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Solar pond and its application to desalination
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Asian Transactions on Science & Technology (ATST ISSN: 2221-4283) Volume 02 Issue 03
Solar pond and its application to desalination

A.Z.A. Saifullaha*, A.M. Shahed Iqubala and Anirban Sahab
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IUBAT – International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Dhaka 1230, Bangladesh
b
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, the University of Texas at San Antonio, Tx – 78249, USA
Abstract
This paper discusses the solar pond technology and how it is applied to desalination. A solar pond is a shallow
body of water which acts as a solar collector with integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy. Solar ponds
are mainly two types: convective solar ponds and non-convective solar ponds. The shallow solar pond and the deep
saltless pond are the examples of convective type. There are three types of non-convective solar ponds: salinity
gradient solar pond (SGSP), membrane solar pond and polymer gel layers solar pond. A SGSP is a pool of water
about 1-5 m deep, which contains dissolved salts to establish a stable density gradient. There are three layers in a
SGSP: upper convective zone (UCZ), lower convective zone (LCZ) and salinity gradient non-convective zone
(NCZ) in the middle. Incident solar energy is collected and stored which may be delivered at temperature near
100C. The SGSP is the most eco-friendly and environment-friendly among all the solar energy systems for
electricity generation, desalination, hot water applications in agriculture, green house heating, domestic hot water
production and space heating and cooling of buildings. Nevertheless, a SGSP is more cost-effective since its
collection cost per square meter is only one-fifth of that of a liquid flat plate collector, and cost of 1KWh of
electricity production by a SGSP is only one-fifth of that produced by photovoltaic cells. A solar pond multi-stage
flash distillation system (SPMSF) is very promising for Bangladesh. MSF plants can produce 6-60 L/m2/day,
whereas for typical solar stills it is 3-4 L/m2/day.
Keywords: solar pond, salinity gradient, sodium chloride, desalination, SPMSF
Introduction built open water reservoir commonly called as solar
pond [4]. Solar pond is a convenient and effective

Study and research have been made for a low cost
means which collects solar radiation and stores its
collection and storage system of solar energy in
thermal energy for a relatively longer period of time.
various countries [1]-[3]. Simultaneous collection
Remarkable research effort and publications started
and storage of solar energy is feasible in a purposely
July 2012 ATST-50201035©Asian-Transactions 1

in 1960’s, mostly in Israel. Then going slowly effort pump, solar vapour compression refrigeration and
on research speeded throughout the world after the solar pond [14]. Solar pond is a simple and low cost
energy crisis in 1970’s [5]. Research has been done solar energy system. Solar pond is now an attractive
on solar pond for about 50 years. It is now used in means which can be used for electric power
Israel, USA, India and Australia [6] – [10]. China generation, desalination, salt production, grain
has done remarkable progress in study and drying, fruit and vegetable drying, fruit and
application of solar pond technology to various vegetable canning industry, aquaculture, dairy
applications [11], [12]. Some other countries like industry, green house heating, domestic hot water
Iran, Turkey and Libya are also actively engaged in production and space heating and cooling of
research on solar ponds [18], [26], [32]. Simulation buildings.
has been performed for heat and mass transfer in a

The objective of this paper is to describe the
SGSP by several researchers [26], [60]-[63].
technology of solar pond and its application to
Besides, experimental research in SGSP is also there
desalination.
[26], [64].
Scope and Limitations

The thermo-nuclear reaction in the sun originates
solar energy. Solar energy covers the entire This paper gives a detailed concept on SGSP with its
electromagnetic wave spectrum. The surface working principle, thermal behavior, and stability
receives about 47% of the total energy reaching the criterion. Besides, management of a SGSP has been
earth. This amount only is the usable energy [13]. described with its construction, salt used, site
Solar energy can be utilized directly by two selection, soil character, salinity gradient formation,
technologies – solar thermal and solar photovoltaic. obstruction and remedies and heat extraction. Solar
Solar thermal technology results in solar collectors, desalination has been discussed with special
solar water heater, solar passive space heating and emphasis on SPMSF.
cooling system, solar refrigeration and air-

