CALCULUS Differentiation —- The Basics Suppose we know that the rate of inflation is 3%. This fact is useful, but would be more useful if we knew how it was changing, Ifits rate of change is down 0.1%/month, we can make a guess at the rate of inflation in 6 months’ time. Similarly, it is useful to know we are 100km from our destination, even more useful if we know our rate of change of distance (ie speed) is 60kmh". The process of finding a “rate of change function” for a given function is called differentiation. You need to know the rules for differentiating different types of function, and for differentiating composite functions. Notatiot When you differentiate a function, the new function (the gradient function) is called the derived function (or derivative). If the original function is f(x), the derived function is written as f'(x). Alternatively, if the function is written in the form y = f(x), the derived function is denoted by ¥ Differentiating different types of function: You need to be able to differentiate various types of function (see table on right). If any functions are added or subtracted they can be differentiated independently. That is, f(x) + 9(x) differentiated is f(x) + g(x). This will not work for multiplication or division (eg to differentiate (x + 1)(x—2) you must first multiply out the brackets). It a function is multiplied or divided by a constant, however, the constant just sits there: eg 2x° differentiated is 2 x 3x° = 6x". Also remember that functions of the form kx differentiate to give k, and that constants (which have a zero rate of change) differentiate to give 0. Differentiating x’: x" differentiates to give nx’*' for all ne Q. This allows us to differentiate reciprocal and root funetions. First, remember to write these functions as powers and with x in the numerator. Examples are’ f(x) f(x) rewritten fx) 4'(x) simplified ir 1 1 ft 1 x 2% ale 2 2 3 + ax’ 8x" : x x - 4 33 3vx ax 3H : 2 | 4 Voy? | vx ex* ~2Xe% x Differentiating sinx, cosx and tanx: —_x must be in radians for these differentiations to give correct results. eg: What is the gradient of the graph of y = x + sinxwhen x= 1? 4. 1 +c0sxso when x= 1, the gradient is 1 + cost = 1.54. With the calculator set in degrees, you would get 1.9998. IB Math Standard The gradient of a graph at a point represents the rate of change of the function — so differentiation gives us the gradient of a graph at any point. Dont contuse: (9) Derived function £0) Inverse function f(x) 1”) x ax sinx cosx (08x -sinx tanx sec’x e e Ings) 7 3x 2x-3 =4 | 3 Beat) | ax-2 Page 55Differentiation from First Principles Whatis it? It is fortunate that there are fairly simples rules and patterns for remembering how to differentiate most functions. Differentiating from first principles is a method, based on consideration of tangents, which enables us to find the differential of any function without using any rules or patterns. It requires an understanding of the idea of a limit. x 1) Limits: What value does the function f(x) = ee tend to xe 10 [15454 io0—iss0s.| a8 x gets very large? The table on the left suggests that f(x) tends 7000 | 1.9950. towards 2; by considering the function, we can see that as x gets 10000 | 4.9998. very large, the 3 and the 1 become insignificant, and we are indeed left with f(x) = 2. This can be written as lim f(x) =2, read as: “The limit of f(x) as x tends to infinity is 2." (We also meet the idea of a limit when we consider the sum of a GP). x will never reach infinity, but if we think of infinity as a real place — off the map, perhaps — then the function would get to 2. A goed analogy is speed. Average gradient v. instantaneous gradient: The average Wiel area speed of @ ca" gradient between two points is the change in y divided by the ‘4okm is 70kmh". But at'a change in x. The instantaneous gradient is the gradient of the iven instant, its speed might tangent at a single point. be 85 kmh ': this only means: that ifthe carwere. to continue at that speed, it ‘would travel 85km in the nest hour How can we caloulate the gradient at a point? On the left is part of the graph of f(x) = x° — 2x° + x +1. We can find the gradient of the tangent at A (dotted line) by drawing a succession of lines to points above A, but getting closer to A, calculate the average gradients and see what they tend to. The process can be formalised into a general formula (note that h indicates a small distance in the x direction): The gradient of the line from A to B is {ocr M=109 | As B slides