous Layer: binds the dermis of the skin to the underlying muscle, deep to the Formatted: Font: Not Bold
dermis; not part of the skin; consists of areolar & adipose tissue; serves as a storage depot for fat & large
blood vessels that supply the skin; contains lamellated corpuscles or Pacinian corpuscles (pressure); 2 layers Formatted: Font: 10 pt
which is papillary & reticular layer
o composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
o It contains four principal types of cells:
1. Keratinocytes: 90% of epidermis; produce the protein keratin; produce lamellar granules (water-repellent
sealant)
2. Melanocytes (melano- black): 8% of epidermis; develop from the ectoderm of a developing embryo; produce
melanin
a. Melanin: a yellow red or brown-black pigment that contributes to skin color and absorbs damaging
(UV) light
3. Intraepidermal macrophages (or Langerhans cells): arise from red bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis;
participate in immune responses mounted against microbes
EPIDERMIS 4. Tactile epithelial (or Merkel cells) they contact the flattened process of a sensory neuron (nerve cell), a Formatted: Font: 10 pt
structure called a tactile disc; detect touch sensations
FIVE LAYERS OF EPIDERMIS
1. Stratum Basale: deepest layer of the epidermis; composed of a single row of cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes;
stem cells undergo cell division to produce new keratinocytes; melanocytes and tactile epithelial cells associated
with tactile discs are scattered among keratinocytes
A. Keratin intermediate filaments attach to desmosomes, which bind cells of the stratum basale to each
other and to the cells of the adjacent stratum spinosum
B. Hemidesmosomes bind the keratinocytes to the basement membrane
2. Stratum Spinosum: superficial to the stratum basale; consists of numerous keratinocytes arranged in 8–10 layers;
often group with stratum basale termed as stratum germinativum
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3. Stratum Granulosum: consists of three to five layers of flattened keratinocytes that are undergoing apoptosis;
contains Keratohyalin (darkly staining protein granules) which assembles keratin intermediate filaments into
keratin;
4. Stratum Lucidum: present only in the thick skin of areas such as the fingertips, palms, and soles; 4-6 layers of
flattened dead keratinocytes
5. Stratum Corneum: consists of 25-30 layers of flattened dead keratinocytes; actual protective later
Callus: abnormal thickening of the stratum corneum; Constant exposure of skin to friction stimulates
increased cell production and keratin production
KERATINIZATION AND GROWTH OF EPIDERMIS
KERATINIZATION: movement of the cell on different epidermal layers to accumulate more keratins.
DANDRUFF: excessive number of keratinized cells shed from the skin of the scalp
o It is a series of ridges & grooves
EPIDERMAL RIDGES: produced during the 3rd month of the fetal development
 Downward projection of the epidermis to the dermis between the dermal papillae
 It increases the surface area of the epidermis thus increasing the grip of the hand or foot; it also
increases the number of corpuscles
FINGERPRINTS Formatted: Font: 10 pt
 The ducts if the sweat glands open on the epidermal ridges resulting to fingerprint
FRICTION RIDGES: patterned prenatally & are unique to each person
 Deep flexion creases (in the palm) & shallow flexion creases (in your knuckles) are acquired & not
prenatally determined.
o composed of dense irregular connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibers
o has great tensile strength; ability to stretch and recoil; much thicker than the epidermis depending on the region in
the body
o below the epidermis
o line of tensions exist.
2 DIVISIONS IN DERMIS
1. Stratum Papillarosum- 1/5 of the thickness of dermis, contains thin collagen and fine elastic fibers; contain tactile
receptors called corpuscles of touch or Meissner corpuscles & free nerve endings (dendrites that lack any apparent
DERMIS structural specialization). Formatted: Font: 10 pt
COMPLEX PAPILLARY SURFACE: increses the surface contact bet. Dermis & epidermis; important source of nutrient for
epidermis
2. Stratum Reticulosum: attached to the subcutaneous layer, contains bundles of collagen fibers, scattered fibroblasts,
and macrophages; it provides the skin’s strength, extensibility and elasticity.
 Reticular layer (mesh-like) that stretcher well but can be overstretched resulting to
stretch marks.
 Contains blood vessels & nerve fibers: nerve input from the CNS to the muscle cells that
line the hair follicle (e.g. goosebumps when you are cold)
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 touch, pressure & temperature sensors are located in the dermis