There is no data and recommendations on site
conditioning system, solar cooker, solar furnace,
selection, linear selection, salt gradient
solar greenhouse, solar dryer, solar distillation, and
establishment, heat extraction, environmental
solar thermo-mechanical systems. Solar thermo-
mechanical system includes solar thermal water

protection and cost analysis of a SGSP, because no storage of heat and transport of thermal energy, at
research project on experimental temperature 40-50 C above normal, out of the system
[15]-[17].
solar pond has been operated in Bangladesh until
today. There are three types of non-convective solar ponds
in terms of the methods of maintaining layered

Solar Ponds
structure. One is SGSP where density gradient is
A solar pond is a shallow body of water which acts maintained by salt water. The other is membrane
as a solar collector with integral heat storage for solar pond which uses horizontal and vertical
supplying thermal energy. There are two types of membranes. The third one is polymer gel layers solar
solar ponds – convective solar pond and non- pond [16].
convective solar pond. The shallow solar pond is a

A SGSP is a system for solar energy collection and
convective solar pond. It consists of a large bag that
storage. It uses solar radiation to heat water; stores
prevents evaporation but permits convection. The
sensible heat in dense saline water; establishes
bag has blackened bottom with foam insulation
density gradient to prevent convective heat flow and
below, and two types of glazing (sheets of plastic or
thus stores thermal energy. Fig. 1 shows the
glass) on top. Solar energy heats the water in the bag
schematic view of a SGSP [17], [18].
during the day and at night the hot water is pumped
into a large heat storage tank to minimize heat loss. A SGSP has 3 main layers. These are UCZ (Upper
Another type is the deep, saltless pond. Double Convective Zone): top layer; NCZ (Non-convective
glazing covers deep saltless pond. When solar Zone): middle layer and LCZ (Lower Convective
energy is not available or at night placing insulation Zone): bottom layer.
on the top of the glazing reduces heat loss [15].

UCZ is of almost low salinity and at close to ambient
A non-convective solar pond is a large shallow body temperature. This zone is the result of evaporation,
of water 1 to 5 m deep, but 3-4 m on the average, wind mixing, surface flushing and nocturnal cooling.
which is arranged in a way so that the temperature Generally this layer is maintained as thin (0.3 – 0.5
gradient is reversed from the normal. This allows m) as possible by the use of wave-suppressing
collection of radiant energy into heat (up to 95 C), meshes or by placing wind-breaks near the ponds.

NCZ is a gradient which is much thicker and to this the temperature of the bottom layer may rise
occupies 1.5 m or more than half of the depth of the up to 95 C making the SGSP a unique energy trap
pond. In NCZ, both salt concentration and with added advantage of built-in long-term heat
temperature increases with depth. The vertical storage capacity [15], [19].
salinity gradient in NCZ holds back convection and

Thermal Performance
thus offers the thermal insulation effect. Temperature
gradient is formed due to absorption of solar The thermal performance of a SGSP which is similar
radiation at the pond base. LCZ is a zone of almost to that of a conventional flat plate solar collector has
constant relatively high salinity (20-30% by weight) been shown by Srinivasan [20]. Assuming steady
at nearly constant high temperature. Heat is stored in state condition,
LCZ, which should be sized to supply energy Qu  Qa  Qe

