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Atomic structure [AHL] Condensation polymers sae Introduction to the poriculate notre Electrons in arom: 291 Environmecrial impoc— (of motte ond chem ehonge eowy metas ar The male concept 12 43 Theperiodic table—the i Reacting massesandvolumes 20 transition metals [AHL] 8 Biochemistry , Firstsraw deblock elements sor fatreduction ww Mocherniary = 539 Coloured complexes 319 Proteins and enzymes 3 0 ses *© 44 Chemical bonding and cartehraaics eo structure (AHL) Biochemistry md the 7 Pumber aspects of covalent ‘environment sor ‘ “bonding and srstiee a pone cass ih Penge ends 75 mybrigztion Ms penne ot0 eee ees Bisingaal pigments on Chemical bonding at 1S Energetics/thermochemistty —— siereochemisiry in biomolecules 641 structure iw tonictondingons smcure 93 pg SHLD of Cibieal padomac pried 1a Enitopy and spontaneity Mol Energy sources 65) csiese vetoes eA Fost fuete ost eaeenareaia res '22 46 Chemical kinetics (AHL) Nevleor sionandfission 46 jesnc buat’: Rate expression and regetion Solar energy ore snechenism 375 Environmental impoct gobs! S Energetics/thermochemistry ction cneray’ 384 worming om Meowiringencrey changes 39 Elevinxhemisry,rechorecobie Hessstaw {38-2 cquitirium (AHL) Tteres and fe! ce sr Bond enthalpies OS eas ae ago Nexfcor fusion and nucigor fission 702 Prororotsc sm dyeveenced 6 Chemical kinetics: 19 Acids and bases (AHL) solar cells 70 Eatision theory and rates Leis acs and bases, ws : of reaxtion Cc rceed tot aba ae 0D Medicinal chemistry ae sor Pharmaceutical products nd 7 equi pteures fas drugostion 17 quidem v9 Aspirin ond perkin 25 Opiates ae 2 Acids andbases 20 Redox processes [AHL] pat repulsion ofthestomach 737 Theoresof aids ond boses 194 Aanicrirl medisetions ms broperies af oxide ond boses 195 : Evironmcra mpoxt of some Thept xe toy 20 Organic chemistry [AHL] meiaations ast Song and weak ack and tases 200 TWP! onanicreacions 437 stole hia aunilory Avid deposition a eer ease study 738 Stereaisomerian aS cee He 9 Redox processes Drug devection ond omaiysis 775 Uiation and reuxtion sop, 21 Mespuramient anderahiele Blectrochemical cells aie (AHL) Internal Assessment Spectroscopic iemcovion of (wi thats 9 Mark Nese for is “i Oigecddiealet orgie compounds st Seuamr wih cher} nas aniey aos A. Materials Index a1 dag Moterie wince ineodusion 478 etal and indie coupled plasma (CP) specroxopy APS cosas ist iui crysis a9 Polymers won Teosurememc ond wits ot SOMME a raph techies 272 Envronmentl impacts 509 Specreacop iemlBation af nc eney ‘organic compounds 277 crystallography: ueCourse book definition The TE Diploma Programme course baoks are resource materials designed to support students throughout their wvo-year Diploma Programme course of study in a panticular subject, They will help students gain on understanding of what Is expected from the study of an tB Diploma Programme subject wiile presenting content in a vay iho Mastesies the purpace'and sliaalGt the TB, They reflect the philosophy ond approach of the TB and encourage a deep understanding of each subject by moking connections to wider Issues and providing opportunities for critical thinking, The books mirror the Il philosophy of viewing the curriculum in terms of a whole-course approach; the use of a wide range of resourees, internat mindedness, the 18 learner profile and the 18 Diptoma Programme core requirements, theory of knowledge, the extended essay, and c action. service (CAS) Fach book can be used in conjunction with ather materials and indeed, students of the 18 are required and encouraged to draw conclusions from a variety af resources. Suggestions for additional and further reading are given in cach book and suggestions for how ta extend research are provided In addition, the course books provide adh and guidance on the specific course assessment requirements.and on academic honesty protocol, They are distinctive and authoritative without being prescriptive, IB mission statement The International Baccalaureate aims to develop Inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young peaple who belp to create a better and more peaceful world through imtercultu indersianding and respect To this end the organization works with schools, governments and Intemational organizations to develop challenging programmes of international education and rigorous assessment. These programmes encourage students across the world to become active, compassionate and lifelong, earners who understand that other people, with their differences, can also be right The IB Learner Profile The aim of all 1B programmes to develop internationally minded people who work to create a better and more peaceful world, The aim of the programme is to develop this person through ten earner attributes, as described below. Inquirers: They develop their natural corios ‘They acquite the skills necessary to conduct Inquiry and research and snow independence in learning. They actively enjoy learning and this love of learning will be sustained throughout their lives. Knowledgeable: They explore concepts ideas. ani! issues that have local and global significance In so doing. they acquire in-depth knowledge and develop understanding across a broad and balanced range of disciplines. Thinkers: They exercise initiative in applying thinking skills critically and ere to recognize and approach complex problems, and make reasoned, ethical decistons, Communicators: They understand and express ideas and information contidenily and creatively in more than one language and in a variety of modes of communication, They work ellectively and willingly in collaboration with others Principled: They act with integrity and honesty, with a strong sense of fairnes: s for their communities. They take responsibil in and the consequences that accompany Open-minded: They undersiand and appreciate their own cultures and personal histories, and are open to the perspectives, values and traditions of ather individuals ond communities. They are accustomed ta seeking and evaluating a range af points of view, and ore willing to grow from the experience. Caring: They show empathy, compassion and respect towards the needs and feelings of others, ‘They have a personal commitment to serviee, and to act to make @ positive difference to the lives of others and to the environment. Risk-takers: They approsch unfamiliar situations and uncertainty with courage and forethought, and have the independence of spirit Lo explore new roles, ideas, and strategies. They are brave and articulate in defending their belietsBalanced: They understand the imponiance of cellectval. physical and emotional balance ta achieve personal well-being for themselves and: others. Reflective: They give thoughiful consideration to their own learning and experience. They ave able fo assess and understand their strengths and Himitations in order to support their earning and personal development, Anote on academic honesty It is of vital importance to acknowledge and ‘appropriately credit the owners of information ‘when that information is used in your work, After all, owners of ideas (intellectual property} have property rights, To have an authentic piece of work, it must be based on your individual ‘and original ideas with the work of others fully acknowledged. Therefore, all assignments, written or oral. completed for assessment must use your own language and expression. Where sources are used or referred to, whether in the form of direct quotati ion or paraphrase. such sources must be appropriately acknowledged. How do! acknowledge the work of others? The way that you acknowledge that you have used the ideas of other people is through the use of footnotes and bibliographies, Footnotes (placed at the bottom of a page} ar endnotes (placed at the end of a document) are to be provided when you quote or paraphrase Tom another dacument, or closely summarize the Information provided in another document, You da not need to provide a footnote for infarmatian that is part of a ody of knowledge’. That Is, definitions do-not aced to be footnoted ag they are part of the assumed knowledge Bibliographies should include a formal list of the resources that you used in your work, “Formal means that you should use one of the several ‘accepted forms.of presentation. This usually involves separating the resources that you use 10 different categories (e.g. books, magazines, newspaper articles, internet-based resources, CDs ‘and works of art) and providing full information 23 to how a reader of viewer of your work can find the some information. A bibliography is compulsory in the Extended Essay’ What constitutes malpractice? Malpractice is behaviour that results in, or may result in, you oF any student gaining an unfair advantoge in one or more assessment component. Malpractice inctudes plagiarism and collusion. Plagiarism is detined as the representation of the ideas or work of another person as your own. The following arc some of the ways to avoid plagiarism: * words and ideas of another person (a support one’s arguments must be acknowledged © passages that are quoted werbatim must be enclosed within quotation marks and acknowledged © CD-Roms, email messages, web sites on the Enternet and any other electronic media must be treated in the same way as books and journals © the sources of all photographs iMusteations. comput audio-visual and sin acknowledged if they are not your own