Gandhi's Little-Known Critique of Varna

Author(s): Anil Nauriya

Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 41, No. 19 (May 13-19, 2006), pp. 1835-1838
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
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 Gandhi's Little-Known
forms represented by individuals like Vatal
Nagaraj of the Kannada Chaluvaligars
(Kannada movement), ChidanandaMurthy
and bodies like the Kannada Rakshana
Vedike (Kannada protection forum) which
have more often than not come to be
Critique of Vana
associated with narrow, chauvinistic agen-
das. Unsurprisingly, they haven't made
Gandhi's critics had argued at the time that he was carrying
much headway.
Rajkumar's fans' association (Rajkumar his campaigns against untouchability, that it would go
out
only
Abhimanigala Sangha) too was left rudder- when caste was destroyed. It is not generally known that
less in the absence of a broader agenda.
Gandhi moved to this position in the mid-1940s. It is also
The fans were relegated to merely assem-
generally understood that while Gandhi opposed untouchability
bling and showing their prowess on the
and
streets and at meetings in which their leader criticised caste, he defended 'varnavyavastha', the fourfold
varna order. This is
participated or where he was the subject, not entirely correct over the entire Gandhian
like the opening of films in which "Raj"
trajectory. Gandhi's own critique of the varna order, which
was the hero. No doubt there were innu-
unfurled over time, is usually overlooked by scholars.
merable admirers and acolytes from all
classes, but the fans in the Sangha were
a specific congregation of those from the ANIL NAURIYA Later, in 1927, Gandhi declared that "if
economically less-privileged sections with varnashrama goes to the dogs in the re-
considerable bottled up anger at being andhi had said to Sri Lankans in moval of untouchability, I shall not shed
marginalised. a tear."7
1927 that if India could take pride
"in having sent you Mahinda and He knew the struggle against old in-
Absence of a Movement the message of the Buddha to this grained
land, practices would be long Let us
it has also to accept the humiliation fightofuntouchability, he says open-
If Kannada nationalistic aspirationshaving had sent you the curse of caste endedly, and we'll cross the other bridge
taken root and turned into a major move- later. In February 1933, he gave what he
distinctions."' By the early 1930s, Gandhi
ment, the fans would have transformed had declared that caste, that is, the then
endo- saw as practical reasons: "At the
into its cadre. But in the absence of such gamous sociological category, of whichpresent moment, it is the 'untouchable',
a movement, Rajkumar himself as well as there are hundreds, if not thousands, the outcaste, with whom all Hindu refor-
the narrow causes he espoused became was "a handicap on progress"2 and mers,"a
whether they believe in varnashrama
their war cry. The fans' active role in the social evil"3 and, by the 1940s, that it
or was
not, have agreed to deal. The opposition
to untouchability is common to both.
early 1990s agitation over the Cauvery "an anachronism"4 which "must go".5
interim award and later the street Since Gandhi distinguished the caste
Therefore, the present joint fight is re-
stricted to the removal of untouchability...
system from 'chaturvarna', the scriptural
protests against his kidnap by the brigand
Veerappan were two clear examples fourfold
of varna order of hereditary It is highly likely that at the end of it we
this mindset. occupational divisions, his still unfolding
shall all find that there is nothing to fight
If one goes through the several inter- critique of the fourfold order has often against in varnashrama. If, however,
views of Rajkumar in recent years, been
it isoverlooked. This critique is ignored
varnashrama even then looks an ugly thing,
clear he never saw himself as a leader who the whole of Hindu society will fight it...
especially by contemporary scholars, partly
could take forward the ideals of the Kannada perhaps because of the traditionalist At the end of the chapter, I hope that we
nationalists. He merely expressed his love nature of the concepts with which itall find ourselves in the same camp.
shall
Should it prove otherwise, it will be time
for the language and its culture but refused deals. Such oversight is unfair to Gandhi's
to recognise his own transcendence as a dalit critics as well as to his dalit enough sup- to consider how and by whom
leader who could influence Karnataka's porters; for his interaction with both -
varnashrama is to be fought."8 Gandhi's
politics in a big way. His followers, how- exemplified by B R Ambedkar and sequencing did not, at this point,
ever, still retained some optimism that Jagjivan
he Ram - had no doubt contri- synchronise with Ambedkar's. But it is
would one day step out of his homestead buted to the evolution of Gandhi's clear that Gandhi did not, even at this stage,
into the dust and grime of the politco- positions. rule out a later struggle against the four-
public space. Their hopes were in vain.Gandhi incrementally unfurled a cri- fold varna order.
Rajkumar's death seems to have dealt tique of the fourfold varna order, taking
a final blow to any hopes of the local the concept of such an order in the end, First Salvo Attack
nationalists emerging as an independent by the mid-1940s, to vanishing point.
political force. With their mascot gone, the Even in the early years, while defending In April 1933, Gandhi declared on the
violence and mayhem witnessed on the the fourfold order, Gandhi said that it basis of some authoritative texts that varna
days of his death and burial could bewas not observed in his own circle: "In could not be perpetuated or determined
interpreted as a final show of protest, the ashram, however, from the beginning, merely by birth. He argues: "These and
defiance and expression of frustration it at has been our rule not to observe the numerous other verses from the shastras
the loss of a dream. [E varnavyavastha because the positionunmistakeably
of show that mere birth counts
the ashram is different from that of the for nothing."9 This formulation was
Email: daxshin@gmail.com society outside."6 Gandhi's first salvo attack on the concept