throughout the year. It is almost as thick (usually 1
where Qu  useful heat extracted, Qa  solar
m) as the NCZ [15], [19]-[21]. This is the heat
energy absorbed and Qe  heat losses.
collector, heat storage and heat removal medium.
The thermal efficiency of a SGSP is defined as
The bottom boundary is a black body [22].
  Qu / I
Working Principle
where I is the solar energy incident on the pond.
When solar radiation falls on the surface of the
  0  Qe / I
SGSP, most of it penetrates and absorbed at the
where  0  Qa / I  optical efficiency of the pond.
bottom of the pond. The temperature of the dense
salt layer thereby increases. If there were no salt, the Again, Qe  U 0 (Ts  Ta )
bottom layer would become less dense than the top
where Ta  ambient temperature
layer and the buoyancy effect would cause this water
and U 0  over-all heat-loss coefficient
rise up and thus the layers would mix. Heat from the
Neglecting heat losses from the bottom and sides of
surface of the pond is then rapidly dissipated to the
the pond and assuming the temperature of the upper
surroundings. But the denser salt layer at the bottom
mixed layer to be the same as the ambient,
of a SGSP prevents the heat to be transferred to the
top layer of fresh water by natural convection. Due U0  Kw / b

where K w  thermal conductivity of water (dT / dZ )  ( I / K )[( (Z )  ]
and b  thickness of the gradient zone The effect of ground-heat losses on the performance
A steady state analysis of a SGSP that includes the
of a SGSP has been analyzed by Hull et al [20], [24].
effect of solar radiation absorption in the gradient
They have expressed the ground heat-loss coefficient
zone on the temperature profile has been given by
as
Nielsen [20].
In steady state, the energy equation can be written as U g  K (1/ D  bP / A)
K (d 2T / dZ 2 )  I (d / dZ )
where K  ground conductivity, D 
where K  thermal conductivity of water depth of water table, P  pond perimeter, A 
and   fraction of solar radiation I surface area
reaching a depth Z.
and b  a constant whose value is around
On integration this equation gives
0.9 (depending upon the side slope).
(dT / dZ )  ( I / K )[ (Z )   (Z1 )  (dT / dZ ) Z2 ] The thermal efficiency of a steady state solar pond
now becomes
where Z1  interface between the upper
convective zone and the gradient zone

1  z2 K T  U T
and Z 2  interface between the gradient
  
Z 2  Z1  1z
 ( Z )dZ  w   g
I  I
zone and storage zone
where T  temperature difference
If  is the fraction of the incident solar energy
between the storage zone and the upper mixed layer.
which is extracted from the system as heat, including
heat losses, then the energy balance of the storage Stability of Solar Pond
zone gives
A solar pond is said to be statically stable if its
(dT / dZ ) z2  ( I / K )[ (Z )  )]
density increases with height from the top. Wind
Combining the above two equations the temperature blowing at the top surface and heating of the side
profile in the gradient zone is obtained as walls, etc. cause disturbance to a solar pond. The

criterion of dynamic stability is rather tough and is
obtained by perturbation analysis of the basic laws of  S    Pr 1  T

   T  Sc  1 Z
conservation of mass, momentum and energy [20].  Z  theoritical  S
The stability criterion is written as The thickness of the gradient zone can be reduced by
T S  Sc  1 the development of internal convective zones or

T  S
Z Z  Pr 1  erosion of the boundaries of the gradient zone.
1  p  Wind-induced mixing is primarily responsible for

T    thermal
  T 
where
the erosion of the gradient zone-surface zone
expansion coefficient interface and can be minimized by using floating
1    plastic nets or pipes. The density and temperature

S   
  S 
salinity
gradients at the gradient zone -storage zone interface
expansion coefficient causes the erosion of the gradient zone-storage zone
Pr  Prandtl number interface. The gradient zone -storage zone interface
Sc  Schmidt number remains stationary, which was experimentally found
For typical conditions, this result is simplified to by Nielsen [20], if the salinity and temperature
S T gradients satisfy the following relationship

 1.19
Z Z
S Z  AT Z 
0.63
where S is in kg/m3 and T in C.

where A = 28 (kg/m4)(m/K)0.63.
The above criterion has to be satisfied at all points
within the gradient zone in order to prevent
development of internal convective zones within the Management of Solar Pond
gradient zone. A safety margin of 2 is essential as