work © works of art, whether music. film dance, theatre ants ur viswal ants and where the creative use of a part of a work takes ploce, the original artist must be acknowledged. Collusion is defined as supporting malpractice by another student. This includes: © allowing your work to be copied or submited for assessment by another student © duplicating work for different assessment components and/or diploma requirements Other forms of malpractice include any action that gives you an unlair advantage or affects the resulis of another student. Examples include, taking unauthorized material into an examination roam, misconduct during an examination and lobsifying a CAS record.Online Resources What is Kerboodle? Kerboadle is an u platform. tf your school has a subscription to 1B Chernisiry Kerboodle Online Resources you will be uge bank of resourees, assessments, and presentations to gubde you Uhrough this « Whatis in your Kerboodle Online Resources? for students on the TB Chemistry Kerboodle sessment, There are three n planning. tes ces, and Resources There-9 hundreds of extra resourees available on the 18 Chemistry Kerboodie Online. You can use these at home or in the classroom ta elop your skits and know de Jge ac you progress through the course © Watch videos and animations of experiments, difficult cancepts, and science in action. © Hundreds of worksheets ~ read articles, perlorm experiments and simulations, practice your skills, or use your knowledge to answer questions © Look at galleries of images from the bouk and see thelr details close up, © Find out more by looking at recommended sites on the Internet, answer questions, or da more research Planning fe prepared fo he practical work and your internal assessment with a the (it Chemisiry Kerboadle online. © Learn about the different skills that you need to perfarm an investigation. © Plan and prepare experiments of yaur own, analyse data and draw conclusions successfully Lely © Learn how shone dateexaminations. Here you will find lots of interactive quizzes and exam- . 0208. Se amusnayeriamnignencnnee COGS, 0: oO style practice questions. © Formative tests; use these 1o check your comprehension, there's ane autosmarked quiz for every sub-topic. Evaluate haw confident you Feel about a sub-tpic. then complete the test. You will have two attempts at each question and get fecdback after every question, The ied in the markbook, s0 you can see marks are automatically re how you progress throughout the year © Summotive tests: use these 10 practice for your exoms or as revision: ed quiz for every topic. Work thraugh the test ation ~ go back and chenge any questions you soppy, then submit the test fora tinal ically reported in the markbook, so you nay Heed More practice there's ane outo-m os if i were an © oren’t sure obs mark, The mor can see where y jaswering the longer en you are examines. Don't forget! You canals find extra resources on ourftee website @F) www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/ib-chemistry 0 Here you can find answers to questions in the book.Introduction This book is a companion for students of Chemistry in the {ternational Baccalaureate Diploma Programme istry fone of The pivotal science subjects of the IB Diploma mine, HUIS an experimental science that combines ecodemic study With the acquisition of laboratory and investigational skills, Chemistry Is often ealled the central science, as chemical principles underpin both the physical environment in which we live amd all biokogical systems Apart from being a subject worthy af study ie its own right, chemistry is also 9 prerequisite for mony other disciplines such as medicine, biological and environmental sciences, materials and engineering. A study of chemistry invariably involves fostering of o wide range af additional generic. transferable skills, such 0s analytical skills, problem-solving. Uoto-handling. (Tend communication skills, critical-thinking. numeracy and scientific literacy skills, During the twa years af an 1B Diplome Programme Chemistey Course, students are encouraged to develop knowledge of chemistry ond on understanding of the nature of scientific Inquiry, With its focus. an understanding the nature af science (NOS), 1B Chemistry learners will develop a level of sciemtitic literacy that will better prepare them to act on ixsves of local and global concer, with 3 full understanding of the sciemitic perspective. The structure of the Subject Guide. Toples 1+ 11 explain in detail the core material that is common t both SL and HL courses. Topics 12 - 21 explain the AHL (additional higher level material), Topics A. I C and D cover the content of the options. The optional topics caver faur of the major domains in Applied Chemistry: Materials, Biochemistry, Energy and Medicinal Chemistry Each option has a number of common strands - quantitative aspests, analytical techniques, environmental perspectives and integrated organic chemistry ltakages. Allwwpics in the book include the following elements: Understandings The specifics of the content requirements for each sub-topie are covered in detail. Concepts are presented in ways that promate enduring understanding. © Application: These sections help y 8 specific illustrative ex method approach oF by lavolving key labor @ Nature of science Here you can explore the methads of science and some of the knowledge Issues, theories. hypotheses and laws that are ascociated with setentifie endeavour. This is Jone using carefully selected exemples, including chemical research that led to paradigm shifts in our understanding of the world. NOS underpins cach topic presented and thraughout the book Ibook closely follows the chemistry programme in and skills 10 develop your undersionding by considering mple, offen following a step-by-step working considering 2 particular chemical experiment, y techniquesthere are a wide range of NOS based questions and exercises to challenge yaur chemical understanding and draw on your scientific perspectives. NOS is an assessable component of the programme and sample NOS style questions are integrated throughout the book, These short sections have headings that are equivacal knowledge questions’ Te text that follows offen details one possible answer to the Knowledge question, We encourage you to draw on these examples of knowledge issues in your TOK essays. Ofeourse, much of the material elsewhere in the book, particularly inthe NOS sections, can be used te prompt TOK discussions, TOK provides a space for you toengage in stimulating wider discussians about questions such as whether there shouldbe ethical constraints on the pursuitof scientific Knowledge. also pravides an opportunity for you ta reflect on sckentific methodologies, and haw these compare ta the methodologies af ether areas of snawledge TOK is net formally assessed inthe 18 Chemistry prograrnme, but plays a pivotal role in the teaching of 18 science, Activities and quick questions Avatiety af short topics or challenging questions are included with a focus on active learning, We encourage you ta research these topics ar prablems {yourselves using infarmation readily available in textbooks a fram the Internet. The sim is ts promote an independent sppreach talearsing, End -of-topic questions ‘At the end of each topic you will find a wi of questions Amnultiple-choice, data-base exercises, extended response, NOS style problems and hypothesis style questions) Answers can be found at www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/ib-chemistryMeet the authors Sergey Bylikein was awarded a PhD in Chersistey from Moscow State University fn 1998 and, one yeor lier Fevelved the State Prize of the Russian Federation in Chemistry, Util 2009, he was assisiant professor at Russian State Medical University, after which point he took up a tole at the Open University in the UK. Sergey is an author of several textbooks. He has been associated with the 1H since 2007 and was invalved in the latest [ Chemistry curriculum review. Gary Homer, » graduate of the University of Queensland, has taught Chemistry since 1986 in Australia, Switzerland and Hong Kong. In his International School career Gary has held various leadership pasitions, including that of CAS cvondinstar and Head af Science. Since 2000, he has had significant involvement with the TRO, attending workshops across Europe and Canada and leading workshops in India, Hong Kong and Japan. In 2010, he began advising on the Chemisiry curriculum review and isa member of the team developing the latest DP science course. Gary is currenily teaching at King George V School in Hong Kong. Brian Murphy graduated with a PhD in Inorganic Chemistry from University College Cork, Following postdactoral and teaching posts in the UK and Ireland, he moved to the United Arab Emirates ta take up a position at UAE University, where he became Head of the Department of Chemistry and accociate profeccor of Inorganic Chemistry, After & years he maved back to Ireland to take up a post at Athlone Institute of Technology, where he is currently 3 senior lecturer. Brian has been associated with the TB since 1998 and was involved in the design of the latest 1B Chemistry curriculum. David Tarcy graduated cn lande with a degree in Science Education fF Whitworth College and has done graduate work in sciences and information technology in the Northwest USA and Queensland, Austalia, He hac taught in the