Economic and Political Weekly May 13, 2006 1835

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of vama. It did not repudiate birth as a He could not accept, he said in 1934, that this aspect of the Gita, saying now th
criterion for vara; yet it took away the in his religion "there should be a single But there prevails only one varna toda
conclusive element attached to birth human being considered lower than my- that is of shudras, or you may call it, a
self."1 In 1935, Gandhi described the
From now onwards it is inaccurate and 'shudras', or harijans or untouchables.
erroneous to say merely that Gandhi
restrictions on inter-marriage and inter- have no doubt about the truth of what I
defended the fourfold varna order or dining imposed in relation to the varna say. If I can bring round the Hindu society
varavyavastha. system as "cruel."'12 to my view, all our internal quarrels will
come to an end.15
During Gandhi's all-India anti-untouch-
He had stood especially for the 'bhangis',
ability tour of 1933-34, he was opposed considered the weakest section of the dalits. The thought recurs, being sometimes
virulently by Hindu orthodoxy. HisHecar was therefore conscious of hierarchies formulated not descriptively but norma-
was stoned in Bihar. In Benaras he was among dalits themselves. The scheduledtively, expressing the view that this single
met with black flags. There was an attempt castes, he said in 1937, "cannot be ex- category situation should be made to
on his life in Pune. A lethal bomb was pected to appreciate and accept ex-cathe-prevail.
hurled and several persons were injured. dra usages that discriminate between Interestingly, it is in 1945 that Gandhi
Pune was the heartland of Hindutvasavamas op- and avarnas and between the says, in reversal of his earlier understand-
different groups among the avamas them-
position to Gandhi. It was one of the cities ing that untouchability could be fought
which nurtured his future assassin. In selves, as these smack ofinvidiousness separately
and from caste and the fourfold
October 1933, before launching outoffend on against reason."13 vara order, that "castes must go if we
the tour, Gandhi said that the Jains mustIn 1945, Gandhi's positions againstwant theto root out untouchability".16 Thus
vehemently stress the fact that their fourfold varna order become more he had now veered round to Ambedkar's
religion knows no varnashramadharma. emphatic. He discards some previous linefor-
on this question.
"They must emphatically tell the people mulations, including those on hereditary
that untouchability and the present- occupations. In a new foreword to One an older
Varna Idea
day varnadharma have no place in Gujarati language compilation of articles
Jainism, after first convincing themselves on the subject, he invites the reader "to
Meanwhile, persistent with the one varna
about it."0l These are clearly not the discard anything in this book which idea,mayGandhi observed in April 1946: "I
words of one who is smug about the varna appear to him incompatible"14 with have his
of late been saying that the Hindus
system. latest formulations. He looks beyond have to become ati-shudras not merely in

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1836 Economic and Political Weekly May 13, 2006