Typical Construction:
recommended by Hull et al [20], [25].
Size of a SGSP ranges from hundreds to thousands
Safety margin (SM) is defined as
square meters in surface area. These are 1-5 m deep.
Typically these are lined with a layer of sand

 S   S 
SM     
 Z  actual  Z  theoritical
insulation and then a dark plastic or rubber
impermeable liner material [17].

where

Salt used: layers (10-20 cm thick) of decreasing salinity
stacked on top of the storage layer using horizontal

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is used normally.
diffuser. Lastly fresh water is the final layer pumped
Magnesium chloride (MgCl2), sodium nitrate
on the surface [17], [27]. Fig. 2 shows the formation
(NaNO3), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), sodium
of the salinity gradient.
sulfate (Na2SO4), ammonium nitrate (NH 4NO3),
fertilizer salts as urea (NH2CO.NH2) satisfy the Maintenance of Salinity Gradient:
stability criterion and thus considered suitable for a

The concentration gradient existing in SGSP leads to
solar pond [17], [26].
steady diffusion of salt from higher to lower
Site selection: concentration, that is, from bottom to top through the
gradient zone. The transport of salt through the

Since solar ponds are horizontal collectors, sites
gradient zone by diffusion is expressed as
should be at low to moderate northern latitudes, that
is, latitudes between -40 to + 40 degree [16].
Qm  [(Sl  Su ) D] / b
Soil character:
where b = thickness of gradient zone, D = mass
Evaluation of geological soil character is necessary
diffusion coefficient and S l , S u  salinity in lower
because the underline earth should be free from
and mixed layers respectively [20].
stresses, strain and crack, which could cause
differential thermal expansions, resulting in earth So, stability is to be maintained by introducing salt at
movement if the structure is not homogeneous [16]. the bottom while the top is frequently washed with
fresh water. When solar radiation fall on the pond,

As thermal conductivity of soil increases greatly
the part which is transmitted to the bottom heats the
with moisture content the water table of the site must
lower layer and as a result inverse temperature
be at least a few meters below the bottom of the
gradients are set in. These are temperature gradients
pond to minimize the heat loss [16].
that are reversed from the normal. Inverse
Forming the Salinity Gradient:
temperature gradients are maintained to eliminate
First the storage layer is formed with high convection currents that occur due to temperature
concentration brine solution mixed in bottom. Then difference during normal temperature gradient [16].

Obstructions and Remedies than chlorine and is therefore
recommended chemical for algae control

1. Cleanliness of pond since transmittance
in solar ponds. Chlorine is more corrosive
can be reduced due to contaminants.
than Cupricide due to the acidic effect it
Filtration can remove contaminants.
has on the pH [50].
Construction of larger ponds can
4. Horizontal temperature gradient created
minimize the effect of contaminants.
by salt solution and removal.
2. Increase of UCZ caused by surface waves
Injecting and removing salt solutions
and evaporation.
very slowly can minimize horizontal
Use of floating nets and wind barriers can
temperature gradient [16], [20], [23].
reduce surface waves and mixing of
UCZ. Heat extraction
3. Algae and bacterial growth.

For extracting energy stored in the bottom layer, hot
Algae growth can be controlled by
water is removed continuously from the bottom by a
adding bleaching powder. Alternatively,
pump, passed though an external heat exchanger or
algae growth can be minimized by adding
an evaporator and then returned so as to heat this
1.5 mg CuSO4 per liter of water. If the
water again. Another method of heat removal is
water used is alkaline, CuSO4 will not
extracting heat with a heat transfer fluid by pumping
dissolve.
it through a heat exchanger placed on the bottom of
The pond clarity can be maintained and
the pond [15], [22].
the thermal efficiency of the solar pond
can be improved by using a combination Heat is extracted from a SGSP conventionally by
of chemical and biological treatment drawing the heat from the LCZ only. This is done
methods. Hydrochloric acid could be with the help of an in-pond heat exchanger located in
used initially as a shock treatment to kill the LCZ. A heat transfer fluid is circulating in a
all the algae and then introduction of closed cycle extracts heat from the internal heat
brine shrimps would control the growth exchanger and transfers its thermal energy through
of algal and maintain transparency [49]. an external heat exchanger. Fig. 3 shows this method
Cupricide is found to be more effective of heat extraction used for heating application [28].