down the y= tex) curve towards A, this gradient gets closer to the gradient of the tangent at A and this, of course, is the derivative at A. Thus we can write: — #0) = tm AEN) Doing the calculation: To differentiate from first principles , for a specific function, all you need to do is substitute into the eater ee ee 2 Pe able above formula. The key part of the working, however, is to simplify from fist principles. the top ling, otherwise you end up with 0/0. Differentiate f(x) = x° ~ 2x rom first principles: 4g out and simpitying Page 56 IB Math StandardThe Chain Rule The Chain Rule is used to differentiate composite functions. Consider the function y = (4x + 3)* If we write the "inner function" (ie 4x + 3) as a single letter u, then the function becomes y = u. The chain rule shows us how the rates of change of three variables (as opposed to two) are connected: Yo du ax du dx We can then use the chain rule like this: u=4x43 4 you 2u # =f a oe =2ux4=8u=8(4x+3) An alternative, informal, method is to proceed as follo ‘+ Take the "inner function” (in brackets) and differentiate it: 4 + Work out the "outer function" differentiated: {...)°~» 2.) ‘+ Multiply the two together a...) + Fillin the brackets: 84x +3) Here are more examples using the informal method: 108) = cos(@x— 4) jo =n +) inner function is 2x 4 Inner function is 1 +2 Differentiate inner > 2 Differentiate inner —> 2x Differentiate cos\...) sin...) Differentiate In.) = ¥/(..) Multiply -2sin(...) Multiply 23% 11.) Result’ f'(x) = -2sin(2x- 4) Result: (x) =2x/(1 + x7) (x) =V9-5x = (15x) fy=e" =e”? Inner function is 1 - 5x Inner function is Differentiate inner — -5. Difterentiate inner —» 3x° 2 ¢y8 Diterentiate el)» a) Dire ("> 3.) Muti ao! Muttiply -$(..)* Result: £'(x)=9x"(e") Result: t'(x)=-3(1~5x)? Let f(x) = cosxand g(x) = 2x7. Find expressions for (gof(x) and (fog)(H). (gof)(x) = git{x)] = gicosx) = 2teosxi? 0s(2x") We now need to differentiate thi we use the chain rul ner func ch di 09) = 4xsin(2x) Differentiate with respect to x. | a) sin(2x) (b) In(2x) IS! lo IS} le 2eos(2x), 11x [PH [Given that f(x) = e* + x, find f'(2) and the value of x for which f (x)= 0. Le "is actually a composite function: write itas e” is Ia S| ig <| “ off 18 Math Standard Page 57How can you tell the difference between a composite function and a product of functions? In a Composite function x only appears once; in a product x appears twice. Another quick way to remember them Product Rule is uv'+ vu" Quotient Rule is vu"— wv’ (the * means ‘differentiate") Note the simplification in the last two lines. Complicated ‘quotient rule differentiations often end up lke ths. Page 58 Product and Quotient Rules When you have to differentiate two functions multiplied together you must use the product rule; and when two functions are divided, you must use the quotient rule. If the two functions are u(x) and v(x) — normally shortened to u and v—then the rules are: dq av , gu * PRODUCTRULE: SF (u)=uSi+ve yu _ydv * QUOTIENT RULE: £4) —ox__dx. aly v It may be helpful to think of the rules more informally as: Product Rule: (1st fn x 2nd tn differentiated) + (2nd fn x 1st fn differentiated) Quotient Fle: (oottom x top differentiated) - (top x bottom differentiated) bottom line squared Note the + in the product rule and the — in the quotient rule. Also remember that, because of the minus sign, the order is important in the quotient rule. ‘When you are asked to do these more complicated differentiations, you can either write down every step in the formulae (safe but time-consuming) or you can do some of it in your head (faster, but you can go wrong). Here is an example of full working Differentiate y = x’sinx Itis possible that either (or both, if you are unlucky) of wand v are composite functions, in which case you will have to use the chain rule as well. Differentiate y= sin(2x + 3)/x* Once you have differentiated, don't forget that the end result is, as before, the rate of change of the original function, the gradient of the graph at any point. IB Math StandardSecond Derivative Notation: — When a function is differentiated a second time, use the notation 22 or (x). ox Interpretation: The first derivative gives us the gradient function, so the second derivative gives us the "rate of change of gradient” function. If, for example, f"(3) = 2 this means that when x = 3, the gradient of the graph is increasing at a rate of 2 (for every increase in x of 1). it does not necessarily mean that the gradient itself is positive — only that it is increasing. This tells us about the shape of the curve. The diagram below shows what happens for various values of the first and second derivatives and covers every possible point on any curve. Y <9 oy Yoo ax ax dx &y 7\ reo TAKIN | Ow POINTS OF _INFLEXION C MINIMUM. Note the following: ‘© For a point of inflexion to occur "(x point of inflexion is not necessarily 0 A point where f"(x) = 0 is not necessarily a point of inflexion. For ‘example, y = x‘ has a minimum when 1'(x) = 0. The sign of the second derivative at a turning point identifies the nature of the point: a maximum if f(x) < 0, a minimum if f"x) >0.. 