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name but in thought, word and deed.17 favour of inter-caste marriages and
taking
pro- an advanced position without hav-
Returning to the theme the following ceeded to say: ing an impact on society held no attraction
month in Mussoorie, he burns the con- The question did not arise when all became for him. He had told a questioner: "It is
ceptual candle at both ends. For now the casteless. When this happy event took place, one thing for me to hold certain views and
notion of repudiating one's varna enters monopoly of occupations would go.22 quite another to make my views acceptable
Gandhi's mind: in their entirety to society at large. My
In a letter written around May 15, 1947
I myself have become a harijan by choice... mind, I hope, is ever growing, ever moving
Gandhi observes in appreciation of
A harijan by birth may repudiate his varna
Gautama Buddha that he "knew no caste
forward. All may not keep pace with it.
but how can I who have become a harijan I have therefore to exercise utmost pa-
and stood for perfect toleration".23
by choice? I have not hesitated to suggest tience and be satisfied with hastening
to caste Hindus that today they have all slowly."28
to become ati-shudras, if the canker of On Terminology His approach and method were well
caste feeling is to be eradicated from understood by many of his contemporar-
In 1927 and 1931 Gandhi had referred
Hinduism and Hinduism is not to perish ies. The famous atheist, G Ramachandra
from the face of the earth.18 to the word "dalit" and even used it, while
Rao, "Gora", for example, summed up
saying that the state to which it referred
in 1950:
And again in New Delhi: "If the caste
was so obnoxious that any word to de-
Hindus would become bhangis of their
scribe it would be rejected after a while. This attitude and method of Gandhiji can
own free will, the distinction between
He wrote that "dalit" was used "quitebe seen in his answers to questions at the
harijans and caste Hindus would automati- meeting of the Harijan Sevak Sangh held
rightly" because the people to whom it
cally disappear. There are various divi- on August 14, 1945. When he first under-
referred were not "depressed" but "sup-
sions amongst the harijans too. They should took to remove untouchability, the prob-
pressed"; and "they became, and remain,
all go. All should be of one caste, that is, lem of varna-dharma (caste system) was
what they are because they were suppressed
the bhangi."19 also there. It was easy to see intellectually,
by the so-called upper classes".24 Evi- even then, that caste ought to go root and
Speaking in July 1946, he encouraged
dently, he would not have been surprisedbranch if untouchability was to be com-
marriages between dalits and others:
at his preferred term 'harijan' now fadingpletely eradicated. But as a practical propo-
"Finally there will be only one caste, known
out of use.
by the beautiful name bhangi, that is to say, sition, caste was not the immediate prob-
the reformer or remover of all dirt. Let us Gandhi knew the struggle was alsolem then. The problem was only the re-
all pray that such a happy day will dawn
political. Many dalits went to prison in moval of untouchability. So he allowed
Gandhi's campaigns against British rule.caste to continue, though personally he
soon."2? Thus by 1945-46 Gandhi had
To them, Gandhi was the liberator and observed no caste even then. Thus the
denuded the conceptual category of varna
alien rule the established ally of their local work of the removal of untouchability
implied in the Gita, both of its sociological
oppressors. Social and economic oppres- progressed through the early stage, leaving
implication and of its original connotation
sion were connected and the colonial regime the contradictions of the caste system
of fixed classes of humanity determined untouched, and, therefore, without the
was upholding a highly inequitable land
by birth and distinguished by four catego- complication of opposition from those who
system which had contributed to the
ries of occupations. would resist the abolition of caste. When
assetlessness of the dalits. As indepen-
Gandhi's penultimate blows to the varna the stage had come where he found caste
dence dawned, Gandhi spoke aloud about
concept were delivered in February 1947.
the "rule of the bhangis"25 and of a dalit was a serious hindrance for further progress,
He now turned the category of varna upon Gandhiji said that caste ought to go root
girl becoming president of India, indeed
itself by removing the foundation of the and branch and proposed not only inter-
the first president.26
edifice of varna distinctions. Saying that dining but inter-marriages as the means.
In June 1947 Gandhi told the All India
caste must go if Hinduism is to survive, A mere intellectual might read inconsis-
he went on: "There was room for varna, Congress Committee which was meeting
tency in Gandhiji's tolerance of caste earlier
in Delhi to discuss the partition of India: and his denunciation of it later. But to a
as a duty." According to him: "This was
true of all religions whether the name used ...if you do away with the distinction ofpractical man of non-violent creed these
was other than varna. What was a Muslim savarna and avarna, if you treat the are stages of progress and not principles
'maulvi' or a Christian priest but a shudras, the untouchables and the adivasis of contradiction.29