USA, Australia, Europe, and Southeast Asia and has been involved in rriculum writing, moderation, and question setting for various exam boards and stitutions, David is active in many chemistry education discussion boanls, fs an TH Diploma Programme Chemistry Workshop Leader and Field Representative and ‘wos involved in the design of the latest IB Chemistry coericulun A project of this size would not have been possi extent, the authors would like 1 thank their appreciation goes nm Murphy « to my wile Mary, for all her love, understanding and waremitiing suppor (mle buiochast), parents, Teress and Joe (RIP) wha instilled in me an appreciation of inteenationalisation from an earlier and her family: Gary Horner - to my parents Dennis and Myrile for thelr Jevotion, vision and unwavering support of theie children’s happiness, my sister Susan for her eternal friendship. selflessness and professional expertise; David Tarcy = tw Tina Walton, my brothers Gary and Brian, for their input ond support 2s well as the many friends and professional colleagues t hove met through my cead suppor, advice, and friendship: Sergey Bylikin - to Notosha for her patience, support and invaluable comments, without support and encouragement, To the greatest nilies for their love and patience. Im particular, specialIntroduction There is @ of people working within a wide v of scientific disciplines and approaching th iry with comm central selence, a hematies the languag of seience. In thie chapter we begin to lay ans on which an hemistry is bated. From th srto the [UPAC organization down many of the founds classifi of the nomene compounds andl the representations of chemical reactions by equations, this chapter discusses the comprehensive language of chemistry fundamental importance. Its definitions in tion to the volume of understanding 5 elicit univer and stolchiometry, tl hod of slae chem and p ino reaction ie developed. Treatment of the gas lows and the application of volumetric analysis complete this introductory chapter Pe Tcl e mma Mr Ted CME LOG of matter and chemical change Understandings Atomsof different elements.combine in fixed ratias to ferm compounds, which have different properties from their component elements Mixtures contain more than one element and/ ‘or compound that ate not chemically bonded ‘together and £0 retain their individual properties. Mixtures are either homogeneous or heterageneous. of science titative measurements with replicates to ensure reliability ~ defi © Applications and skills + Deduction of chemical equations when reactants and products are specified > Application of the state symbols (5) (. (8) and (ag) in equations > Explanation of cbservable changes in physical properties and temperature during: changes of state. ll. 1e and multiplenl Soro nan @ The atomic theory A universally accepted axiom of science today is that all matter is cammposed of atoms, However, this has not always been so. During the seventeenth century the pitlegision theory Benn was a widely held belief, To explain the process of combustion it was proposed that a fire-like clement called phlogiston, said to be found within substances, was released during burning. Quanuiotive invenigations of burning metals revealed that magnesium in fact gains rather ian loges mace when it burns in oxygen. contradicting the phiogiston theory. Scientists use a wide range of methodologies, instruments, and advanced computing power to obtain evWlence through abservotian and experimentation. Much of the technology: Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1784) is ‘often referred to.as the “father of modern chemistry’. His contribution ‘to science is well dacumented. In 4772 Lavoisier discovered through experimentation that when sulfur ‘and phosphorus were combusted ‘they gained mass, These results “contradicted the belief that mass ‘would be lost during combustion as phiogiston was released, Could phiogistan have a negative mass? Empirical data derived from Lavaisier’s experiments was, -eventually accepted bi the scientific -community, His work contained Sore of the first examples of qua chemistry andthe lawraf-conservation of mass, His “experiments may appear simple by presentay standards but they were ‘gioundsbreaking in their day. ‘The discovery of oxygen by Joseph Priestly and Cat Scheele invalidated the phlogiston theory, This isan example of aparadigm shift. The -dorminant paradigm ar beletis replaced by a nev paradigrn. fs this haw sclenific knowledge progresses? carmmonty used today was not available to scientists in the pasi. who often made ground- ‘breaking discoveries in relatively primitive conditions to feed their appetite for knowledge, Over time, thearies and hypotheses have been tested with renewed precision and understanding. Some theories do not stand the test of time, ‘The best theories are those that are simple and account for all the facts. ‘The atumle theory states (hat ell matier fe camposed of atoms, These atoms cannot be created or destroyed, and are rearranged during chemical reactions, Physical and chemical properties af maiter depend on the bonding and arrangement of these atoms, States of matter Matter is everywhere, We are made up of matter, we consume it, i surrounds us, and we can see and touch many forms of matter, Air is 2 form of matter which we know is there, though we cannot see it. Our planet and the entire universe are made up of maticr and chemistry seeks ta expand our understanding of matter and its properties. 44 Pgute 1 he characteristics af matersctvumaoyeviow te me pamcuuate mvune er nutrensao nena conse ORNS (@) The properties of the three states of matter are summarized below. ‘Solis Liquid Ges é pe © fixed volume © fixed volume no fixed volume © fixed shape # no fixed shape = wkes the shape © no fixed shape ~ expands to cof the container i vecupies ‘occupy the space available once Be corpresred © cannot be compressed © canbe compressed attractive forcesbetween forces between particles are ® forces between particles are ‘weaker than in solids taken as zero particles hold the particles in a close-packed arrangement © particles vibrate in fixed © particles vibrate, rotate. and particles vibrate. rotate. and positions translate tmove around) translate faster than in a liquid ‘The way the particles of matter move depends on the temperature. As the temperature increases the average ‘energy of the particles increases — the porticles in a solid vibrate more. The porticles in liquids | sefeneeteoughout the woe Tis wil be and gases also vibratc, rotate. and translate more. discussed in grest detailin sub-topic 1,2, renee = of different temperature scales. The most 7 ieee a cre are a number of different temperature scales. The most commonly | panes 26depees Cees used are the Fahrenhi and Kelvin seales,Allthree eve named | pad piven steel hy in honour of the scientist who developed them. Sete eae ‘The ST unit for temperoture fs the kelvin (K). The Kelvin scale Is used in| deyrees Kevin. Theboling point of water energeiics calculations (see tople 3) ‘45100°Cor373K,and the meingpolnt ‘wateris0"C0r273K. Absolute zero is zero on the Kelvin scale, 6 K (om the Celsius scale this is -273 °C). It is the temperature at which all movement of particles stops. At temperatures greater than absolute zero, all particles vibrate even in sali matter. ‘You con convert temperatures from the Celsius scale wo the the Kelvin scale using the algorith evaporation fate temperature (K) = temperature (C) + 273.15, Changes of state you heat» black of ice im a beaker it will melt to form liquid water. {You continue feating the water. i will boilto form woter vapour. Figure 2 shows a heating curve for water ~ ic show's haw ss temperature changes luring these changes of state. We shall look at he eelatianship between temperawwre and the Kinctic energy of particles Juring these changes of state. Fguee2 The heating for water ney npnl Ar nan er eo Activity Explain why the temperature ofa toiling liquid doesnotincrease despite energy being ‘constantly applied. 