 Vasculature that feed the stratum germinativum is also located here (nutrients & oxygen
must diffuse through the layers of the dermis to reach the epidermis).
TENSION LINES: collagen fibers oriented in one direction because of natural tension
o Surgeons attempt to incise along these lines of tension in order to improve subsequent scar (smaller
scar, faster healing).
STRETCH MARKS: vascular structure of the dermis, striae or stretch marks, a form of internal scarring, can result from the
internal damage to this layer that occurs when the skin is stretched too much; rupture of the dermal blood vessel
STRUCTURAL BASIS OF 1. Melanin: causes the skin’s color to vary from pale yellow to reddish-brown to black; from melanocytes in the Formatted: Font: 10 pt
SKIN COLOR stratum basale; gradual exposure to UV light will increase the amount of melanin these melanocytes produced;
helps to absorb & disperse UV energy in the dermis.
a. Pheomelanin: yellow to red
b. Eumelanin: brown to black
LOCATION: Melanocytes, the melanin-producing cells, are most plentiful in the epidermis of the penis, nipples of the breasts,
area just around the nipples (areolae), face, and limbs.
NOTE: number of melanocytes is about the same in all people, differences in skin color are due mainly to the amount of
melanin
Light-skinned individuals: epidermis appears translucent; the stratum corneum is transparent in lighter skin
o FRECKLES: patches of dense melanin
o Liver spots: flat blemishes of accumulation of melanin; due to exposure to sunlight
o Seborrheic hyperkeratosis: excess growth of keratinocytes (wart-like structure stuck on the skin)
MELANOSOME: an organelle where the synthesis of melanin happens; melanocytes synthesize melanin from the amino acid
tyrosine in the presence of an enzyme called tyrosine.
2. Hemoglobin: oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells; give pink tone in skin (blushing= increased blood flow into
the dermis)
3. Carotene: yellow-orange pigment; precursor of vitamin A, accumulates in the stratum corneum & fat of the dermis
layer; it is the variation in melanin productions
NOTE: so much carotene may be deposited in the skin after eating large amounts of carotene rich foods that the skin actually
turns orange
SKIN COLORS Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Bold
1. Cyanotic: bluish
2. Jaundice: yellowish Formatted: Font: 10 pt
3. Erythema: redness of the skin
4. Pallor: paleness of the skin
HYPODERMIS o Below the dermis Formatted: Font: 10 pt
o Subcutaneous tissue (not actually part of the skin)
o This area is quite thin & contains large amount of collagen and elastin fibers between the cells
HYPODERMIC NEEDLE: needle long enough to penetrate into the hypodermis
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Formatted ...
Formatted ...
` Formatted ...
Formatted ...
TATTOOING o Permanent coloration of the skin deposited using a needle into macrophages in the dermis. Formatted ...
o HAIR (or pili): growths of epidermis composed of dead, keratinized epidermal cells
Formatted ...
ANATOMY OF A HAIR
1. Hair Shaft: is the superficial portion of the hair, which projects above the surface of the skin Formatted ...
2. Hair Root: portion of the hair deep to the shaft that penetrates into the dermis
Formatted ...
3. Hair Follicle: it surrounds the root of the hair; made up of external root sheath & an internal root sheath
4. Hair bulb: base of each hair follicle & the surrounding dermal root sheath; onion-shaped structure Formatted Table ...
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES
5. Papilla of the hair: areolar connective tissue that nourish the growing hair follicle Formatted
OF THE SKIN ...
6. Hair Matrix: germinal layer of cells
hair, skin glands, and Formatted
7. Arrector pili: bundle of smooth muscle cells ...
nails— develop from the
embryonic epidermis.
TYPES OF HAIRS Formatted ...
Hair follicles develop @ about 12 weeks after fertilization
Formatted ...
1. LANUGO: very fine, nonpigmented, downy fetal hairs that cover the body of fetus
2. TERMINAL HAIRS: long, coarse, heavily pigmented hairs replacing lanugo Formatted ...
a. ANGORA HAIR: terminal hairs that continue to grow
Formatted ...
b. DEFINITIVE HAIR: terminal hair that grow to a certain length
3. VELLUS HAIRS: shirt, fine, pale hairs that are barely visible by the naked eye Formatted ...
1. SEBACEOUS GLANDS (oil glands) Formatted ...
 simple, branched acinar (rounded) glands
Formatted ...
 SECRETING PORTION: @ the dermis & opens at the neck of the hair follicle
 LOCATION: lips, glands penis, labia minora, tarsal glands of the eyelids, breasts, face, neck, superior chest Formatted ...
 secrete SEBUM (an only substance)- mixture of triglycerides, cholesterol, proteins, and inorganic salts that Formatted ...
lubricates & waterproofs the hair shaft.
 Acne: inflammation of sebaceous glands stimulated by sex hormones such as androgen Formatted ...
2. SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS (sweat glands) Formatted ...
 release sweat, or perspiration, into hair follicles or onto the skin surface through pores
Formatted ...
SKIN GLANDS TWO MAIN TYPES (accdg to structure & type of secretion)
1. Eccrine Sudoriferous Glands (secreting outwardly) Formatted ...
o Distributed all-over the body (sweaty palms, back, chest); non-smelly Formatted ...
o Secretory portion is in the deep dermis
o It helps to regulate body temperature through evaporation Formatted ...
o THERMOREGULATORY SWEATING: role of eccrine glands to achieve thermoregulation Formatted ...
o INSENSIBLE PERSPIRATION: sweat that evaporates from the skin before it’s perceived as
moisture Formatted ...
o plays a small role in eliminating wastes such as urea, uric acid, and ammonia from the body Formatted ...
2. Apocrine Sudoriferous Glands (separated from)
Formatted ...
o simple, coiled tubular glands but have larger ducts and lumens than eccrine glands
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
33
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
`
o LOCATION: skin of axilla (armpit), groin, areolae (pigmented areas around the nipples) of the
breasts, and bearded regions of the face
o Smelly sweat (in contact with hair follicles)
o Secretion is via exocytosis
Mammary Glands: specialized sudoriferous glands that have developed to secrete colostrum & milk (colostrum: first form of
milk)
34
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
` Formatted ...
Formatted ...
NAILS o plates of tightly packed, hard, dead, keratinized epidermal cells that form a clear, solid Formatted ...
covering over the dorsal surfaces
ANATOMY OF NAIL Formatted ...
1. Nail Body (plate): visible portion of the nail Formatted ...
2. Free Edge: extend past the distal end
Formatted ...
3. Nail Root: nail that is buried in the fold of the skin
4. Lunula: crescent-shaped area; whitish because of the thickened epithelial region Formatted ...
5. Hyponychium: beneath the free edge; thickened region of stratum corneum; junction bet. The free-edge Formatted ...
& skin of the fingertip
6. Nail Bed: skin below the nail plate that extends from lunula to hyponychium Formatted ...
7. Eponychium (cuticle): band of epidermis Formatted ...
8. Nail Matrix: portion of epithelium proximal to nail root
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
TYPES OF SKIN Formatted ...
FEATURE THIN SKIN THICK SKIN Formatted ...
Distribution All parts of body except areas such as palms, o Palms& soles
palmar surface of digits, and soles. Formatted ...
Epidermal Thickness 0.10-0.15 mm 0.6-4.5 mm Formatted ...
Epidermal Layer Lacks Stratum lucidum; thinner stratum Presence of stratum lucidum; thicker strata
Formatted ...
spinosum & corneum spinosum &corneum
Epidermal Ridges Lacking due to poorly developed, fewer & less- Present due to well-developed & more Formatted ...
well-organized-dermal papillae numerous dermal papillae organized in parallel Formatted ...
rows
Hair follicles & arrector pili muscles Present Absent Formatted ...
Sebaceous Glands Present Absent Formatted ...
Sudoriferous Glands Fewer More numerous
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
35
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
`
Sensory Receptors Sparser Denser Formatted: Font: 10 pt