brahmin if he taught his flock its true duty, as equals then something good will have Gandhi's positions against untoucha-
not for money but because he possessed come out of a bad thing. ...But if we bility and caste were direct assaults and
the gift of interpretation? And this was oppress them and oppress those following
may be compared with Luther's attacks
other faiths then it will mean that we do on the church. On the fourfold order he
true ofthe otherdivisions."21 Significantly,
not want India to survive, that we are out
the position of a maulvi in Islamic moved more cautiously, somewhat like
society does not indicate any inherent to destroy it.27 Erasmus.
superiority and does not necessarily pass Understandably, a leading socialist Yet it is difficult to understand why
hereditarily. had observed in 1950 that Gandhi's
Gandhi's critique of the fourfold order is
On the same occasion, the idea of now soin
assassination was an episode not merely little known. This omission from
hereditary occupations which was the scholarship at large is significant, as his
the Hindu-Muslim context; it was equally
essence of the fourfold varna order was earlier statements on the fourfold order
a result of the "bitterness" accumulating
from his blows "against caste and
laid to rest by Gandhi. Asked if he favoured for
have become, in writings on the subject
inter-caste marriages and whether the woman". especially since the 1980s, a primary ground
monopoly of occupations of specificGandhi's trajectory has been the subject
for criticism of Gandhi's position. lS3
castes should be abolished, Gandhi of this essay. He was conscious of the vital
reiterated his long-standing position in to take society with him, for merely
need Email: instituteone@gmail.com

Economic and Political Weekly May 13, 2006 1837

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Notes
[The references to the Collected Works ofMahatma
Gandhi (CW) published by the publications
division, ministry of information and broadcasting,
government of India, New Delhi (1958-1994) are
to the original or standard edition.]
1 Speech at Colombo, November 25, 1927; CW,
Vol 35, p 318.
2 Young India, June 4, 1931; CW, Vol 46, p 302.
3 Letter to Suresh Chandra Banerji, October 10,
1932; CW, Vol 51, p 219.
4 The Bombay Chronicle, April 17, 1945; CW,
Vol 79, p 384.
5 Letter to Shyamlal, July 23, 1945; CW, Vol 81,
p 25.
6 Letter to Khushalchand Gandhi, August 31,
1918; CW, Supplementary Vol VII, p 27.
7 Young India, November 24, 1927; CW, Vol 35,
pp 522-23.
8 Harijan,February 11, 1933;CW,Vol53,p 261.
9 Harijan, Apri 115,1933;CW,Vol54,pp410-11.
10 Answers to correspondents, before October 8,
1933, CW, Vol 56, p 69; and Letter to Haribhau
Upadhyaya, October 8, 1933, CW, Supple-
mentary Vol V, p 86.
11 Speech at Palluruthy, January 18, 1934; CW,
Vol 57, p 12.
12 'Caste Has To Go', Harijan, November 16,
AGRARIAN CRISIS
1935; CW, Vol 62, p 122.
13 Harijan,February20,1937;CW, Vol64, p 317.
14 Foreword to (new edition of) Varnavyavastha,
May 31, 1945; CW, Vol 80, p 224.
15 Ibid, CW, Vol 80, p 223.
16 Letter to Shyamlal, July 23,1945; CW, Vol 81,
p 25.
17 Harijan, April 14, 1946; CW, Vol 83, p 350.
18 Speech at Prayer Meeting, May 31,1946; CW,
Vol 84, p 247.
19 Harijan, June 23, 1946; CW, Vol 84, p 334.
20 Harijan, July 7,1946; CW, Vol 84, pp 388-89.
21 Harijan, March 16, 1947; CW, Vol 86, p 484.
22 Idem.
23 Letter, After May 15,1947; CW, Supplementary
depending on it. While agriculture's share
Vol V, p 137.
24 Navajivan, March27,1927, CW, Vol 33,p 196;
and Navajivan, June 7, 1931, CW, Vol 46,
p 342.
25 Speech at Prayer Meeting, June 1, 1947; CW,
Vol 88, p 55.
26 Speech at Prayer Meeting, June 2, 1947, CW,
Vol 88, p 63.
27 Speech at AICC Meeting, June 14, 1947; CW,
Vol 88, p 156.
28 Talk with Members of Harijan Sevak Sangh,
July 20, 1946, CW, Vol 85, p 24.
29 Gora (G Ramachandra Rao), An Atheist with
Gandhi, Navajivan Publishing House,
Ahmedabad, 1951, p 57.
rainfall pattern. This is very well reflected
in the data from the National Sample Survey
Organisation's 59th round, which reveals
that a third of the farmers indicated that
farming is not profitable and another 40
per cent of the farmers are ready to give up
farming in favour of a job. On the whole,
70 per cent of the farmers are frustrated
with their profession [Deshpande and
Prabhu 2005].
The contribution of agriculture is declin-
ing at a faster pace than the population
in GDP is 25 per cent, 58 per cent of the
population still depends on agriculture.
Agriculture recorded the lowest growth
rate of 1.86 per cent per annum during the
last decade (1995-96 to 2003-04) as
against 3.33 per cent during the earlier
period. The value addition from agriculture
has also recorded the lowest during the last
decade. The decline is much sharper in per
capita terms. Growth in per worker income
in agriculture has declined from 1.16 per
cent (1988-89 to 1993-94) to 0.28 per cent
(1998-99 to 2003-04) during the last de-
cade. On the contrary, per worker income
from non-agriculture sector has gone up
from 3.31 per cent to 4.30 per cent during
the same period [Chand 2006].
Here an attempt is made to identify the