The 3000 m2 solar pond at Pyramid Hill, Australia The El Paso Solar Pond project was initiated by the
used this method. University of Texas at El Paso in 1983. It is a
research, development and demonstration project. It

Fig. 4 shows another conventional method of heat
has been operating since May 1986 showing
extraction by pumping the hot brine from the top of
electricity, process heat and fresh water can be
the LCZ through an external heat exchanger and then
produced successfully in the Southwestern United
sending back the brine at a lower temperature to the
States using solar pond technology [55].
bottom of the LCZ. The velocity of the brine
circulated is to be regulated in order to prevent Pyramid Hill Solar Pond:
erosion of the gradient layer [28]. An example of this

A consortium of RMIT University, Geo-Eng
type of heat extraction is the sodium chloride SGSP
Australia Pty Ltd and Pyramid Salt Pty Ltd has
of 3000 m2 constructed at El Paso, USA in 1983
finished a project by the use of a solar pond located
[29].
at the Pyramid Hill salt works in Northern Victoria.
A novel system of heat extraction for improved Its purpose is to capture and store solar energy using
efficiency is to extract heat from the non-convective pond water which can go up to 80 0C [56]. The heat
gradient layer of a SGSP as well as, or instead of, produced by the pond will be used for commercial
from the lower convective zone (LCZ). This method salt production as well as for aquaculture,
has been analyzed theoretically and compared with specifically producing brine shrimps for stock feed.
the experimental results at Bundoora East, RMIT. Plan is there to generate electricity from the heat
An in-pond heat exchanger made of polyethylene stored in the pond in a subsequent stage [57].
pipe has been used to extract heat for over 2 months.

Bhuj Solar Pond:
Heat extraction from the gradient layer increases the
overall efficiency of the SGSP by up to 55%, The first large-scale solar pond in industrial
compared with conventional method of heat environment to cater actual user demand is the 6000
extraction solely from the LCZ [28], [30]. m2 solar pond in Bhuj, India. It supplied about 15
million litres of hot water in total to the dairy at an

Examples of Solar ponds
average temperature of 750C
El Paso Solar Pond:

between September 1993 and April 1995 [58].

Ohio Solar Ponds: desalination is very costly compared to the use of
fresh water from rivers or ground water as it

Four SGSP have been designed, built and operated in
typically uses extremely huge amount of energy as
Ohio by Ohio State University.. Two solar ponds
well as specialized, expensive infrastructure. But,
were constructed in Columbus for physical studies,
beside recycled water this is one of the non-rainfall
one solar pond was constructed at the Ohio
dependent water sources particularly countries like
Agriculture Research and Development Center at
Australia which traditionally have depended on
Wooster and one solar pond was constructed in
rainfall in dams to supply their drinking water. As
Miamisburg to heat a community swimming pool
scarcity of water has appeared as a major problem all
and recreational building. Data and
throughout the world desalination is getting priority
recommendations have been developed from these
to meet the increasing demands for fresh water. One
research efforts on site selection, linear selection, salt
of the most important international health issues is
gradient establishment, heat extraction and
clean potable water. The warm arid countries in the
environmental protection. Sodium chloride was used
Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and Southern
as the stabilizing salt for each pond. The costs of
Asia within the latitudes 15-350N are the areas with
2 2
building solar ponds varied from $38/m to $60/m
the severest water shortages. The increase in ground
[59].
water salinity and infrequent rainfall characterize
SGSP applied to Desalination these areas. Simultaneous increase in industrial and
agricultural activities with the increasing world