2 Deducewhich would be mare paint scaling yeu skinwith watervapeur of bellngweater 3 Explin why you mig feet Ca(OH) faq) + Hig) Remember that to bolance an equation you change the coclficient of a formula {add a number in frant of the formule). You do nei change the formula itsell, Step I: First balance the metallic element on ach side of the equation —add a number In front of the symbol on ane side if €a{s) + 2,01) -* CorOH. fag) + Hig) ecessary so that there is the some number ‘af atoms of this element on each side, Step 2: Balance any elements that occur in only one formula on the reactant and produets side. Sometimes polyatomic ions remain unchanged in reactions and they can be balanced easily at this stage. Step 3: Balance the remaining clementsif necessory, TH eauation is now balanced overall ‘Step 2: Balance O next asitoccurs in only one formula on cach side. (H oceurs in both products.) Multiply H,0 bw 2 to balance 0. ‘Step You can now see that hydrogen has been halanced by step 2, which often happens. Always check to make Example 2 Potassium hydrox’ a soluble base that can neutralize the diprotic acid sulfuric acid. Diprotic acids produce two hydrogen ions when they dissociate. Balance the following equation. Step 1: Balance K by doubling KOH on the reaciat +H,SO, (aq) + KOH(oq) + K,SO,(oq) + H,0(1) Step 2: Both Oa ‘occur in wa compoundson both ‘Sides of the equation. The sulfate ton is funchanged in the reaction and is balanced, so. the coelitcient for H_SO, will siay the ame, There are 4 H atoms.on the reactant “a Figure 10 Metals are Below and to the left ofthe metalloid.n fir accor st side, so multiply H.0 bby 2. Example 1 ‘The alkaline earth metal calcium reacts with H,80, (aq) + 2KOH (aq) > K,S0,(09) + H,0(0) ine solution. Balancethe so aq) 4 KOH (aq) -* K,SO,(09)-+ 24,01) The equation is now balanced.4.4 INTRODUCTION TO THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER AND CHEMICAL CHANGE Ce oe ‘Some types of reaction ‘The names and-symbals af Combination or synthesis reactions invaive the combination of two ar mare ‘the elements can be found in substances to produce a single prod vct: section S ofthe Dota booklet, CIs) +0,fe) + CO,{e) Decomposition reactions iwvalve a single reactant being broken down into two or more products; aC0,(s]-+ cane) + cag) ‘Single replacement reactions accur when ane element replaces anather ina ‘compound, An example ofthis type of reaction sa redox reaction (topic 8); Mals) + 2HCilaq) > bgClaq) +H, (g) ‘Double replacement reactions occur between ionsin solution to form insoluble substances and weak or non-electrolytes, also termed metathesis reactions: ‘HCI[aq) + NaOH[aq) + NaCi{aq) + H,0(!) Tis example is an acid-base reaction discussed furthes in topic 8, ® Some applications and reactions of butane Fuels and refrigerants Butane, C,H, is mixed with other hydrocarbons such as propane to create the fwel liquetied petroleum gas (LPG), This is used in 2 wide variety af applications. MethyIpropane (also called isobutane} is an Isomer of butane, Isomers have the same chemical formula bur thelr atoms are arranged structurally in a different way. Methylpropane ic used aca refrigerant, replacing the CRs that were previously used for this purpose. Ozone occurs naturally in the stratosphere, in the upper atmopshere Ozone filters out most of the harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. Without this protection the ultraviolet radiation would be harmful to many forms of life, causing skin cancer in bumans and other problems, ‘a Figure 1 Orane, 0, -Aigure 12 Methulpropane is used as areftigerant ‘CFs undergo reactions with the azone in the stratosphere, causing it tw break down. The ‘ozone hole’ ica thinning of the ozone layer that appears over the polar regions of the Earth each spring. The use of CPEs has caused this depletion of the ozone layer, so they have naw been replaced by methylpropane,10 ‘STOICHIOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS The combustion of hydrocarbons, CH, preduces carbon diaxide and water Since 1997, taxis in HongKong have been poweredby liquefied petroleum gas (LPS). Today, there are aver 18 O00LPS taxis and S00 LPG light buses ‘operatingthere. LPS, consisting ‘of butane andier propane, ‘undergoes combustion to relesce anergy ta power the vehicle. The reaction produces, carbon dioxide and water {cub-tapic 10.2). LPS bume ‘much moce cleanly than petral ordiese ‘a Figure 13 The crane holt was fist noticed in he 1 workinide Balancing the equation for the combustion of butane The combustion of butane is an exothermic reaction. CH lsh + Outs) + CO,(g) + HOM) Step 1; There are no metal atoms to balance, so balance the carbon ins frst by multiplying CO, by 4, CH sts) + O.ig) + 4CO,(g) + H,0(1) Step t: Ox leave this un jen is found in two compaunds on the product side sa, ast. Hydrogen has 10 atoms on the the right, so multiply H,O by 5 CHB) + Og) + $CO,(g) + 9,00) Step 3: The products now eu 13 oxygen atoms, an odd number To balance the equation 6,5 molecules of oxygen are required CH stb} + 6-50,(g) > 4C0,(g) + 54,011) Fractions are not used in b ons, except when cokulating lattice enthalpy (see topic multiply the whole equation by 2 2C,H, 4B) + 130\(g) * CO.4g) + 19H,041) The complex cveffieients in this example show why the metho Bis more efficient than just trial a balancing equations on ps= 1.4 INTRODUCTION 10 THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF HATTER AND CHEMICAL CHANGE Ce oe The atom economy “The global demand for goods and services slong with an increasing world population, rapidly developing economies, increasing levels of pollution, and dwindling finite resources have led to a heightened awareness of the need to conserve resources. Synthetic reactions and industrial processes must be increasingly efficient to preserve raw materials and produce fewer and less toxic emissions, Sustainable development is the way of the future. ‘To this end the atom economy was developed by Professor Barry ‘Trost of Stanford Lniversity Stanford, CA, USA, This loaks at the level of efficiency of chemical re paring the molecular atoms in the res wiil the molecular mass-0f useful compounds percenuage atom economy = The atom economy isimportant in the discussion of Green Chemistry, which we will discuss later in this book, Tn an ideal chemical process the amount of reactants = amounis of products produced. So an ator economy of 100% would suggest that no atoms are wasted Activity a] Suggest why even fa chemical reaction has ayjleld close to 100%, the atom economy may be poot Carry out some research into this aspect. bb] iscuss some other ways a chemical process may be evaluated other than the ato economy, eg energy consumption ete. €} educe the percentage atom economy for the nucleophilic substitution reaction: (CH, (CH), OH + NaBr-+H,S0, CH, (CH,), r+ H,0-+ Mabtsa, Quick questions Identfythe ype ofreactionand then copy andbalance 4 sheequton sng ematestposblawbse number Sg) KcHa) + OL 1 S0,lp)-+#,0(0) + H,30,(0q) & CH,Le) +0,(2) + CO,(g) +H, 018) 2 NCQ) >We) +010) 7 Ni[OH),(s} + HCi{aq) > NiCI faq) + H,0(0) a a An(s) + 0,f8) ->4,0,(s) 2 CHa) +e) Coyle) +H0t@ ‘AgNO, [aq) + Cus} > CulNO,),faq) + Aals) Ca(OH) fs] > Ca0fe) + ,0(9) 11eal Soro nan 12 Benn 1.2 The mole concept Understandings molecular mass (M), respectively. > The mole is a fixed number of particles and refers to the amount, n, of substance. > Masses of atoms are compared on a scale relative to '"C and are expressed as relative atomic mass (A) and relative formula! Molarmass (Mf) has the unite gmo! | 9 The empitical formula and molecular formula of acompound give the simplestratio and the actual number of atoms present in a molecule © Applications and skills > Calculation of the malar masses of atoms, ions, molecules and formula units. Solutian of problems involving the relationships between the number of particles, ‘the amount of substance in moles and the mass in grams. > Intercanversion of the percentage composition by mass and the empirical formula. > Determination of he molecular formula of ‘3 compound from its empirical formula and molar mass. > Obtaining and using experimental data far deriving empirical formulas from reactions involving mass changes. @ Nature of science ¥ Concepts ~ the concept of the mole developed from the related concept of ‘equivalent mass’ in the early 19th century. ‘SI: the international system of measurement Throughout history societies have developed different forms of measufement, These may vary from one country and culture to another, 1 an injernationally agreed set of units allow measurements regardless of the language 0 Units of measurement are essential in all walks of life, The financtal world speoks In US dollors, the resow million (omnes (MT), precious m: ricultural manu including heciare, and environmental protection egencies, om oh talk about paris per million (ppm) of particulate matter. Which units do chemists use? als are m The desire fora standard international set of units led to the development of a system that transcends all languages and cultures - the Systeme International d’Unités (SI). Table | shows the seven base units of the SI system. All ather units are derived from these seven base units.4.2 THE MOLE CONCEPT © Accuracy and SI units Continual improvements in the precision of instrumentation used in the measurement of SI units have meant that the values of some physical constants have changed over time. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (known as BIPM from its initials in French) monitors the correet use of SI wnits, so that in all applications af science, from the school laboratory to the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), ST units are used and are equivalent in all cases (Property nit Symbol mass iilogram Ke temperature kelvin K time second s amount mmole mal electric curent ampire A luminosity candela «Table 1 Theseven base unc ofthe SI austem antities that are used throughout the study of th their units, Table 3 isa list of standard prefixes Table 2 shows two ¢ chemistry. along used to convert ST units w suitable size for the application you are | Molar volume of an ideal gas at 273 K and 100 kPa | Avogadie'seanstsnt (¥,] 6.02 x 10" met 227 10 “mm mol (= 22,7 dm’ mol +) le 2Useful pysical constants andun Amount of substance: The mole to control and seale Industrial inivine and industries Involved in processing of food and beverages, w pharmaceutical componies synthesting medicines and drugs, the ability (a measure precise amaunts of reacting substances Is af crucial importance Alle ical substances are made sa atoms, which vary in the number of protons. jectrons (topic 2). Chemists use a system to measure xs of how big their of elements that are composed thelr const nts of different elements reg equal arm ate, which Sl unit, symbol mol. define ns them to calculate reacting quantities. The mole is an asa fixed amount, rt, ofa substance. This ‘section? ofthe Dota booklet. ‘The value of Avogadro's ‘constant (Lor willbe provided in Paper 1 questions, and may be refered tainthe ote booklet when completing both Papers 2 and 3. mit ™ conti | € dec é standard ilo x meee ™ oe _| © Table 3 Useful prefines, their abtecstsiens and scales eeGenre) (A Tabled The retatve atomic mass of Chlorine ic the weighted average of the atomic masses of as bbompes and theierelstve abundance definition can be applied ta atoms, molecules, formula units of ionic compounds, and electrons in the process of electrolysis. This fixed amaunt isa number of porticles called Avogadro's constant symbol LorN,) and it has a value of 6.02 x 10" mol '. Avogadro's constant enables us to make comporisons between chemical species, A male of any chemical species alvrays contains an identical number of remresentative units Relative atomic mass, relative formula mass, and molarmass Isotopes ere atoms of the seme element that have the seme number aif protons inthe nucleus bur different numbers of nevtronc (see sub> pic 2.1). Isotopes of am element have different mass numbers. The relative abundance af each sotope is a mesure of tke percentage that ‘accurs in sample of the eleraent (table 4, ‘The masses of atoms are compared with one another on a scale in which 2 single atom of carbon-12 equals #2 units. The relative atomic mass A, of an atom is a weighted average of the atomic masses of its isotopes and their relative abundances. The existence of different isotopes results in carbon having an A, of 12.01. The relative molecular mass or relative formula mass if, fora molecule or formula unit is determined Iby combining the 4, values of the individual atoms or ions. A, and Mf, hhave no units as they ate both ratios. The molar mass is defined as the mass of one mole of a substance, TL hhas the unit of grams per mole, g mol" (figure 2). A A Af sexe" oe 102 0a 107 formed urits rmelecues oop sth one “Figure 2 The malur mas of s substance canta dvogsdros umber of representative patties (the parteles mate atoms, molecules, orens) ‘Scientific discoveries ae the product of many different ways of knowing, (WOK), To-construct Knowledge and understanding, scientists can use intuition maginatlan, reasoning, are even emotion a well as detailed investigation and analysis ofarge volumes of data that either support or disprove observations and hypotheses. Sometimes itcan just be armatter ‘of serendipity. The scale of Avogadro's constant [602 000 000 000,000 000 090 006) passes beyond the boundaries of our experience on Earth. The ‘population ofthe planet Is dvarfed by this number. How does this experience Hit our ability to be intuitive?© Worked examples: A and M_ Example 1 State the relative atomic mass A, of aluminium, Sol Figure 3 shows the periodic table entry for aluminium, AAAI) = 26.98 Example 2 Calculate the molar mass sf, of sulfuric acid, MSO, Soll Table 5 shows the data needed to answer this question. Element | Relative atomic | Numberof | Combined mass A, atoms | massig hydrogen 1.01 z 202 ‘sultur 3207 L 3207 oxygen 1600 « ‘6400 abies M(H,SO,) = (2 x 1.01) + (1 x 32.07) + (4 x 16.00) Ma 1.) = 98.09 ¢ mol". Example 3 Calculate hf, of copper(tt) sullate pentahydrate, CuSO 51,0. Solution Many tronsition metal complexes «subtopic 13.1) contain water malecules bonded to the central metal ion. The formula CuSO,:5H,0 shows thot 5 mol of water-combines with I mal of copper sullate. copper sulfur omugen 16.00 4 6400 oxygen | 16.00 Sx 2000 hydrogen | 101 | sxz=10 10.10 ‘Table 6 Cakelstng the malar mass of copper(T] sulfate pentahisate ‘M,(CUuSO,-54,0) = 249.72 g mol 42 Figure 3 The clement aurriniumas tapeesentsd ithe periodic rable ‘Negative indices and units Anindex or powers a mathematical ntation that shows that aquantty ‘or physical unit is repeatedly multiplied by teal mx m—m ‘may be written as mol dm * moll (US). Enthalpy of neutralization: units ‘are KS mol *. Initia rate of reaction: units are mold *s ',nl Ar nan er eo solutian, Primary standards. ‘primary standard is any substance of very high purity and large molar mass, which when dissolved ina knawn volume of selvent creates aprimary standard Primary standatd solutions are used in ackd—ease titrations to improve the ‘accuracy ofthe final calculation, The concentration of a primary standard canbe determined securstely, Mole calculations All chemists, whether im the scientific commu: industries, or research facilities, work every di quantities of chemical substances and so need to pert stoichiometric calculations. The relat ty, manufacturing. with reacting, nship between the amount (in mol), number of particles, and the mass of the sample is summarized in figure 4. umberof

1,50 mol of glucose contains 9 mol af C atoms. number of atoms = amount {in mal} 12 Avogadro's constant, [. =P mol x 6.02 x 107 mol = 542 x 1O™C atoms ‘Study tip Theanswerisreconded ta 3: asthis is ‘the precision of the data given by the exarniner (1.SOmol). Example 3 Calculate the amount (in mol) of water molecules In 3.01 = 10” formula units of hydrated ethanedioic acid, H,€,0,-2H,0. Solution ‘> For-every 1 formula unit there are 2 molecules of water. > 1 mol of a substance contains Avogadro's number of particles.Therelore, number of particles amount ¢in mol) = tae ‘Avogadro's constant, L Teoria oe 2oreae! mH,C,0/2H,0) = 2810, A{H,O} = 2 8.0500 mo! = 0,100 mot Units Amount of substance mhas the units mol eam molar mass ‘Mass mo has the units g; molar mass has the unis g mol, Example 4 Caleulate the amount {in mol) in 8.80 ¢ of carbon dioxide, CO, Solution (CO) Example S Caleulate the mass in g of 0.0120 mol of sulfuric acid, H,50, Solution Calculate the molar mass of MSO, and substivute inta the equation: mass 4g) = (4,80) = MH,S0,) = 0.0120 mol x [2(1.01) +3207 + 4 (16.00)] gmol” Quick questions 41 Caleulate the amount [in mol] in each ofthe following masses: a) 8.09 gofaluminium b) 9 8gofsutfuicacia €] 25 0gofcaicium carbonate G) 279.94 of ron{il) sulfate. 10,0500 mol a in| a2 tnewareconcerr QJ(qp) GES Example 6 Calculate the number of chlorine atoms in a 6.00 mg sample of the anti-cancer drug cisplatin, cis diamminedichloroplatium(tt). Pe(NH,},Cl, Solution > Plrst conven the mass in mg t g. > Next find the amount in mol by calculating the molar mass. Finally remember that there ore 2 mol of chlorine atoms in every mol of cisplatin. 6.00 mg = 6.00 = 10° g nIPuNH) C1) $00 «10 *g 95.08 + 2114.01) + 64 P+ 2088-45) = 2.00 x 10 *mol {Cl = 2 x 2.00 « 10 ?mol = 4.00 « 10 ‘mol number of atoms (C1) = 4.00 x 10 *mol x 6.02 = 10" mol =241 « 10" ‘A Figure 5 The ant-cancer dog captainnl Ar nan er eo “A Figure 6 Sadiure uate MFhas 1 ratoot lonsinfsempricatforrula. Risusedinsome courmriestaenhance theheathof teeth 2 Calculate the mass [in grams] in each ofthe Following: a} 0.25000 of nitrogen, W b)_ 1.20 mol afsultr dioxide, $0, €}0.710mol ofcalclum phosphate, Ca,(P0,), 4) 0.600 of etnaneie ais, 4,0, Calculate the number of particies present inthe following: 4) 2.00 mol ofvanadiuen, V 1B} 0.200 mol of sodium ehiorate(Vil),MaCiO, €} 72899 of iron) chloride, Fee, ] 4.60 got nitragen{Iv) oxide. Experimental empirical and molecular formula determination ‘The term “empirical” describes Information thatis derived though ‘observation and/or Investigation, using scientitic methods. Chemical laboratories involved in medical research and development, manufacturing, ar food production will oken carry out analyses of the composition of 3 ‘compound in pracesses that may be either qualitative or quantitative in ‘Qualitative analysis focuses on determining which elements are Present in a compound. It could also verify the purity of the substance ‘Quantitative analysis enables chemists uo determine the relative masses af clements which allows them ta work out their exact composition, The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole-number ratio. ‘af atoms or amount (ier mol) of each element present in a compound. The molecular formula is the actual number of acorns or amount (in mol) of elements in one structural unit of one mole of the compound. respectively. Therefore the molecular formula fs # whole-number ratio of the emp formula, Sometimes the empirical formula is the sa formula, Table 7 shows some examples, of ions For ionic compounds the empirical formula is the sa for the compound, since the formula represents the simplest rat within the stracture (igure 6}, | Substance Molecular formula “Empirical formula ethane ca, oH water Ho Ho hydrogen peroxide Ho, rr) butanoic acid cH, geese H.0. cH sa Table ? Some examples of molecular and empirical formuleYou can use your understanding of how ta caleulate the molar mass of a compound to calculate the percentage by mass of elements in a compound. Example 1 Calculate the percentage by mass of sulfurin sulfuric acid, H,S0,. Solution % sailor = x 100% = 32.07 gat = Fron x 207) x 41600) * 1% = 32.09% I you have a compound of unknown formula but you know the percentage composition by mass of the elements present, you can calculate the empirical formula and, in some cases, the molecular formula Example 2 Determine the empirical formula of an organic compound that contains 75% carbon and 25% hydrogen by mass. Solution The first step is 1o determine the ratio of mC) co mit): af) = 2 CH) = ap = 24.75 Now take the smallest quotient (6.24). Use this as the divisor to determine the lowest whole-number ratio of the elements: : 624 | carbon oa t hydrogen 28.73 = 3.97 6.24 Because the percentage composition is experimentally determined it is acceptable to round to the nearest whole number if the number is close to. whole number. Therefore the simplest whole-number ratio of carbon to hydrogen is 4 and the empirical formula is CH, - "i 4.2 THe MOLE concerr ey © Worked examples: percentage composition by mass Sometimes multiplication is needed to convert the ratia w whale numbers: example 1 1:1.25 Muluply each side by 4 (141.25) = example 2 1:1.33 Multiply each side by 3. 