Looking beyond main drivers of the agrarian crisis that are

pushing the farmers into distress and ul-
timately leading to suicides. It is argued

the Debt Trap that aggregate and cumulative effect of a

number of factors is responsible for the
present agrarian crisis. For the sake of
simplicity these factors are categorised
The agrarian crisis is pushing farmers into distress and under four groups, namely, technological,
ultimately to suicides. It is argued that the cumulative effect of ecological, socio-cultural and policy-
related. However, these categories are not
a number offactors is responsible for the present agrarian watertight compartments, as some of the
crisis. These factors, categorised as technological, ecological, factors are inter-connected. In what fol-
socio-cultural and policy-related, are discussed here. lows, we discuss these factors in detail,
without attaching any order of importance.

V RATNA REDDY, S GALAB factor driving farmers towards suicide, the

Technological Factors
factors that are responsible for indebted-
armers' suicides have become a ness are less understood. As a result, Technology is critical for improving
regular phenomenon and cannot be
approaches towards mitigating the end land productivity. The green revolution
brushed aside as an event associated (indebtedness) are proving to be ineffec- technology in the late 1960s has helped
with drought or other natural disasters.tive. Unless the means (factors leading improving land productivity in the
Despite a good monsoon this year, farmers'to indebtedness) are understood and cor- irrigated regions. Land productivities in
suicides continue to occur in one state or rected, the distress is likely to continue. these regions have saturated during the
the other. In some states like Andhra Pradesh, Suicides are the result of the deep-rooted
1990s after recording continuous growth
they are occurring regularly for the past 10agrarian and rural distress rather than a for more than two decades. This is
years irrespective of the rainfall situation, temporary phenomenon associated with mainly due to the limits of the technology
though drought has aggravated the institutional credit or rainfall. The increas- itself and the environmental problems
numbers. Number of studies have tried to ingly regular incidence of suicides across associated with high input-intensive agri-
examine and understand the problem. Most the states points toward a brewing agrarian culture. This has also resulted in the shift
of these studies have, rightly, identified crisis in the country over the past decade. towards marginal lands in these regions.
household indebtedness as the main reason Agriculture is becoming increasingly an Though the need for improving the produc-
for the suicides. While indebtedness is the unviable proposition irrespective of tivity in dry land regions was recognised

1838 Economic and Political Weekly May 13, 2006

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