0, but the gradient at a Use the product rule to find and identify the Note th i. stationary point on the graph of to) (2") int tp) or stationary f 0 need +t iff identity antial f the stationary poi again ill give the le that the s the same as f(x), but with a point is at (1, e")and itis a =xe™ first part of Note that we could have given the y coordinate as 1/e or as 0.368. IB Math Standard Page 59Applications of Differentiation Equations of tangents: A tangent to a graph has the same gradient as at the point on the graph where the tangent touches. Knowing this, and the point itself, we can find the equation of the tangent. Remember that when you differentiate a function you get the gradient function. eg: Find the equation of the tangent to y = 2x” - 4x + 3 at the point where x = 2. . 4, 80 when x = 2, gradient = 4 ye = mix — x), 80 y 24x Maximum Maximum and minimum points: The point where a graph "turns round" can be very significant. For example, if the graph shows values of profit against selling price for a particular product, the maximum shows the selling price which leads to maximum profit. * To find a maximum or minimum, differentiate the function Minium then find where the gradient is 0. * To tell which sort of point you have, use the second derivative or a sign diagram * Note that you do not need the graph in front of you to find the turning points. fl However, make sure you can use your calculator to find maximum and minimum values (for example, find the x-coordinates of all maximums and minimums on the graph of f(x) = sin(1 + sinx), 0 ee Tex solved on the right to give x =1 pee © Horizontal asymptote is y= 1 (try x= 1000) Tea So far, this information can be drawn on a pair pre of axes to give: Now we need to differentiate and will use the 1 2 -2x+1=0 quotient rule for the fractional part of the function, { (x1 =0 u xet us2x, Maz ax vetext, Laax Ox f(xy 9 ERR 2xK2K B= 2H For a fraction to equal 0, only / (ee (ey the top line must be 0. * Fora turning point, {'(x) = 0, s0 2-2 =0 > x We need the y-coordinates: Stationary points are (1, 0) and (-1, 2). Now the only possible graph which fits al the information is: x-1 (x41 x-2) ‘+ Vertical asymptotes when x=-1 and x © When x20, y=05 ‘© When y=0, x= 1 (lust make the top tine 0), * Horizontal asymptote is y = 0 So far, we have enough to draw the diagram on the right. Howevai there is not enough information to draw the graph yet because we don know whether the graph is above or below the axis at each end Working out a couple of relevant points gives (5, 0.222) (ie above the axis) and (-5, -0.214) (je below the axis). So we can now sketch the graph ‘Sketch the graph of y = 2 | i i 1B Math Standard Page 63‘You will actually make use of the dx in integration by substitution and differential ‘equations. Otherwise, think of it as a decorative — but necessary - piece of notation. Page 64 Indefinite Integration Integration is sometimes called “anti-differentiation": that is, it is the reverse operation to integration. However, the notation is very different, and you must understand two forms — the indefinite and the definite integral. Notation: If we just consider functions of the form ax” then, to reverse the differentiation process, we must add 1 to n then divide by the new power. For example, 4x integrated is *. The full notation for this is: farcax-“Z, The J sign means “integrate”, then you put the function you want to integrate, then you put dx. However, the answer is not entirely correct. If you differentiate = you will certainly get 412, but this will also be true it you differentiate ie, seu, and so on. In other words, when we integrate, there could be a constant at the end. Since we don't know what it is, we add a c which is called "the constant of integration." So, Jaron Eve, and you add the c to every indefinite integral - hence the word "indefinite." ax”! net