ROLES OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 1.
Physical Protection: barrier aginst bacteria, UV, chemicals, frictions
Formatted: Centered
2.
Hydro-regulation: prevents water loss (due to keratin & sebum)
3.
Thermoregulation: helps regulate body temperature thru radiation, evaporation, skin capillaries, Formatted: Font: 10 pt
dilation/constriction; balancing heat production & heat loss
o Core temperature: cranial, thoracic, abdominal cavities
Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Bold
o Shell Temperature: Skin & mouth
o Hypothermia: excessive decrease in temperature Formatted: Font: 10 pt
o Hyperthermia: excessive increase in temperature Formatted: List Paragraph, Numbered + Level: 1 +
o Heat Production: amount of heat produced can be affected by: 1) food consumption; 2) amount Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment:
& type pf hormones secreted; 3) physical activity Left + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
4. Cutaneous absorption: only lipid-based chemicals penetrate (significantly) & the skin.
5. Synthesis: skin synthesize melanin (color), keratin (toughness) & vitamin D (calcium metabolism) Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Not Bold
6. Sensory Reception: senses touch, pressure, heat, cold& tissue damage (pain). Formatted: Font: 10 pt
Communication: reflects emotions through facial expressions, gland secretions.
7. Blood Reservoir: dermis houses an extensive network of blood vessels that carry 8–10% of the total
blood flow in a resting adult Formatted: Font: 10 pt
SKIN WOUND HEALING Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Bold
FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS 1. SKELETAL SYSTEM: Skin helps activate vitamin 6. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM & IMMUNITY: first line of
D, needed for proper absorption of dietary defense; provides mechanical barriers and Formatted: Font: 10 pt
calcium and phosphorus to build and maintain chemical secretions; participate in immune Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Bold
bones responses by recognizing and processing
2. MUSCULAR SYSTEM: Skin helps provide calcium foreign antigens Macrophages in dermis
ions, needed for muscle contraction phagocytize microbes that penetrate skin Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Bold
3. NERVOUS SYSTEM: Nerve endings in skin and surface
subcutaneous tissue provide input to brain for 7. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Hairs in nose filter dust
touch, pressure, thermal, and pain sensations particles from inhaled air Stimulation of pain Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Bold
4. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: Keratinocytes in skin help nerve endings in skin may alter breathing rate Formatted: Font: 10 pt
activate vitamin D to calcitriol, a hormone that 8. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: Skin helps activate vitamin
aids absorption of dietary calcium and D to the hormone calcitriol, which promotes Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Bold
phosphorus absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorus Formatted: Font: 10 pt
5. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: Local chemical in small intestine
changes in dermis cause widening and 9. URINARY SYSTEM: Kidney cells receive
narrowing of skin blood vessels, which help partially activated vitamin D hormone from skin Formatted: Font: 10 pt
adjust blood flow to skin and convert it to calcitriol Some waste products Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Bold
are excreted from body in sweat, contributing
to excretion by urinary system Formatted: Font: 10 pt
36
`
10. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS: Nerve endings in