Desalination is termed to be any of several
population growth all throughout the world leads to
processes which remove some amount of salt and
the depletion and pollution of fresh water resources
other minerals from water. Generally speaking,
[38], [41]. During the last couple of years
desalination refers to extraction of salts and
desalination technologies have been significantly
minerals, as in soil desalination. Desalination of
developed. Large energy consumption occurs in the
water is done for converting salt water to fresh water
major commercial desalination processes using oil
to make it suitable for human consumption or
and natural gas as heat and electricity, while
irrigation. Sometimes the process gives out table salt
emission of harmful CO2. Kalogirou estimated that
as a by-product. Many seagoing ships and
the production of 1000 m3/day of fresh water
submarines use desalination. Large-scale

requires 10,000 of oil/year [51]. This is of high (MED). Thermal desalination is an energy-intensive
significance as it needs a recurrent energy expense process. During the last several years substantial
which only a few of the water-short areas can afford. amount of research work has been done on
Alternative sources energy, especially, renewable desalination using solar energy. For sea water
energy sources have been drawn attraction to sea desalination there are mainly two approaches for
water desalination [42]. However, today only 0.02% solar energy utilization. The solar distillation plant
of the global desalination is run by renewable energy may consist of integrated or separated systems for
systems [46]. Solar distillation presents an the solar collector and the distiller. Integrated
ecologically advantageous means of the use of systems are termed as direct solar desalination which
renewable energy [39]. Due to the diffuse nature of involves different types of solar stills. Separated
solar energy, large-scale desalination plants using systems are called indirect solar distillation. The first
solar energy have the problems of relatively low approach is suitable for small production systems,
productivity rate, the low thermal efficiency rate and such as, utilization of green house effect to evaporate
the considerable land area requirement. But the very salty water in a simple solar still [42]. Solar stills are
nature of solar desalination plants is free energy and used in regions where the fresh water demand is less
insignificant operation cost. Besides, this technology than 200 m3/day [52]. The other approach often
is suitable for small-scale production, especially in involves more than one subsystem: one for energy
remote arid areas and islands, where there is scarcity collection, another for energy storage and the third
of supply of conventional energy [54]. subsystem for energy utilization in the desalination
process. The desalination process may be MSF,

Desalination involves desalting a variety of raw
MED, vapor compression (VC), reverse osmosis
waters (sea water, brackish ground water or
(RO), membrane distillation (MD) or electrodialysis
industrial waste-water) through suitable treatment
[38], [40]. One significant problem that affect the
and obtaining fresh water for drinking and irrigation.
still performance is the direct contact between the
Solar energy has been used for distillation of
collector and the saline water which causes corrosion
brackish or saline water for a considerably long time.
and scaling in the still and thus reduces the thermal
The current leading desalination process is thermal
efficiency [43]. The water desalination with
desalination which includes multistage flash
humidification-dehumidification (HD) uses air as the
distillation (MSF) and Multi-effect distillation

working fluid, which eliminates this problem. The for fiscal year 1998… The act is based on the
overall efficiency of the desalination plant increases fundamental need in the US and world-wide for
by combining the principle of humidification- additional sources of potable water.
dehumidification with solar desalination, and thus

SGSP enables the most convenient and least
seems to be the best method for water desalination
expensive option compared to other solar
by solar energy [44]. A HD system consists of a
desalination technologies to store heat for daily and
compact unit containing two heat exchangers for
seasonal cycles. For steady and constant water
evaporation and condensation respectively. The
production, this is very important from the view
constructions are lightweight usually and
point of operational advantage and economic benefit.
inexpensive, and work at atmospheric pressure. As
The heat storage enables SGSP to power desalination
desalination capacity is relatively low, the system
during night time and cloudy days. SGSP used
performance must be improved to make it
desalination for a 24-hour a day operation needs only
economically competitive [42], [44]. Solar ponds
half the size to produce same quantity of water
and parabolic troughs are the most frequently used
compared to other solar desalination options. For
solar thermal technology for desalination [53].
desalination SGSP can make the use of reject brine
Thermal desalination using SGSP is one of the most as a basis to build it. This advantage is very
promising solar desalination technologies. Solar important when SGSP is considered for inland
ponds generated thermal energy to drive a desalting for fresh water production or brine
desalination plant has been investigated by Tabor concentration to be used in salinity control and
[33], Tleimat and Howe [34], [35], Guy and Ko [36] environmental clean-up applications.
and Posnansky [37]. The United States government

