MATERIALS SCIENCE/STRUCTURE OF MATTER

ATOMIC BONDING TESTING METHODS

Primary Bonds Standard Tensile Test
Ionic (e.g., salts, metal oxides) Using the standard tensile test, one can determine elastic
Covalent (e.g., within polymer molecules) modulus, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and ductility
(% elongation). (See Mechanics of Materials section.)
Metallic (e.g., metals)
Endurance Test
CORROSION Endurance tests (fatigue tests to find endurance limit) apply
A table listing the standard electromotive potentials of metals
a cyclical loading of constant maximum amplitude. The plot
is shown on the previous page.
(usually semi-log or log-log) of the maximum stress (σ) and
For corrosion to occur, there must be an anode and a cathode the number (N) of cycles to failure is known as an S-N plot.
in electrical contact in the presence of an electrolyte. The figure below is typical of steel but may not be true for
other metals; i.e., aluminum alloys, etc.
Anode Reaction (Oxidation) of a Typical Metal, M
Mo → Mn+ + ne–
σ
Possible Cathode Reactions (Reduction)
½ O2 + 2 e– + H2O → 2 OH– ENDURANCE LIMIT
½ O2 + 2 e– + 2 H3O+ → 3 H2O
2 e– + 2 H3O+ → 2 H2O + H2 KNEE

When dissimilar metals are in contact, the more

electropositive one becomes the anode in a corrosion cell. LOG N (CYCLES)
Different regions of carbon steel can also result in a
corrosion reaction: e.g., cold-worked regions are anodic to
The endurance stress (endurance limit or fatigue limit) is the
noncoldworked; different oxygen concentrations can cause
maximum stress which can be repeated indefinitely without
oxygen-deficient regions to become cathodic to oxygen-rich
causing failure. The fatigue life is the number of cycles
regions; grain boundary regions are anodic to bulk grain; in
required to cause failure for a given stress level.
multiphase alloys, various phases may not have the same
galvanic potential. Impact Test
The Charpy Impact Test is used to find energy required to
DIFFUSION fracture and to identify ductile to brittle transition.
Diffusion Coefficient
D = Do e−Q/(RT), where
D = diffusion coefficient,
Do = proportionality constant,
Q = activation energy,
R = gas constant [8.314 J/(mol•K)], and
T = absolute temperature.

THERMAL AND MECHANICAL PROCESSING Impact tests determine the amount of energy required to cause
Cold working (plastically deforming) a metal increases failure in standardized test samples. The tests are repeated
strength and lowers ductility. over a range of temperatures to determine the ductile to brittle
Raising temperature causes (1) recovery (stress relief), (2) transition temperature.
recrystallization, and (3) grain growth. Hot working allows
these processes to occur simultaneously with deformation.
Quenching is rapid cooling from elevated temperature,
preventing the formation of equilibrium phases.
In steels, quenching austenite [FCC (γ) iron] can result in
martensite instead of equilibrium phases—ferrite [BCC (α)
iron] and cementite (iron carbide).
104 MATERIALS SCIENCE/STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Creep Representative Values of Fracture Toughness
Creep occurs under load at elevated temperatures. The general Material K Ic (MPa•m 1/2 ) K Ic (ksi•in 1/2 )
equation describing creep is:
A1 2014-T651 24.2 22
df = Av ne- Q ]RT g
A1 2024-T3 44 40
dt
52100 Steel 14.3 13
where: 4340 Steel 46 42
ε = strain, Alumina 4.5 4.1
t = time, Silicon Carbide 3.5 3.2
A = pre-exponential constant,
σ = applied stress,
n = stress sensitivity. HARDENABILITY OF STEELS
Hardenability is the “ease” with which hardness may be
For polymers below, the glass transition temperature, Tg, n is
attained. Hardness is a measure of resistance to plastic
typically between 2 and 4, and Q is ≥ 100 kJ/mol. Above Tg, n
deformation.
is typically between 6 and 10, and Q is ~ 30 kJ/mol.
♦
For metals and ceramics, n is typically between 3 and 10, and
Q is between 80 and 200 kJ/mol.