skin and subcutaneous tissue respond to erotic
stimuli. Mammary glands (modified sweat
glands) produce milk Skin stretches during
pregnancy as fetus enlarges
SKIN DISORDERS 1. Basal cell carcinoma: tumors arise from cells in the stratum basale of the epidermis; rarely metastasizes Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Bold
2. Squamous Cell Carcinoma: arise from stratum spinosum of the epidermis; variable to metastasizes
3. Malignant Melanomas: arise from melanocytes Formatted: Font: 10 pt
EARLY WARNING SIGNS Formatted: Centered
A- Asymmetry B- border C- color D-diameter E- evolving
BURNS: tissue damage caused by excessive heat, electricity, radioactivity, or corrosive chemicals that denature
(break down) proteins in the skin. Formatted: Font: Bold
1.) First Degree Burn: involves only the epidermis; slight pain, erythema (redness) Formatted: Font: Not Bold
2.) Second Degree Burn: destroys the epidermis & part of the dermis; redness, blisters, edema & pain
3.) Third Degree Burn: destroys the epidermis, dermis & subcutaneous layer; skin functions are lost
a. Rules of 9: quick way of estimating the surface area affected by a burn in an adult. Formatted: Font: Not Bold
PRESSURE ULCERS: decubitus ulcers or bedsores, are caused by a constant deficiency of blood flow to tissues
Numbering Style: a, b, c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment:
Left + Aligned at: 0.75" + Indent at: 1"
Formatted: Normal, No bullets or numbering
Formatted: Font: Not Bold
37
`
Ceruminous Glands - Only located in the outer auditory canal Formatted: Tab stops: 0.11", Left
- Cerumen= ear wax
- For protection of the auditory canal from pathogenic invasion Formatted Table
- Also, to lubricate the tympanic membrane Formatted: Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 0.5" +
DERMAL STRUCTURES - ARRECTOR PILI: Indent at: 0.75"
o Small muscle attached to hair root & base of epidermis
Formatted: Font: Bold
o When pulled -> hair shaft stands up -> goose bumps
o Vestigial structure
- Vascular Supply Formatted: Font: Bold
o Nourish epidermis, hair root & dermis itself
- SENSORY ENDINGS Formatted: Font: Bold
o Meissner’s corpuscle – light touch
o Pacinian corpuscle – pressure
o Free Nerve Endings – light touch, temperature, pain
o Organs of Ruffini – pressure
o Bulbs of Krause – light touch
o Pain receptors – sense tissue damage
o Temperature receptors – sense heat & cold. Formatted: Font: 10 pt
CLINICAL - WOUNDS: open skin is an entry door for bacteria -> risk infection
Formatted
CONSIDERATIONS o Gravity depends on depth & area involved.
o Phases of healing: Formatted: Font: Bold
1. Clot formation -> scab
Formatted: Numbered + Level: 1 + Numbering Style: 1,
2. Inflammatory response
2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned at:
3. Fibroblasts multiply -> granulations
1.28" + Indent at: 1.53"
4. Macrophages phagocytize debris
5. When dermis has filled up, epidermis can grow to cover the area
6. If severe wound: scar tissue
- INFLAMMATION Formatted: Font: Bold
o 4 CARDINAL SYMPTOMS: 1. Redness 2. Heat 3. Swelling 4. Pain
o Bacteria in the wound make contact with defense cells such as mast cells -> mast cells release histamine.
o Histamine promotes increased permeability of blood vessels -> tissue swelling
o Tissue swelling -> pain
o Bacteria also attract macrophages which release chemical promoting dilation of the capillaries
(vasodilation) -> more blood -> skin area become red (redness) & hot (heat). Formatted: Font: Bold
- BURNS: gravity of burns is determined by surface, depth & location
- SKIN TUMORS
o Warts – due to a virus, treated via cryosurgery Formatted: Font: 10 pt
o Melanomas- usually starts from a mole, watch for changes in shape, height or color of the mole Formatted
38
`
AGING - Decrease in sebum secretion -> dry skin Formatted: Font: Bold
- Decrease in sweat gland secretion -> difficulties to cope with heat
- Decrease in elastin fibers -> wrinkles Formatted: Font: Bold
- Decrease in adipose tissue in the dermis -> difficulties to cope with cold. Formatted: Font: Bold
NECROSIS - Necrosis begins with an impairment of the cell’s ability to maintain homeostasis leading to an influx of water &
extracellular ions.
- Necrotic cell death is often associated with extensive tissue damage resulting in an intense inflammatory response. Formatted: Font: Bold
Formatted: Centered
39
Formatted ...
Formatted Table ...
` Formatted ...
Formatted ...
SKELETAL SYSTEM: BONE TISSUE Formatted ...
Bone tissue is continuously growing, remodeling, and repairing itself. It contributes to homeostasis of the Formatted ...
body by providing support and protection, producing blood cells, and storing minerals and triglycerides.
Formatted ...
1. Support: structural framework; supports soft tissue; attachment points for tendons of skeletal
muscles Formatted ...
2. Protection: protects internal organs (e.g. cranial & rib cage) Formatted ...
3. Assistance in movement: skeletal muscles pull on bones to produce movement
FUNCTIONS 4. Mineral homeostasis (storage & release): bone tissue = 18% of the weight of human body; stores Formatted ...
calcium & phosphorus (for strength of the bone); bone tissue stores ~90% of body’s calcium; bone Formatted ...
releases minerals for homeostasis
5. Blood cell production: red bone marrow produces RBC, WBC & platelets thru the process called Formatted ...
hemopoiesis (blood making); with increasing age, bone marrow changes color from red to yellow Formatted ...
6. Triglyceride storage: yellow bone marrow consists of adipose which stores triglycerides (potential
Formatted ...
chemical energy reserve)
STRUCTURE OF THE LONG BONE o Consists of a diaphysis and an epiphysis Formatted ...
1. DIAPHYSIS (growing between): tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bones Formatted ...
LONG BONE: has greater length than width. o Composed of compact bone that surround the medullar cavity
covered by articular cartilage at the articular o Yellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in the medullar cavity Formatted ...
surfaces of its proximal and distal epiphyses and 2. EPIPHYSES (growing over): expanded ends of long bones Formatted ...
by periosteum around all other parts of the bone. o Exterior is compact bone and the interior is spongy bones
Formatted ...
o Joint surface is covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage
o Epiphyseal line separates the diaphysis from the epiphyses. Formatted ...
3. METAPHYSES: region between diaphysis and epiphyses; it contains epiphyseal plate (a layer of hyaline
Formatted ...
cartilage that allow the diaphysis to grow in length; when bone stopped growing at ages 14-24 the
cartilage in the epiphyseal plate is replaced by a bone and it is now called as epiphyseal line. Formatted ...
4. ARTICULAR CARTILAGE: thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the epiphysis where the bone forms joint Formatted ...
with other bone; it reduces friction & adsorbs shock at freely movable joints; it lacks the ability to repair
damage. Formatted ...
5. PERIOSTEUM: tough connective tissue sheath; assists the bone during fracture repair, helps nourish bone Formatted ...
tissue & serve as an attachment point for ligaments & tendons
Formatted ...
6. MEDULLARY CAVITY (marrow): hollow cylindrical space in diaphysis that contains yellow bone marrow;
minimizes the weight of the dense bony material Formatted ...
BONE MEMBRANES Formatted ...
1. PERIOSTEUM: double-layered protective membrane
o Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective tissue Formatted ...
o Inner osteogenic layer is composed of osteoblasts and osteoclasts Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
40
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
`
o Richly supplied with nerve fibers, blood, and lymphatic vessels which enter the
bone via nutrient foramina
o Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers (perforating fibers) (thick bundles
of collagen that extend from the periosteum into the bone ECM)
2. ENDOSTEUM: delicate membrane covering internal surfaces of bone.
OSTEOGENIC CELLS (-genic producing): unspecialized stem cells derived from mesenchyme (tissue from
which almost all connective tissues are formed).
o Only bone cells to undergo cell division Formatted: Centered
o Found along the inner portion of the periosteum, in the endosteum & in the canals Formatted: Font: Bold
within bone that contain blood vessels.
RUFFLED BORDER: cell releases powerful lysosomal enzyme and acids that digest the protein and mineral Formatted: Font: Not Bold
components of the underlying bone matrix. Formatted: Font: Bold
Formatted: Font: Not Bold
COMPACT BONE: contain few spaces; the strongest form of bone tissue; found beneath the periosteum of all
bones and make-up the bulk of the diaphysis of long bones. Formatted: Font: Not Bold
o Provides protection and support and resists the stressed produced by weight and
movement
SPONGY BONES: does not contain osteons; term “spongy” does not refer to the texture of the bone, only its Formatted: Font: Bold
appearance. Formatted: Font: Not Bold
o Consists of lamellae arranged in an irregular lattice of thin columns called
TRABECULAE (little beams)- irregular pattern of thin columns. Formatted: Font: Not Bold
COMPACT VS. SPONGY
COMPACT: contains few spaces but it is the strongest SPONGY (trabecular or cancellous bone tissue): tissue is light which reduces the overall weight Formatted: Font: Not Bold
form of bone tissue of a bone so that it moves more readily when pulled by a skeletal muscle; does not contain Formatted: Font: Not Bold
Location: beneath the periosteum & makes up the osteons
diaphysis of long bones Location: interior of a bone Formatted: List Paragraph, Indent: Left: 0.49"
- Composed of osteons (repeating structural units) or o TRABECULAE of spongy bone tissue support and protect the red bone marrow Formatted: Font: Not Bold
haversian system o Spongy bones in the hip bones, ribs, sternum (breastbone), vertebrae (backbones) and
- Each osteons have lamellae around an osteonic the ends of long bones is where red bone marrow is stored and thus where Formatted: Font: Not Bold
canal hemopoiesis (blood cell production) occurs in adults. Formatted: Font: Not Bold
- Concentric lamellae: circular plates of mineralized
Formatted: List Paragraph, Indent: Left: 0.04", Bulleted