3(1) 31.33) = Sot ‘Study tip Empirical formulae are based on data; those fr example 2 would likely have been determined by a combustion reaction. The value of 3.97 ratherthan 4 for hydrogen comes from ‘experimental error, Example 3 Upon analysis, a sample of am acid with 3 motar mass of 194.13 g mol! was found to contain 0.25 g of hydrogen, 8.0 g of sulfur, and 16.0 g of oxygen, Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula, 2-025 aay Therefore the empirical formula is WSO, ‘To calculate the molecular formula, caleulate the ormuly mass and determine how many formulae make up the molar mass. molar mass ‘empirical formula mass as Lots = 14> TOT + 32.07 + 4(16.00) 97.08 The molecular formula of the acid fs 2(HSQ,) oF H,S,0,. This compound fs called peroxedisulfuric acid (figure 7) ‘4 Figure 7 Molecular mode af peromndiculfunc 3ceal Soro nan 2a Benn 1.3 Reacting masses and volumes Understandings Feactants.can be either limiting or excess, > The experimental yield can be different from the theoretical yield > Avogadto’s law enables the mole ratio of reacting gases to be determines from volumes ofthe gases. > The molar volume of an ideal gas isa constant atspecilied temperature and pressure. > The molar concentration ofa solution is determined by the amount of salute and the. volume of solution. Astandard solution is one of known concentration, © Applications and skills Solution of problems relating to reacting ‘quantities, limiting and excess reactants, theoretical, experimental, and percentage yields, > Calculation of reacting volumes of gases using. ‘Avogadro's law. + Solution of problems and analysis of graphs involving the relationship between temperature, pressure, and volume for a fixed mass of an ideal gas. Solution of problems relating the ideal gas equation. > Explanation of the deviation of real gases from ideal behaviour at low temperature and high pressure > Obtaining and using experimental values to calculate the molar mass of a gas from the ideal ps equation, Solution of problems ivotvingmolar coneentvation, amount efsalute, and volume af solution, > Use of the experimental method of titration to. calculate the concentration of 3 solution by reference toa standard solution. @ Nature of science hypothesis. Stoichiometry A balanced chemical equs reacianis and products ar and also the relative amounts of reactants ond products. equations may also include specific quantitative data on the «: > Making careful observations and obtaining evidence for sciei fic theories ~ Avogadro's jon provides inforn their chemical symbols, their st aly of the reaction (See topic 5). Stolchlometry is the quantitative method of examining the relative amounts of reactants and products, An understanding of this is vital in industrial processes where the of chemical reactions, particularly the percentage yield, is directly linked to the success and profitability af the organizatioa wn the coefficients can be Interpreted a5 the ratio of the amount, in mol, of reactants and products. This is the equation for the reaction used for the manufacture of ammonia in the Haber process (see topic 7): Nig) + 3Hyig) = 2NIH(g) becule of AM = ~92.22 KI shows that one itrogen gac and three molecules of hydrogen gas co nan exothermic reaction 1o produce rwo ee ea molecules of aramonia, However, when setting up.a reaction the reactants NaauwatSeines may not alway’ be mixed in this atlo~tbeir amounts may vary from the Rlermeustat expementa exact stoichiometric amounts shows le the balanced cheenical equation be peckateoan required toenable precise The limiting reagent descriptions, predictions perimental designers of industrial processes use the concept of a Chip limiting reagent as.a means of conitolling the amount of products see epee Maher: obtained. The limiting reagent, often the more expensive reactant, will [ee rcletis! be completely consumed during ihe reaction. The remaining reacianis eee eaderveurs Ihe) are present in amounts that exceed those required to react with the ee eee) limiting reagent. They are ssid to be in excess. Lunderstandingofthe mole - concept havehe'ped develop Itis the limiting reagent that determines the amount of produets formed. Chemisty ina physical Using measured, calculated amounts of the limiting reagent enables Science. "Whay 5 mathetics specific amounts of the products to be obtained, The assumption made ecient tee here is that the experimental or actual yield of products achieved is reseller ‘entical to the theoretical or predicted yield of products. This is rarely the case, Much effort is focused on improving the yield of industrial processes, 1a this equates to increased profits and efficient use of raw materials. ©) Worked example: determining the limiting reagent In the manufseuare of phosphoric seid, = ‘molten elemental phosphorus is oxidived Ang and then hydrated according-to the following 1000 g — OE = 5.125 mol chemical equation: ET ieoo Fail Pu) + 50,(5) + 6,011) > 4H,PO,(2q) Pl) + 50,(g) + 6H,O4}) -* 4H,PO,(aq) 11 24.77 g of phosphorus reacts with 190.0 g of oxygen and excess water, determine the limiting : reagent, the amount in mol of phosphorig(V} acid M(B mol ') 123.88 32.00 produced (the theoretical yleld) and the mass, in g. of phosphoric acid. mis 2477 1000 ewes Solution The amount in motof phosphorus and oxygen “WMO! 0209 3.425 ewes {s determined using the working method from subtopic 1.2 Jmol ning To determine the amount of oxygen that will M react with the phosphorus we can use 2 eross= 2477 8 ‘0.2000 sot multiplication technique: * 430.97) g moiGenre) 0.200" 1x a = 0.2000 x 5 5 = 0.2000 x 2 = 1,000 mol Therefore 0.2600 mol of phosphorus requires 1,000 mol of oxygen to completely react. There ts 3.125 mol of oxygen available xo this is in excess ‘and phosphorus is the limiting reagent. All the phospliorus will be consumed in the reaction and 3.125 — 1.000 = 2.125 mol of oxygen will remain after the reaction cames to completion. The limiting reagent diciatcs the amount of phosphoric acid produced. The mole ratio is used to determine theamount of product in mol. Four times the amount in mol of phosphoricacid will be produced compared with the amount of phosphorus: Fis) + 50,48) + 6H,0(1) + 4H,PO,ta9) ‘Mig mol ') 123,88 32,00 mis BHT? 100.0 excess Aymol 0.2000 3.125 excess 0 njmol 0.0 2.125 excess 0.8000 ‘The moss of phosphoric acid, H,PO, produced can ‘be determined by multiplying a, by M m= Mx = [3(1.01) + 30.97 + 4(16.00)) g mol ! x 0.8000 mol = 78.408 This value represents the theoretical yield of, phosphoric acid. Theoretical yields are rarely achieved in practice. Dare questions Butane lighters work by the release and combustion of pressurized butane: 26,H gle) + 130,(2) + 860,g) + 104,011) Determine the liiting reagent inthe following, reactions: 8) 20 molecules of C,H, and 109 molecules of 0, b) 10 molecules of ,H, an 81 molecules of, €) D20molefC,H,, and26 mal of 0, 4) 872g01CH, andz8.8 gota, 2 Two aqueous solutions, one containing 5.3 af sodium bonate andthe othe 7.0. of calcium chloride, are ‘ined together. Apreciptation reaction accu: Na,C0,(aq) + CaCl,(aq) + 2MaCl[aq) + CaC0,(s) Determine the limiting reagent and the mass, ing, of precipitate formed [the theoretical yield), 3 The oxygen requited ina submarine can be produced by a chemical reaction, Potassium superaxide, KO, reacts with carbon diaxide, CO, to produce oxygen and potassium carbonate, K,CO, 4] Wtethe blsnced chemical equation for this resetion b) 28.44 gof KO, reacts with 22.00 g (0, Deduce the Kimiting reagent. ) Calculate the mass,ing.ofK,CD, produced. 1d) Calculate the mass, ing, of, produced, “4 Asolution of £55 g of potassium iodide, Klis added to a solution of 175 g of nitric acid, HNO, The acid acts san oxidizing agent. ‘6Ki(aq) + 8HND, [aq] -» GKNO,(2q) + 2WO[g) +3465} + 44,010) Beduce which reagents in excess, Determine hew many grams ofthis reactant wil remain unreacted. Determine how many grams.ofritogen ‘monoxide, NO willbe produced. 5 Chirine gas is producre by the reaction of hhycrochiaric acid, and the exiditing agent rmanganese{IV] oxide, Mad, ‘MoO, [5] + 4HCI(aq) -> MnCl, [aq] + C1) + 24,000) ‘t273.15 Kand 100kPs, 58.34, of HCI reacts with 1135 mal af Mn, ta produce 7,056 dm’ of ehiovine gas, 43] Dedluce the limiting reagent. bb] Calculate the theoretical yield of chlorine. e)Theoretical and experimental yields The balanced chemical equs what is fed owe und sents ossible when a reaction Is ideal conditions. 1 allows the oducts to be calculated expected amount of theoretical yteld of reactions and n experi k 10 maximize the yield ize p -atal conditions and especially in large- scale processes, im duced yield of products. 