STRESS CONCENTRATION IN BRITTLE

MATERIALS
When a crack is present in a material loaded in tension,
the stress is intensified in the vicinity of the crack tip. This
phenomenon can cause significant loss in overall ability of a
member to support a tensile load.
KI = yv ra
KI = the stress intensity in tension, MPa•m1/2,
y = is a geometric parameter,
y = 1 for interior crack
y = 1.1 for exterior crack (#2) and (#8) indicate grain size

σ = is the nominal applied stress, and JOMINY HARDENABILITY CURVES FOR SIX STEELS

a = is crack length as shown in the two diagrams below.

a
2a

EXTERIOR CRACK (y = 1.1) INTERIOR CRACK (y = 1)

The critical value of stress intensity at which catastrophic

crack propagation occurs, KIc, is a material property.

COOLING RATES FOR BARS QUENCHED IN AGITATED WATER

♦Van Vlack,L., Elements of Materials Science & Engineering, Addison-Wesley,
Boston, 1989.

MATERIALS SCIENCE/STRUCTURE OF MATTER 105

♦ Also, for axially oriented, long, fiber-reinforced composites,
the strains of the two components are equal.
(∆L/L)1 = (∆L/L)2
∆L = change in length of the composite,
L = original length of the composite.

HALF-LIFE
N = Noe –0.693t/τ, where
No = original number of atoms,
N = final number of atoms,
t = time, and
τ = half-life.

Density Young's Modulus E/ρ

Material ρ E
Mg/m3 GPa N•m/g
Aluminum 2.7 70 26,000
COOLING RATES FOR BARS QUENCHED IN AGITATED OIL
Steel 7.8 205 26,000
Magnesium 1.7 45 26,000
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDNESS AND
Glass 2.5 70 28,000
TENSILE STRENGTH Polystyrene 1.05 2 2,700
For steels, there is a general relationship between Brinell Polyvinyl Chloride 1.3 <4 < 3,500
hardness and tensile strength as follows: Alumina fiber 3.9 400 100,000
TS _ psii - 500 BHN Aramide fiber 1.3 125 100,000
TS ^MPah - 3.5 BHN
Boron fiber 2.3 400 170,000
Beryllium fiber 1.9 300 160,000
ASTM GRAIN SIZE BeO fiber 3.0 400 130,000
Carbon fiber 2.3 700 300,000
SV = 2PL
Silicon Carbide fiber 3.2 400 120,000
^ h
N_0.0645 mm2i = 2 n - 1
CONCRETE
Nactual N , where
_0.0645 mm 2i
= Portland Cement Concrete
Actual Area
Concrete is a mixture of portland cement, fine aggregate,
SV = grain-boundary surface per unit volume, coarse aggregate, air, and water. It is a temporarily plastic
PL = number of points of intersection per unit length material, which can be cast or molded, but is later converted
between the line and the boundaries, to a solid mass by chemical reaction.
N = number of grains observed in a area of 0.0645 mm2,
Water-cement (W/C) ratio is the primary factor affecting
and
the strength of concrete. The figure below shows how
n = grain size (nearest integer > 1).
W/C, expressed as a ratio by weight, affects the compressive
COMPOSITE MATERIALS strength for both air-entrained and non-air-entrained concrete.
tc = Rfi ti Strength decreases with an increase in W/C in both cases.
Cc = Rfici
AVERAGE 28-DAY COMPRESSIVE

8,000
-1
<R i F
f 6,000
# Ec # RfiEi NO ADDED AIR
STRENGTH, PSI

Ei 4,000
vc = Rfi vi
RECOMMENDED
2,000
ρc = density of composite, PERCENT
ENTRAINED AIR
Cc = heat capacity of composite per unit volume,
1,000
Ec = Young’s modulus of composite, 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
fi = volume fraction of individual material, W/C BY WEIGHT
ci = heat capacity of individual material per unit volume, Concrete strength decreases with increases in water-cement
and ratio for concrete with and without entrained air.
(From Concrete Manual, 8th ed., U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1975.)
Ei = Young’s modulus of individual material
σc = strength parallel to fiber direction. ♦Van Vlack,L., Elements of Materials Science & Engineering, Addison-Wesley,
Boston, 1989.