differentiation, n < Q. There is one exception, and that is when Integrating x": Generally, [ax*dx= +c and, as with integrating 1/x. Since this is x", the rule above would give x'/0 and this is undefined, But when we differentiate Inx we get 1/x, so it follows that [2 ax=In| x|-+e x Integrating other functions: 100) Jonax C sim ~c0sx cos sinx e I é Also, as with differentiation, itis true that Jd +gldx= ft(x) + fala) and fai(xddie= kf Fda Integrating f(ax + b): By reversing the chain rule it can be shown that: Jf (ax+ b)dx = —F(ax+ b) +c, where F is f integrated. Examples: [(3x + 4)%dx = 2x Ox 4)" _ Gre" 4 12 Joos(ex-S)ax = tsin(2x -5)4e 1 (5x44 _ 25x41)" | % Jex+1)%ax 15 5 Jotrdx= Ler +e 2 IB Math Standardind: a) 12x)" The 2. symbol is a shorthand for “differentiate,” Because the function is composite, we must use the chain rule. The “inner function” is 1 = 2a which diferentes f(t ~2x}! = -2x9(1- 2x) = 6h = 2x)? b)— fr-2xytax This is an integral of the for 1 1 Jur-2e" =x 6) so, using the formula, we get Solving gradient function equations: —_In some questions we are given the gradient (ie derived) function and asked to find the original function which gave rise to it, This means we must integrate the gradient function. For example, if f'(x) = 3x° — x° find f(x), So, f(x)=[3x*-xdx=-}x*+e, but we will need more information to find the value of c. Suppose we know that {(2) = 6 (in other words, when x = 2, y = 6). If we substitute this into the equation we get: 6 = 8-4 +c, and c= 2. So the function we are looking foris f(x)=x° -3x4 42. Let f(x) =1~ #2, Given that 8) = 0, find f(x). First integrate (x) to get (x) = x-“— + @. Now su and f(x) = 0 t0 ge It f(x) = cosx and f(n!2) = -2, find f(x). < S| e | S| =| i [A curve with equation y = (x) passes through the point (1, 3). Its gradient function is (x) = -4x+ 2. Find the equation of the curve. -<| S| ie la) iS ie ra IB Math Standard Page 65Definite Integration ‘Area under a curve: The gradient at a point on a [Anindotnteintograt: diStance-time curve gives us velocity. The area under a velocity Jorr2jse time curve ives us distance travelled, so we can consider finding the area under the curve as a sort of inverse function to calculating : the gradient. It therefore follows that integration will give us the Jil? +20 area under a curve, but we need to also give the boundaries of the area. These boundaries are called limits and, when applied to an integral, turn an indefinite integral into a definite one. The graph shows the function f(x) = % + 3. The shaded area is between the xvalues of 1 A definite integral: i and 2, and is denoted by the 4 definite integral ff 08 +3)0x —4 The procedure for calculating the area is as follows: CTSTeSann SSRN SET Ocala) ‘+ Integrate the function, omitting the constant of integration. itwil always cancal outin tho ~—-«#~-—~Put the result in square brackets with the limits outside. subtraction which follows. ‘© Substitute the limits into the integrated function (upper limit first) and subtract the two numbers — this gives the area, In the example above, the procedure looks like this: Joe + 9}0x= Fay] fo) (#.) =(2Zsax2)-(Leax 3 wen) Subsite the its without ary calculators at ft, then =(8+6)-(1+9)=53 work — through —_carefully. \3 3 ° Beware rics eons) The square brackets have the meaning “substitute the limits then Make sure you know how to Subtract’ ‘use your calculator to work ‘out definite integrals. ‘The diagram shows part of the curve of y = 12x°(1 — x). Write Z down an integral which represents the area cut off bythe curve \— fand the x-axis, and find this area. “c YOU SOLVE 12x7(1~x)dx, Are Page 66 1B Math Standard7 | le Calculus — Using the Calculator You will be expected to use your calculator in a number of ways when answering questions relating to graphs. Make sure you can do the following tasks: Sketch a graph. You may have to set up the scales on the caloulator “by hand" to ensure that you can see enough detail. Find the x-intercepts of the graph. Find maximum and minimum points. Find the point of intersection of two lines. Find the gradient at any point. * Find the area under the graph between two points. There is also the issue of accuracy. Your calculator displays numbers to perhaps 10 figure accuracy. In general, give your answers rounded to 3 significant figures. However, the question may ask for approximate positions on the graph. This means that you should ensure that key points on the graph relate to the scales you put on your axes. Try this complete section