1 ssc lacwors could inchu © loss.al products from reaction vessels # Impurity of reac © Worked example: determining theoretical yield Respirators are being used increasingly with concer for workplace salety and rising levels of environmental pollution. lodinet¥) oxide, 1,0, reacts with carbon monoxide, CO and can be used to remove this poisonous gas from 1,0,(5) + 5COig) + 1(gh + 5CO,(s) 100.0 g of 1,0, reacis with 33.6 g ef CO. Caleulaic the theoretical yield of carbon dioxide and given an experimental yield, In mol, of 0.900 mel Co, calculate the percentage yield. Solution. Step 1: Calculate the inisial _AFigure f Achemiseweatings espwaor for safery nount in mol af reactants and deterinine the limiting reagent: wi,0) = 1000 g 16.90) + 516.00) gmol ” 0.2996 mot the 1.3 REACTING MASSES AND VOLUMES Ce oe © changes in reaction temps eondit awre and press ns, such 3s orev de equilibrium syste = the enister of side-reactions due te presence af inp ate the percentage yield 2 comparise ‘cen the theoretical yield and the 3] amount produced in the experimental yield % ylewd Held = Theo ctical yietd* 10° Step 2: Using mole ratios, determine the reagent. 1,0,:€0 1s miting es an0064 0.3000 «5 = 0.3000 x2 9 = 1,500 mol The reaction of 0.3000 mol of 1,0, requires 1.50:mol of CO forcompletion. However, only 1.20 mol of CO is available; therefore this is the limiting reagent The ratio of limiting reagent CO to product €O, is 5:5 oF 1:1, The number of mol of CO, theoretically passible is therefore 1.2 mal Tt was found that 0,99 mol or 39,61 g of CO, was produced, This is the experimental yield, To determine the percentage yield of CO, we first need to calculate the theoretical yield of CO, Mon [N21 + 2416,00)) g mol ! x 1.20 mot = 528g Then: % yieldGenre) 4 Acetylsaicylc acid, slso known as aspiin,C,H,0,is synthesized by reacting salicylic acid, C,H, with 2NaHCO, (=) + Na,€0,(s) + H,010) +C0,(e) Ifa 68g sample of sodium hydrogen carbonate is ‘acetic anhydiide. C,H, GHO,E6) + C,.0,10 > GH,0,[6) + 64,0,0) On ta ye 8} Caleuate the theoreti yield ng, of aepitin when 3.0 got salicylic acid ie reseted with #.0gof acetic anhydiide, lds lesateinonind eee saat ae a) 1) fan experimental yield of 28.0.g0f suitur calculate the percentage yield. ! fa Deusetammreoray The ermal decompestiono! cod umhysogen vield, carbonate, NaHCO, resutsina 73.8% yell fsa carbonate; NaC heated, calculate the mass, in g of sodium carbonate produced. Suifurtioxide, SO, canbe produced inthe following ‘ovosstep reaction: -4F0S,(s) + 110,(g) 2Fe,0,{«) + 850,65) 250,() +0,fg) ~ 250, 30.0 gof iran disutide (pyre), FeS, reacts inthe Presence of excess oxygen to completion, a) Caleulate the teeretiea ye ing ofeuifur trioxide. Avogadro’s law and the molar volume of a gas The kinetic theory of gases is a model used to explain and predict the bbchaviour af gasee at 2 microscopic level. The theory ie based upan 3 number of postulates or assumptions that must be true for the theory 1 hold, These postulates are 1 Gases are made up of very small particles, separated by large distances, Most of the volume oecupied by 3 gas is empty space. 2. Gascous particles are constantly maving in straight lines, but random directions. 3 Gascous particles undergo clastic collisions with each other and the walls of the container, Na loss of kinetic energy occurs, 4 Gaseous particles exert no force of atiraction on other gases, Under conditions of standard temperature and pressure, an ideal ‘obeys these postulates and the equations that follow from the kinetic theory, At high temperatuire and low pressure, the significance of any forces of attraction between the gas ntoleevles fe minimized — there isa Ihigh degree of separation and they act ina way that adheres to the ideal gat model, ‘The Slunit af pressure is ‘the pascal (Pa), Mm*, Many ‘ther units of pressure are commonly used in different countries, including, ‘the atmosphere (atm), rmillimetces of mercury (mmm Hg), tor, bar, and However, at high pressure and low temperature the particles of a gas move more slowly and the distances between the particles decrease. joms (sub-topie 4.4) become significsmt and eventually the gas can liquely. These responses to changing conditions mean that gases can depart fram ideal gas behaviour and exhibit the behaviour of real gases pounds per square inch psi). The bar (10° Pa) is now widely used as a convenient unit, as itis very close ta atmospheric pressure, 1 atm, ‘The vanly postulates of the kinetic theory were explained in quantitative i by scientists cuch as Robert Hoyle, Bdme Mariotte, Facquec Charles, and Joseph Louis GaysLussac— 4.3 REACTING MASSES AND VOLUMES Ce oe In 1806, Gay-Lussac proposed that the relationship between the volumes of reacting gases and the products could be expressed as a ratio of whole numbers. There are many tant gasephase reactions and the gas laws ‘and Avogadro’s law enable us to understand their behaviour and! examine gaseous systems quantitatively, The models used ta explain the behaviour of gases are simple to apply, An important physical property of o gas is ils pressure, the force exerted by 0 gas as lis particles collide with a surface, Imagine taking a mass numerically equal to the malar mass of different Bases and using cach 16 Inflate a balloon, Under the same conditions of temperature (0 'C/273 k) and pressure (100kPa) the balloons will have the same volume (figure 2). These particular temperature and pressure canditions are known at standard temperature and pressure, STP, @0000@ 2orgma* acngma~ iGosgma zeozgma? 2200gmar! 7as0gma-* | Figute2 Thermo volume of ny gus i atic pan trmperatute and pressure AL STP the balloons will have identical volumes of 22.7 dm’ mol This is the molar volume of an ideal gas and it is constant at a given temperature and pressure. Each balloon contains | mol of the gas so it contains 6.02 x 10° atams or molecules of the gas. This relationship is known as Avogadro’s law: equal volumes of any gas measured at the seme temperature and pressure contain the same umber of molecules. Avogadro’s law simplifies stoichiometric calculations involving reacting gases, The cucfficients of a balanced chemical equation involving gases, correspond to-the ratio of volumes of the gases (figure 4). CaHg(g) + 50z[g) 3COa(g) + 4H20{I) 4% 1a Figure & Volumes of gxses obey Avogadials am ‘Study tips Physical constants and unit conversions can be found in. the Data booklet, The mole ‘volume of an ideal gas is found in section 2, «Figure 3 Amedeo bwogsdro (1276-1856) peoposed in 181 that equal velumes of nyg3 ‘x the Same tempera and pressure contain the same number ofmateculesa Anan ero Quick question Ammanivm cabonte decomposes tesdigwhen heated: (wtt,),c0,{s) -» 24H (g) + 00a) +H,010) Determine the volume, in ‘dm’, of the individual gases produced on decomposition ‘8f 250ml of ammonium ‘carbonate, ® Worked examples: Avogadro's law Example 1 Caleulate 7(@,) fownd in a 6,73 dm” sample of oxygen gas ai STP 1 mol ©, occupies 22.7 dm’ a STP Solution 73 dm? Se ty = 0.296 mol (0) = Example 2 The hydrogenation of ethyne, C,H, involves reaction with kydrogen 4228, H, in the presence of a finely divided nickel catalyst at 150°" The product is ethane, C,H, C.H.4B) + 24,48) + C,H,8) When 100 em of C,H, resets with 250.em? of H,, determine the volume and composition of gases in the reaction vessel Solution According 10 Avogadia’s law, for every | molecule of ethyne and 2 molecules of hydrogen, 1 molecule of ethane will be formed Looking ar the volumes reveals that only 200.cm’ of the hydrogen is required, and that 140 cm" of ethane will be formed. The final mbxture ‘of gases contains both ethane and unreacted hydrogen: Hg) + 2H.is) > CAs) initial volume, Kiem? 100-350 final volume, Yer” 0 50100 After reaction there will be 150 cm” of gases in the vessel comprising 50 cm! of H, and 100.am" of C,H, The gas laws The gas lows are a series of relationships that predic mass of gas in changing conditions of vemp jure, pressure, and w of afixed ‘You have seen that Avogadro's law states that the molar volume (22,7 dm! a1 STP) is independent of the composition of the gos. Boyle's law Robert Boyle (1 627-1691) discovered that when the temperature remains constant. an inverse relationship exists between pressure and volume, Gases contained in smaller valumes will have an increased number of collisions with the surface af the container, so exert a higher pressure The relationship between pressure and volume ¥ can be expressed as: 1 po or Yip Ve,where ¥, and p, represent the initial volume and pressure and ¥, and p, the final volume and pressure, respectively pressor Piha pressure FP vue. Ysa? wre 1a Figure S Boyle's an: the pressure ofa gas is inversely proportanalt the wolume at constant temperature © Worked example: Boyle's law A helium-filled weather balloon is designed to rise to altitudes as high 537000 m, A balloon with a volume of 5.50 dm? and a pressure of 101 kPa is released and rises to an altitude of 3500 m where the atmospheric pressure is 68 kPa, Calculate the new volume, in dm’. Its assumed that the temperature and amount, in mal, remain constant. Solution First make a summary of the data Making V, the subject of the expression: n Yay, eo = >, Lorre = 5.50 dm’ x ie = 8.17 dm’ Charles's law Jacques Charles (1746-1823) investigated the relationship bet the temperature and of agen He dlscavered that ov a Axed mass of gas at 3 constant pressure, the volume Vof the gas Is direethnl Ar nan er eo Absolute