extracellular matrix
+ Level: 1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
- Lacunae: small spaces between lamellae with
osteocytes Formatted: Font: Not Bold
- Canaliculi: small channels filled with ECfluid Formatted: Font: Bold
41
Formatted ...
` Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted Table ...
Osteogenesis and ossification: the process of bone tissue formation which leads to: Formatted ...
o The formation of the bony skeleton in embryos
BONE DEVELOPMENT Formatted ...
o Bone growth until early adulthood
o Bone thickness, remodeling and repair Formatted ...
BONE FORMATION Formatted ...
1. Intramembranous Ossification: flat bones of the skull, most of the facial bones, mandible (lower jawbone), and the medial part of the clavicle (collar
bone) Formatted ...
2. Endochondral Ossification: for long bones Formatted ...
o Bone forms directly within mesenchyme
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION Formatted ...
o Arranged in sheet like layers that resemble membranes; flat bones of the skull and mandible (lower
- Involves the formation of bone within mesenchyme jawbone) are formed in this way Formatted ...
arranged in sheet like layers that resemble membrane.
o The “soft spots” that help the fetal skull pass through the birth canal later harden by
(intra- = within; -membran- = membrane) Formatted ...
intramembranous ossification
1. Development of the ossification center: 2. Calcification: calcium and other mineral 3. Formation of 4. Development of periosteum: Formatted ...
osteoblasts secrete organic extracellular matrix. salts are deposited and extracellular matrix trabeculae: mesenchyme at the periphery of the bone Formatted ...
calcifies (hardens). extracellular matrix develops into the periosteum.
develops into Formatted ...
trabeculae that fuse
Formatted ...
to form spongy
bone. Formatted ...
ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION o Replacement of cartilage by bone. Formatted ...
(for long bones) 1. Development of cartilage model: Mesenchymal cells develop into chondroblasts, which form the
- Bone gradually replaces a cartilage model cartilage model. Formatted ...
2. Growth of cartilage model: growth occurs by cell division of chondrocytes. Formatted ...
42
`
- bone forms within hyaline cartilage that develops 3. Development of primary ossification center: bone tissue has replaced most of the cartilage.
from mesenchyme. 4. Development of the medullary (marrow) cavity: bone breakdown by osteoclasts forms the
(endo- = within; -chondral = cartilage) Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.02", No bullets or
medullary cavity.
numbering
5. Development of secondary ossification center: occur in the epiphyses of the bone
6. Formation of articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate: both structures consist of hyaline cartilage Formatted: No bullets or numbering
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.15", No bullets or
numbering, Tab stops: 0.83", Left
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.06", No bullets or
numbering
numbering
numbering
o Initial skeleton of cartilage in infants
Formatted: Centered
o Replaced with bon by osteoblasts
o More than 300 bones at birth (fuses to 206) Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Level: 2 +
BONE DEVELOPMENT o Always growing and breaking down Aligned at: 0.75" + Indent at: 1"
 Osteoblasts: form new bone cells Formatted: Font: 10 pt
 Osteoclasts: break bone cells down
 Osteocytes: mature bone cells Formatted: Font: 10 pt
1. Cartilage bone of the skull 2. Intramembranous ossification produced the roofing bones of the Formatted: Font: Bold
FETUS (at 10 weeks) skull
Formatted: Centered
3. Primary ossification center if the diaphysis (skeleton of the lower limb) 4. Future hip bone.
Temporal, Mandible, Clavicle, Scapula, Humerus, Ribs, Vertebrae, Hip bone (ilium), Femur, Parietal, Frontal, Formatted: Font: 10 pt
FETUS (at 16 weeks)
Metacarpal, Phalanges, Radius, Ulna, Cartilage, Phalanx, Fibula, Tibia, Metatarsals. Formatted: Font: 10 pt
TYPES OF BONE GROWTH
A. Growth in Length Formatted ...
a. Interstitial growth of cartilage on the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate Formatted: Font: Bold
b. Replacement of cartilage in the side of the epiphyseal plate with bone by endochondral
Formatted: Centered
BONE GROWTH ossification
B. Growth in Thickness Formatted: Font: 10 pt
a. Bones grow in thickness by appositional growth (growth at the outer surface)
b. At the bone surface, cells in the periosteum differentiate into osteoblasts, which secrete
bone ECM. Formatted: Centered
43
Formatted ...
` Formatted ...
Formatted ...
c. Osteoblasts develop into osteocytes; lamellae are added to the surface of the bone and Formatted ...
new osteons of compact bone tissue are formed
d. Osteoclasts in the endosteum destroy the bone tissue lining the medullary cavity. Formatted ...
e. Bone destruction on the inside of the bone by osteoclasts occurs at a slower rate than bone Formatted ...
formation on the outside of the bone.
Formatted ...
f. The medullary cavity enlarges as the bone increases in thickness.
Layer of hyaline cartilage in the metaphysis of a growing bone that consists of four zones Formatted ...
EPIPHYSEAL PLATE 1. Zone of Resting Cartilage: nearest the epiphysis; consists of small, scattered chondrocytes;
Formatted ...
“resting” is used because the cells do not function in bone growth; they anchor the epiphyseal plate
to the epiphysis of the bone Formatted ...
2. Zone of proliferating cartilage: slightly larger chondrocytes in this zone are arrange like stack of Formatted ...
coins; chondrocytes undergo interstitial growth as they divide and secrete extracellular matrix;
chondrocytes in this zone divide to replace those that die at the diaphyseal side of the epiphyseal Formatted ...
plate. Formatted ...
3. Zone of hypertrophic cartilage: consists of large, maturing chondrocytes arranged in columns.
Formatted ...
4. Zone of calcified cartilage: osteoclasts dissolve the calcified cartilage& osteoblasts and capillaries
from the diaphysis invade the area; few cells thick & consist of chondrocytes that are dead because Formatted ...
of the ECM around them has calcified; osteoblasts lay down bone ECM, replacing the calcified Formatted ...
cartilage by the process of endochondral ossification.
1. HYALINE: provides support, flexibility and resilience Formatted ...
 Is the most abundant skeletal cartilage Formatted ...
 Is present in these cartilages:
SKELETAL CARTILAGE Formatted ...
o Articular: covers the ends of long bones
: contains no blood vessels or nerves
o Costal: connects the ribs to the sternum Formatted ...
: surrounded by the perichondrium (dense
o Respiratory: makes up the larynx and reinforces air passages
irregular connective tissue) resists outward Formatted ...
o Nasal: supports the nose
expansion Formatted
2. ELASTIC: similar to hyaline cartilage but contains elastic fibers; found in the external ear and the ...
epiglottis Formatted ...
3. FIBROCARTILAGE: highly compressed with great tensile strength; contain collage fibers
Bone (osseous tissue): contains abundant of ECM (15% water, 30% collagen fibers, 55% crystalized mineral Formatted ...
salts) Formatted ...
o Rich in Calcium Phosphate and combines with Calcium Hydroxide to form crystals of hydroxyapatite
Formatted ...
o These mineral salts are deposited in the framework formed by the collagen fibers of the ECM, the
HISTOLOGY OF BONE TISSUE crystallize and the tissue hardens Formatted ...
CALCIFICATION= initiated by bone-building cells, osteoblasts Formatted ...
: requires the presence of collagen fibers
1. Mineral salts crystallize at the spaces between collagen fibers. 2. Mineral crystals accumulate Formatted ...
around the collagen fibers Formatted ...
44
Formatted ...
` Formatted ...
Formatted ...
1. OSTEOPROGENITOR CELL: derived from mesenchyme; only bone cells that undergo cell division; Formatted ...
found at the inner portion of the periosteum and endosteum
2. OSTEOBLASTS: bone-building cells; synthesizes & secrete collagen fibers to build ECM of bone Formatted ...
tissue; initiate calcification; they become trapped in their own secretions in ECM and become Formatted ...
osteocytes
Formatted ...
TYPES OF CELLS IN BONE TISSUES 3. OSTEOCYTES: mature bone cells; main cells & maintain its daily metabolism (exchange of nutrients
& wastes with blood); do not undergo cell division Formatted ...
4. OSTEOCLASTS: derived from the fusion of as many as 50 monocytes (type of WBC); can be found
Formatted ...
@endosteum; its plasma membrane is deeply folded into a ruffled border.; it releases powerful
lysosomal enzymes and acids that digest the protein & mineral components of the EC-bone matrix; Formatted ...
helps to regulate the blood calcium level; target cells for drug therapy to treat osteoporosis. Formatted ...
o Periosteal Arteries: small arteries accompanied by nerves, enter the diaphysis through many
interosteonic canals & supply Formatted ...
o Nutrient foramina: compact bone where the nutrient artery passes through Formatted ...
o Veins that carry blood away from long bones are evident in three places:
Formatted ...
BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY OF BONE 1. One or two nutrient veins accompany the nutrient artery & exit through the diaphysis
2. Numerous epiphyseal veins and metaphyseal veins accompany their respective Formatted ...
arteries and exit through the epiphyses and metaphyses Formatted ...
3. Small periosteal veins accompany their respective arteries and exit through the
periosteum. Formatted ...
APPOSITIONAL GROWTH OF BONE Formatted ...
1. Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum 2. As the bony ridges enlarge 3. The periosteum lining the tunnel 4. As the osteoblasts beneath
Formatted ...
secrete bone matrix, forming ridges that and meet, the groove is transformed into an endosteum form new lamellae, a new osteon
follow the course of periosteal blood containing the blood vessel and the osteoblasts just deep to the is created. New circumferential Formatted ...
vessels. becomes a tunnel. tunnel endosteum secrete bone lamellae are elaborated beneath
Formatted ...
matrix, narrowing the canal. the periosteum and the process is
repeated. Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
LONG BONE GROWTH AND REMODELING