B style question. a) Sketch the graph of y = xsinx— x, 3 < x< 3, on millimetre square paper, using a scale of 2cm per unit on each axis. Label and number both axes and indicate clearly the approximate positions of the x-intercepts and the local maximum and minimum points. of ax, indicates we ar questions with trigonometric f in radians. Always b) _ Find the solution of the equation sinx—x=0, x>0 Note the required range for x and that the word “solution is in the singular. Us equation solver on your calculator c) Jeesin x - x)ax and hence, or otherwise, calculate the area of the region enclosed by the graph, the x-axis and the line x = 1. The “otherwise” method is to calculator to evaluate the d xcosx—4 2 'BATOS NOA IB Math Standard Page 67Calculus — Non-Calculator Work Differentiation: Continuing the thread of graph sketching (see page 65), you must be able to calculate the coordinates of turning points without the help of your calculator. But, further than this, you should be able to calculate maximum and minimum values in general. ‘Arright-angled triangle has the lengths of its two shorter sides as x and 3 Prove that the minimum length of the hypotenuse occurs when the triangle is isosceles. When differentiating functions such as Inx and e and substituting values, you will need to give your answers as exact values. Example: Find the maximum and minimum values on the graph of y= Xe*, and also the equation of the tangent to the graph where x= 1. Solution; First we need to differentiate the function, for which we use the product rule. Bw ax0* 128" = x0(2-x) This will equal 0 when x = 0 or 2 (e" and e*can never be zero). Thus the turning points are at (0, 0) and (2, 46°). By differentiating again you can find that the first of these is a minimum and the second a maximum When x = 1, the y-coordinate ise”, or 1. Which @ form should you use? It depends on the question, so you should be prepared to be flexible. In this case, since we are going to find the equation of a line, we don't want powers of -1 getting in the way, so the second form will be better. The gradient is 241 eee Y-H=MX-%) 44 ated yoga) ey-1=x-1 Thus the equation of the tangent is ey = x. Definite integrals: Many questions involving integrals are algebraic, or involve the substitution of letters rather than numbers, but you are probably used to carrying out straight definite integrals by using your GDC. Without the calculator, one of the main causes of error is minus signs: you will always have one, and often more. Page 68 1B Math StandardIt pays not to take shortcuts, and to use brackets, Set out your working like this: {[3sin xa =[-Se0s x]} =(-3c08(z)) ~(-3cos(4)) = (-3x—1) -(-3x0) Thus we get the definite integral as 3 - 0 = 3. Now work out these integrals without using a caleulator: er 3 < “(4 a 1-4, 2-248 . —6y'ax,('( 1 s 5 Jietax [(2x-6) on (3 +) [fain sa é Find the coordinates of the turning points on the graph of f(x) =", and determine whether they are maximum or minimum, showing all your working. Sketch the graph. is 2 a iS io i ia (1.9,max; ‘The displacement s of a particle is given by: s=3t(2-P). Find the displacement, velocity and acceleration when t=-1 and when t= 2. x is 2 I< ia IB Math Standard Page 69yall Volumes of Revolution On page 65 we saw how definite integration can be used to calculate the area under a curve. This can be extended to calculate the volume generated when part of a curve is rotated through 360° around the x-axis. The diagram on the left shows the shape generated when the part of the curve of y = {(x) lying between x = a and x = b is rotated around the x-axis. Imagine a cross-section of the shape at a distance x from the origin; it wll be a disc. What is its volume? * Its radius is f(x) - * Sots cross-sectional area is n{f(x)} Se eee ccc #Ifits width is dx, its volume is m{f(x)}*ob distance in the x direction The overall volume will be the sum of an infinite number of such discs, and hence is found by integration, © V= fatty dx For clarity, this is usually written as V = j ny"dx ‘The area between the graph of Using the formula above, we get V= [nerve =n ech =e" and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = kis rotated about the x-axis. Find, in terms of k, e and 2, the volume generate of the solid generated. First find the points of intersectio generated by the curve. The line wil g dits volume and subh YOU SOLVE Page 70 =2x— is rotated about the x-axis through 36 ther x and the line y =x Find the volume find the volume IB Math Standard