zero Wesawinsub-topic tt thatabsolutezeroiszero ‘nthe kelvin scale, OK [-273.85:C].The ides of negative temperatures and the existence ofaminvrmum possible temperature had beenwidely by the scienttic community before Lon! Kevin time {1824-1907}, Kelvin stated that absolute zeroisthe ternperature at which molecular motion ceases. Accordingta Chadestsiaw, ifthe temperature ffs aystem was te double rom 10K w 20 K, the average kinetic energy ofthe particles would double andthe volume would correspondingly double. teniperanee TK) ‘a Figure? Chives ews the vars ofa fs drecty proportional ts sbiske leerperatue a conan presstte proportional to the absolute temperature T in kelvin, This relationship can be expressed as vx or nitrogen When an inflated balloon is placed inte-a conmsiner of @bolling pote -198 °C), the verage kinetle energy of the particles decreases, al wail of the balloan with less the volume reduces. If the n and allowed to rewm 10 ‘balloon is then removed from the liquid nitn room temperature the baltoon will reinflate, sa Figure 6 Reducing the temperature reducesthe average ineticenerpuaf the partcles of gas, ond the volume reduces @) Worked example: Charles's law Ak glass gas syringe contains 76.4 cm? of a gas at 27.0 °C. After running ice-cold water over the outside of the gas syringe, the temperature of the gas reduces ta 18,0 °C. Calculate the new velume. in cm’, occupied by the gas. Solution V, = Tod cm! 27.0 + 273.15 = 300.15 K4.3 REACTING MASSES ANO VOLUMES Gay-Lussac's law Having established gas laws stating that pressure is inversely proportional to volume at constant temperature and that volume © sclenific is directly proportional to temperature at constant pressure, the sly « remaining relationship involves pressure and temperature, at evidence that is fur constant volume. ‘undersiondi Gay-Lussac’s (1778-1850) work with ideal gases led him to the understanding that when the volume of a gas is constant, the pressure of the gas is direetly proportional to its absolute temperature. The relationship can be expressed as at or Hak Be tece ae ts Figure & demonstrates that when the iemperoture reaches absolute zero {0 K), the kinetic energy of the ideal gas particles fs zero and It exerts no pressure, As the temperature increases, the particles collide with the walls of the container with inereased force and frequency, causing + increased pressure i The combined gas law ‘The three gas laws, Charles's law, Boyle's law, and Gay-Lussac’s lav, are combined in one low called the combined gas law, For a fixed amount ‘of gas, the relationship between temperarure, pressure, and volume is: epee | Figure 8 Gay-Luss2c's aw: the pressure of a gasisdirecth proportionalta absolte ‘emperswre at constant volume The ideal gas equation ‘The ideal gas equation describes a relationship between pressure, volume, temperature, and ihe amount, in mol, of gas particles, Having established that pressure and volume are inversely proportional and that both pressure and volume have 3 direct relationship with the temperature bf a gas.and the amount of gas particles, the ideal gas equation combines these interrelationshi p= nerThe ideal gas equation isa model which isthe product ‘of a number af assumptions about the ideal behaviour ‘of gases, These have been discussed eatier inthe topic. Scientiie models are developed te explain “observed behaviout inthe development of models what role do imagination, sensory perception intuition, orthe ‘acquisition af nowiedge in the absence of reason play? Real gases deviate from ideal behaviour at very low lermperatute and high pressure. Under these conditions the forces between the g3s particles become significant, and the gas gets closerto the point whereit will condense ‘rom gasto liquid. a Aor nan eo @ Worked example: using the ideal gas equation to calculate volume Calculate the volume, in m*, of a balloon filled with 0.400 mol of hydrogen gas at a vemperature of 22.90 °C and a pressure of 1.20 Pa. Solution Convert all dota to SI units to enable ol use of Ras 8.313 K p= t2or Yeom = 0.400 mol R= B31 IK 'mol! T= 22.90 + 273.15 = 296.05 K ak’ y= aRT : = 9.400 mol 8.31 1K !mol * < 296.05 K 20 Fa = 820m! ® Worked examples: determining the molar mass of a substance An organic compound A containing only the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen was analysed Example 1: Empirical formula A was found to contain 54.5% C and 9.1% 1 by mass, the remainder being oxygen, Determine the empirical formula of the compound. [3] Solution The empirical formula is CH,0. Example 2: Relative molecular mass 40.230 sample of A when vaporized had a volume of 0.0785 dm? 4195 Cand 102 kPo. Determine the relative molecular mass of A. [3]Solution pV = okt a= mM = mer oy = a] ya MEE _ 0.230 gs S31IK * mol ts 368 K BY 102 x 10" Pa x 0.0785 x 10 rw Example 3: Molecular formula Determine the molecular formula of A using from parts (a) and (b). Solution. molarmass 7 empirical formula mass — 2(12.01) + 411.01) + (16.00) = 878. ~ 44.06 =? molecular formula = C,H,0, 1B, Nov 2005 Concentration Ina typical laboratory the majority of solution rather than in the gaseous phase. Cher solutions of known concentrations A solution is 3 2 solvent. The sol the solvent is wate is usually a solld, but could The molar concentration of a s0 of a substance dissolved in 1 dm® of solvent, 1 di amount of s = massperuntvolumeg den |= mal perunitvolure, mal dn? ‘= partspermilion [ppr]:one partin 1 10°parts, {ppm =1 mgd * sactions carried owt are in e solution is described ax an aqueous solution. tion is define a ee et 4 figure S Abomopencous mixture ba characterized by acanstant py teeatientvoceht your answers isis 1 id ta make up that has been dissolved in be a liquid or gas, When d as the amaunc tin im? Hire (1 1). tance n/imol Parts pet milion (ppm isnatan SI unit buts ohten used forvery dilute concentrations such as when measuring pollutants (see sub-topic 9.4), Concentration nmol’? may alsobe refered to as malar, and square brackets are sometimes used te denote molar ‘concentration, for exampte [Mg] = 4.87 x 10 ‘ moldm-*a Anan ero © Worked examples: concentration calculations Example 1; Molarity of solution tion An mol dim 7, of & 9.475 gf magnesium chloride, MgCl, Is completely dissolved in water 10 make a solution with 3 volume af 100 cm’, Solution First calculate miMgCl oats g o(Mgch,) = © =» ——_—"_-£ __ MME) = a = Daa1 + 213845) Rimol” = 4:99 x10 ‘mol Convert the volume in cm? ro dm": dm? 1000 cm” 100 «m* 0.1 dm* Calculate the concentration of the solution: a _ 4.99 x 10 *mol 2 01 dm IMgcl =4.99 x 10 *mol dm * Example 2: Concentration of ions Determine the concentration, in mol dm * of the chloride ions in example 1 above. Solution When solid MgCl, fs dissolved in water, the consticuent fons are liberar MgCl,(s) > Mg? (aq) + 2Cl (aq) _ 1 244.99 x 10? mol Fe yo am = 9.98 x 10 *mol dm Example 3: Mass of solute Calculate the mass, in g of potassium hydrogen phthalate, €,H,0,K (a primary standard) in 250 em’ of 21.25 mol dm * solution. Solution H1C,H,0,8) = ¥ x [C,H,0, 1 dm” 060 cm = 250 cm" x 1.25 moldm> = 0,313 mol m= WiG,BO,RY = ME = 0.313 mol = [9124 4(16.00) + 39.10] g mo = 0398 Example 4: Concentration of standard solution A standard solution is prepared by dissolving. 5.30 g of sodium carbonate, Na,CO, in 250 cm? of distilled water in a volumetric flask. A 10.0 cm” sample of this solution is removed by bully pipette and dilured with water to the final volume of 0.100 dm’, Calculate the concentration, in mol dm”, of the diluted solution. Solution First calculate (Na,CO,) im a 10.0 cm sample of the standard solution; 511.01) + (Na CO,) 3.308 V+ 3116.00) g mol © 2(22,99) + © ,_ 10.0 em’ 250 em? = 0.00200 mol Finally caleulate the concentration of the solution in mal dm: 0.00200 moi ‘0.100 den” = 0.0260 mo! dm * INo,cO,) = *Titrations Quantitative an to devermine the am expressed as sis includes 2 range of laboratory wehniques used or concentration of an analyte, The results are umerical values with units, Volumetric analysis is 9 quantitative technique used by chemists Involving two solutions. A titration involves a standard solution of known concentration which is added w a solution of unknown til the chemical reaction is complete, The reaction ‘colour changes using indicators topic 8). Calculate the mass, ing. off, SO, required to prepare 500 cr’ of 2.0 matden * soliton of sulfuric acid ‘solution of aluminium bromide, ABr, eto be used in the laboratory during an ‘Hectlyte investigation Cateulate the total number ofians presenti 2S hn! of 1.6 moldm *sotston of AB, @) Worked example: acid—alkali titration calculation Calculate the volume, in dm’, of 6.390 mol dm ’ potassium hydroxide, KOH solution that will neutralize 25.0 em? af 0,350 mol din” sulfuric seid, WSO. 2KOH(aq) + H,SO (aq) + K,S0,(aq) + 24,001 Solution Step 1: Calculate the amount, in mol, of H,50,; wi SO) = 0x ¥ 0.350 mol dm-* x 0.0250 dm! = 8.75 x 10*mol Step 2: The mole ratio of acidialkall is 1:2. Therefore #.75 « 10° mol of acd reacts with 2(8.75 = 1? rol) = 1.75 x 104 mol of KOH. Step 3: Calculate the volume of KOH: ve vino) = L282 10-50 9.9449 dy An analyte isa substance that is being analysed by a given analytical procedure. ‘Astandard sohtion or primary ‘solution is prepared using ‘volumetric flask Sobventis ‘added ta high parity sarmple ‘until the level ofthe soltion reaches the mark onthe ask, ‘Note atopic 9, we wllinroduce a