A. Growth Formatted ...
a. Bone grows in length because:
Formatted ...
45
` Formatted ...
Formatted ...
i. Cartilage grows here Formatted ...
ii. Cartilage replaced by bone here
iii. Formatted ...
BONE REMODELING - Remodeling units: adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclast deposit and resorb bone at periosteal and Formatted ...
- Ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by endosteal surfaces
Formatted ...
new bone tissue CONTROL OF REMODELING
1. Bone Resorption: the removal of minerals and A. Two control loops regulate bone remodeling Formatted ...
collagen fibers from bone by osteoclasts o Hormonal mechanism maintains calcium homeostasis in the blood
Formatted ...
2. Bone Deposition: addition of minerals and o Mechanical and gravitational forces acting on the skeleton.
collagen fibers to bone by osteoblasts Formatted ...
break down of the bone extracellular matrix; part of the maintenance and repair of the bone Formatted ...
- Accomplished by osteoclasts
- Resorption bays: grooves formed by osteoclasts as they break down bone matrix Formatted ...
- Resorption involves osteoclasts secretion of: Formatted ...
BONE RESORPTION
o Lysosomal enzymes that digest organic matrix
Formatted ...
o Acids that convert calcium salts into soluble forms
- Dissolved matrix is transcytoses across the osteoclasts’ cell where it is secreted into the interstitial Formatted ...
fluid and then into the blood. Formatted ...
- Occurs where bone is injured or added strength is needed
- Requires a diet rich in protein, vit. C, D, A, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium & manganese Formatted ...
o Main source of vit. D: from sunlight (activated in the skin) Formatted ...
o Vitamin A: for tissue repair
Formatted ...
BONE DEPOSITION - Alkaline phosphatase is essential for mineralization of bone
- Sites of new matrix deposition are revealed by the: Formatted ...
o Osteoid seam: unmineralized band of bone matrix
Formatted ...
o Calcification front: abrupt transition zone between the osteoid seam and the older
mineralized bone. Formatted ...
Importance of IONIC CALCIUM in the Body - Why is it essential to regulate your calcium when you are hypertensive? Hypertensive happens Formatted ...
- Calcium is necessary for: because of the blockage of the plaque in the vessels.
- Transmission of nerve impulses HORMONAL MECHANISM (in maintaining calcium) Formatted ...
- Muscle contraction - Rising blood Ca2+ levels trigger the thyroid to release calcitonin Formatted ...
- Blood coagulation - Calcitonin stimulates calcium salt deposit in bone
Formatted ...
- Secretion by glands and nerve cells - Falling blood Ca2+ levels signal the parathyroid glands to release PTH
- Cell division - PTH signals osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+ into the blood Formatted ...
A. Remodeling Formatted ...
a. Different rates in body
HOMEOSTASIS Formatted ...
b. Balance between osteoclasts and osteoblasts
B. Factors affecting bone growth Formatted ...
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a. Calcium & phosphorus in diet