106 MATERIALS SCIENCE/STRUCTURE OF MATTER

 Water Content affects workability. However, an increase
in water without a corresponding increase in cement
reduces the concrete strength. Air entrainment is the
GLASSES OR AMORPHOUS
preferred method of increasing workability.

VOLUME
MATERIALS
♦ 6,000 CONTINUOUSLY MOIST CURED
IN AIR AFTER 28 DAYS
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, PSI

IN AIR AFTER 14 DAYS

5,000 IN AIR AFTER 7 DAYS

IN AIR AFTER 3 DAYS CRYSTALLINE

4,000 MATERIALS

3,000 TEMPERATURE Tg Tm
STORED CONTINUOUSLY IN LABORATORY AIR

2,000
Thermo-Mechanical Properties of Polymers
The curve for the elastic modulus, E, or strength of polymers,
1,000
0 3 7 14 28 90 180 σ, behaves according to the following pattern:
AGE, DAYS

Concrete compressive strength varies with moist-curing conditions. Mixes tested

LOG E or LOG σ
3
had a water-cement ratio of 0.50, a slump of 3.5 in., cement content of 556 lb/yd ,
sand content of 36%, and air content of 4%.

POLYMERS
Classification of Polymers
Polymers are materials consisting of high molecular weight
carbon-based chains, often thousands of atoms long. Two Tg Tm
broad classifications of polymers are thermoplastics or TEMPERATURE
thermosets. Thermoplastic materials can be heated to
high temperature and then reformed. Thermosets, such as Polymer Additives
vulcanized rubber or epoxy resins, are cured by chemical Chemicals and compounds are added to polymers to improve
or thermal processes which cross link the polymer chains, properties for commercial use. These substances, such as
preventing any further re-formation. plasticizers, improve formability during processing, while
others increase strength or durability.
Amorphous Materials and Glasses
Examples of common additives are:
Silica and some carbon-based polymers can form either
Plasticizers: vegetable oils, low molecular weight
crystalline or amorphous solids, depending on their
polymers or monomers
composition, structure, and processing conditions. These two
forms exhibit different physical properties. Volume expansion Fillers: talc, chopped glass fibers
with increasing temperature is shown schematically in the Flame retardants: halogenated paraffins, zinc borate,
following graph, in which Tm is the melting temperature, chlorinated phosphates
and Tg is the glass transition temperature. Below the glass
Ultraviolet or visible light resistance: carbon black
transition temperature, amorphous materials behave like brittle
solids. For most common polymers, the glass transition occurs Oxidation resistance: phenols, aldehydes
between –40°C and 250°C.

Frederick S., Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers, 3rd ed.,

♦ Merritt,
McGraw-Hill, 1983.

MATERIALS SCIENCE/STRUCTURE OF MATTER 107

BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS
Allows determination of (1) what phases are present at equilibrium at any temperature and average composition,
(2) the compositions of those phases, and (3) the fractions of those phases.
Eutectic reaction (liquid → two solid phases)
Eutectoid reaction (solid → two solid phases)
Peritectic reaction (liquid + solid → solid)
Pertectoid reaction (two solid phases → solid)
Lever Rule
The following phase diagram and equations illustrate how the weight of each phase in a two-phase system can be determined:

(In diagram, L = liquid.) If x = the average composition at temperature T, then

x -x
wt % a = x b x # 100
b - a

x - xa
wt % b = x # 100
b - xa

Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

♦

♦ Van Vlack, L., Elements of Materials Science & Engineering, Addison-Wesley, Boston, 1989.

108 MATERIALS SCIENCE/STRUCTURE OF MATTER