b. Vitamins A, C, D
c. Hormones: 1. Growth hormone (thyroxine) 2. Calcitonin 3. Parathyroid hormone 4. Sex
hormones
1. Rickets: disease of children due to a lack of vitamin D; calcium is not deposited in bones; bones
become soft; bowing of the bones and other deformities occur.
2. Osteomalacia: rickets of adults; due to a lack of vitamin D; calcium is not deposited in the bones; Formatted: Font: Not Bold
bones become brittle
3. Osteoporosis: bone reabsorption is greater than bone deposition; it is due to any of the following: Formatted: Font: Bold
i. Lack of estrogen in women
Formatted
ii. Lack of exercise to stress the bones
iii. Inadequate intake of calcium and phosphorus Formatted: Normal, Indent: Left: 0.75", No bullets or
iv. Abnormalities of vitamin D metabolism numbering
v. Loss of muscle mass. Formatted: Font: 10 pt
a. Decline in Bone Density: Bone resorption > bone deposition
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES Formatted: Font: Bold
b. Increase Risk for Fracture: compression fractures of vertebrae hip fractures
c. Role of calcium, vitamin D, estrogen, exercise Calcitonin vs. Parathyroid Hormone Formatted: Centered
AGE RELATED DYSFUNCTIONS
1. Arthritis Formatted: Font: Not Bold
a. Osteoarthritis- 90% of population will get at the age of 40; chronic inflammation of articular Formatted
cartilage can be normal age-dependent change can also be pathology due to: age related
changes, decrease blood supply, & trauma.
b. Rheumatoid Arthritis: autoimmune disease characterized by inflammation of the joints; Formatted: Font: Not Bold
accompanied by system symptoms such as fever, fatigue & anemia; disease progresses from Formatted: List Paragraph, Indent: Left: 0.56",
thickening of the joint tissue (pannus formation) to cartilage destruction & finally deformity & Numbered + Level: 2 + Numbering Style: a, b, c, … +
fusion of the joints Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 1.56" +
1. Hematoma formation: Immediately after the fracture, bleeding into the area creates a fracture Indent at: 1.81"
hematoma.
2. Formation of fibrocartilaginous callus: An internal callus forms as a network of spongy bone unites the Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Bold
inner surfaces and an external callus of cartilage and bone stabilizes the outer edges. Formatted: Font: Bold
FRACTURE REPAIR 3. Formation of bony callus: The cartilage of the external callus has been replaced by bone and struts of
Formatted: Centered
spongy bone now unite the broken ends. Fragments of dead bone and the areas of bone closes to the
break have been removed and replaced. Formatted: List Paragraph, Indent: Left: 0.06",
4. Remodeling of bony callus: A swelling initially marks the location of the fracture. Over time this region Numbered + Level: 4 + Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … +
will be remodeled and little evidence of the fracture will remain. Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned at: 1.75" +
Indent at: 2"
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numbering
numbering
Formatted: Centered, Indent: Left: 0.11", No bullets or
numbering

Joints may also be classified according to the type of tissues that bind the bone at the joint
Formatted: Centered
1. Fibrous
2. Cartilaginous Formatted: List Paragraph, Numbered + Level: 2 +
3. Synovial: all freely movable joints are synovial joints. Numbering Style: a, b, c, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment:
a. Articular cartilage: smooth surface Left + Aligned at: 0.75" + Indent at: 1"
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
b. Joint capsule: enclosure Formatted: Font: 10 pt
c. Synovial membrane: secretes fluid
d. Synovial fluid: lubrication
e. Bursae/bursa: sliding motion Formatted: Font: Bold
f. Supporting ligaments: stabilize the joint
1. Flexion: bending of a joint that decreases the angle between the bones
2. Extension: straightening of a joint so the angle between the bones increases Formatted: Font: Bold
3. Planar Flexion: bending the foot down. Formatted: Font: Bold
4. Dorsiflexion: bending the foot up toward the leg.
5. Hyperextension: overextending the joint Formatted: Font: Bold
TYPES OF JOINT MOVEMENTS 6. Abduction: away from the midline of the body. Formatted: Centered
7. Adduction: toward the midline
8. Inversion: turning the sole of the foot inward so that it faces the opposite foot.
9. Eversion: turning the sole of the foot outward. Formatted: Font: Bold
10. Supination: turning the hand so that the palm faces upward. Formatted: Font: Bold
11. Circumduction: combination of movements.
Formatted ...
48
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CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BONE: - HYDROXYAPATITES (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) or mineral salts: 65% of bone by mass; mainly calcium Formatted: Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at: 0.25" +
INORGANIC phosphates; responsible for bone hardness and its resistance to compression. Indent at: 0.5"
1. MINERALS: large amounts of Ca & P are needed for bone growth, smaller amounts of Mg, F & Mn
Formatted ...
2. VITAMINS:
a. Vitamin A: stimulates activity of osteoblasts Formatted Table
b. Vitamin C: synthesis of collagen (main bone protein)
Formatted ...
c. Vitamin D: helps build bone by increasing the absorption of Ca from foods in the GIT into
the blood. Formatted: Font: Bold
d. Vitamin K & B12: synthesis of bone proteins. Formatted: Font: Bold
3. HORMONES:
FACTORS AFFECTING BONE GROWTH & Formatted: Font: Bold
a. Insulin-like growth Factors: stimulate osteoblasts, promote cell division, enhance
BONE REMODELLING
synthesis of the protein needed to build new bone; produced as a response to the Formatted: Font: Bold
secretion of growth hormone in the pituitary gland
Formatted ...
b. Thyroid Hormones (T3 & T4): promote bone growth by stimulating osteoblasts
c. Insulin: increases the synthesis of bone proteins. Formatted: Font: Bold
d. Sex Hormones (estrogens & testosterones): increases osteoblasts activity; sudden growth Formatted: Font: Bold
spurt
i. Estrogens: shut down growth at the epiphyseal plates, causing growth to cease; Formatted ...
promotes apoptosis of osteoclasts resulting to slow resorption, Formatted: Numbered + Level: 3 + Numbering Style: i,
FRACTURE: any break in a bone ii, iii, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Right + Aligned at:
FRACTURE & REPAIR OF BONE 1. Stress Fracture: microscopic fissures in the bone 1.38" + Indent at: 1.5"
DEMINERALIZATION: loss of bone mass, loss of Ca2+ & other minerals from bone ECM
Formatted ...
- The role of bone in Ca2+ homeostasis is to help buffer the blood Ca2+ level, releasing Ca2+ into
blood plasma (using osteoclasts) when the level decreases & absorbing Ca2+ when the level rises. Formatted: Font: Not Bold
o Calcitriol: active form of Vitamin D; hormone that promotes absorption of Ca2+ from Formatted: Font: Bold
BONE’S ROLE IN CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
foods in the GIT into the blood.
o Calcitonin: released by parafollicular cells in thyroid gland; promotes bone formation & Formatted: Normal, No bullets or numbering
decreases blood Ca2+ level. Formatted ...
A. BASED ON SHAPE
Formatted ...
a. LONG BONES: greater length than width
b. SHORT BONES: cube shaped & nearly equal length & width (carpal & tarsal) Formatted ...
c. FLAT BONES: thin & composed of 2 nearly parallel plates of compact bone tissue enclosing
Formatted
a layer of spongy bone tissues (cranial, sternum, ribs, scapulae)
TYPES OF BONES Formatted: Font: Bold
d. IRREGULAR BONES: complex shapes (vertebrae, hip bones, facial bones & calcaneus)
e. SESAMOID BONES: develop in certain tendons where there is considerabe friction, tension
& physical stress (palms & soles, patellae)
B. BASED ON BONE MARKINGS – structural features adapted for specific functions on the surfaces of Formatted: Font: Bold
the bones; Each marking—whether a depression, an opening, or a process—is structured for a
49
`
specific function, such as joint formation, muscle attachment, or passage of nerves and blood Formatted: Font: Bold
vessels
a. DEPRESSIONS & OPENINGS: allow the passage of soft tissues to form joints Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.62"
b. PROCESSES: projections or outgrowths that either help form joints or serve as attachment Formatted: Font: Bold
points for connective tissue.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.74"
A. Blood Supply of Mature Bones
1. Nutrient Artery & Vein Formatted: Font: Bold
a. A single pair of blood vessels
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.68"
b. Enter the diaphysis through the nutrient foramen
c. Femur has more than one pair Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.74"
BONE FORMATION & GROWTH 2. Metaphyseal Vessels Formatted ...
a. Supply the epiphyseal cartilage
b. Where bone growth occurs Formatted ...
3. Periosteal Vessels Formatted ...
a. Blood to superficial osteons
Formatted ...
b. Secondary ossification centers
1. SCOLIOSIS: lateral bending of the vertebral column Formatted ...
ABNORMAL CURVES OF THE VERTEBRAL 2. KYPHOSIS: increase in the thoracic curve of the vertebral column that produces hunchback look Formatted ...
COLUMN 3. Spina Bifida: congenital defect of the vertebral column which laminae fail to develop normally & unite
midline Formatted ...
SKULL: OVERVIEW: The 22 bones of the skull include cranial bones and Formatted ...
facial bones. 2. The eight cranial bones: frontal, parietal (2), temporal (2),
Formatted ...
occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid. 3. The 14 facial bones: nasal (2), maxillae
(2), zygomatic (2), lacrimal (2), palatine (2), inferior nasal conchae (2), Formatted ...
vomer, and mandible.
Formatted ...
DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Formatted ...
 The axial skeleton consists of bones arranged along the longitudinal axis.
The parts of the axial skeleton are the skull, auditory ossicles (ear bones), Formatted ...
hyoid bone, vertebral column, sternum, and ribs.
Formatted ...
 The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the girdles and the
upper and lower limbs (extremities). The parts of the appendicular Formatted ...
skeleton are the pectoral (shoulder) girdles, bones of the upper limbs, Formatted ...
pelvic (hip) girdles, and bones of the lower limbs.
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
Formatted ...
50
`
51
`
52
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- Joint, also called as an articulation is a point of contact between 2 bones, between bone & cartilage. Formatted Table
- Structural classification of joints:
1. The presence/ absence of a space between the articulating bones called a synovial cavity
2. Type of connective tissue that binds the bones together Formatted: List Paragraph, Left, Numbered + Level: 1 +
TYPES OF JOINTS (accdg to structure) 1. Fibrous joints: There is no synovial cavity, and the bones are held together by dense irregular connective Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment:
tissue that is rich in collagen fibers. Left + Aligned at: 0.5" + Indent at: 0.75"
2. Cartilaginous joints: There is no synovial cavity, and the bones are held together by cartilage.
3. Synovial joints: The bones forming the joint have a synovial cavity and are united by the dense irregular
connective tissue of an articular capsule, and oft en by accessory ligaments. Formatted: Left
TYPES OF JOINTS (accdg to functions) 1. Synarthrosis (syn- = together): An immovable joint. The plural is synarthroses. Formatted: Font: Bold
2. Amphiarthrosis (amphi- = on both sides): A slightly movable joint. The plural is amphiarthroses.
3. Diarthrosis (sis = movable joint): A freely movable joint. The plural is diarthroses. All diarthroses are Formatted: List Paragraph, Left, Numbered + Level: 1 +
synovial joints. They have a variety of shapes and permit several diff erent types of movements. Numbering Style: 1, 2, 3, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment:
Formatted: List Paragraph, Left, Numbered + Level: 1 +
53

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THE CELL AND CELLULAR NUTRITION Formatted: Font: 15 pt, Bold

 Fragile, transparent barrier that contains the Formatted ...

2. Nucleus NUCLEUS (nucle= kernel) Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, Bold

Cell & Cell Nutrition

1. Label the diagram of the main parts of a typical cell

A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.

3 main regions/ parts of the cell

NUCLEUS (nucle= kernel)

 Headquarters; control center

 Nuclear Envelope: double membrane barrier

Fluid Mosaic Model

STRUCTURE OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 10 pt

CELLULAR METABOLISM/ RESPIRATION Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow

Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, Bold

2. Meiosis • Occurs in reproductive cells • Results in haploid cells

Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow

Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow, 12 pt, Bold

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow

TISSUE LEVEL ORGANIZATION Formatted: Font: 15 pt

Description: a single layer of cube-shaped cells; round, centrally located nucleus.

B. Supporting connective tissue

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Formatted: Font: 15 pt

 touch, pressure & temperature sensors are located in the dermis

Sensory Receptors Sparser Denser Formatted: Font: 10 pt

10. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS: Nerve endings in

LONG BONE GROWTH AND REMODELING

a. Calcium & phosphorus in diet

Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.31", No bullets or

Formatted: Font: Bold

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