At present the most common and simple technique
used solar pond technology especially for this
for large-scale desalination is MSF, which produces
purpose. The Water Desalination Research and
fresh water a total amount of about 10 million
Development (DesalR&D) Program was authorized
ton/day globally [42].
by Congress under the Water Desalination Act (Act)
of 1996. The Act authorized program funding began A solar pond multi-stage flash distillation system
in October 1997 for a six year period. To start the (SPMSF) comprises a set of evaporative condensers
program, funding was appropriated at $3.7 million and heat exchanger for extracting heat from the

SGSP. Repetitive cycles of evaporation and annual O & M equivalent to 3% of the investment
condensation using low temperature heat from the costs, 85% plant factor) [47].
SGSP produces fresh water. Fig. 5 shows the

Szacsvay et al. has describes a desalination system
schematic diagram of solar pond desalination [15],
consisting of a solar pond as the heat source and an
[22].
Atlantis autoflash multistage desalination unit. The
Several medium scale MSF desalination plants using Atlantis Company developed an adapted MSF
solar energy have been recently implemented. system called “Autoflash”, since the standard MSF
Block’s findings show that MSF plants can produce process was not able to operate couple to any heat
6-60 L/m2/day, whereas for typical solar stills it is 3- source. The basis of autoflash process is multistage
4 L/m2/day [45]. flash process concept. Computer simulation and
experimental results of a small-size solar pond and

A SGSP is one of the most common types of solar
desalination subsystem in Switzerland which had
collectors. The SGSP driven desalination plant in
been in operation for 9 years were done for
Margarita de Savoya, Italy, has a capacity of 50-60
performance and layout data. It was found that the
m3/day and that in El Paso, Texas has the capacity of
cost of distillate could be reduced from $ 5.48/m3 for
19 m3/day. Parabolic trough collector is another
small desalination system with a capacity of 15 to
frequently occurring source for solar energy which is
2.39 m3/day for desalination systems with a capacity
used in a MSF plant in Kuwait with a production rate
of 300 m3/day [48].
3
of 100 m /day [46].
The average daily solar energy incident in India is 5

Desalination using solar troughs was tested mainly in
kWh/m2. India is in advancement in solar pond
the USA. Small-scale units are commercially
research and applications [2], [20]. Like India
available. These combine the MSF process with
Bangladesh is also in the tropics. It is located
steam generating parabolic troughs. A typical plant
between 20.30-26.38 North Latitude and 88.04-92.44
produces 450 L/day in three stages by using 48 kW.
degrees East Latitude. This is an ideal location for
The current cost of the collectors (about 45 m2) is
solar energy utilization. The daily average solar
about US $ 10,000, which translates into production
radiation varies between 4 to 6.5 kWh/m2. Solar
3
costs of 7.9 US$/m (5% interest, 20 years life time,
pond appears to be highly promising for Bangladesh

[31]. Bangladesh has 68 districts in total. The 9 Conclusions
districts, namely, Khulna, Satkhira, Bagerhat,

1. Solar pond is an efficient source of
Barguna, Patuakhali, Bhola, Pirozpur, Jhalkathi and
renewable heat energy.
Cox’sbazar lie in the coastal belt. The ground water
2. Solar pond is environmentally sustainable.
available there for drinking purpose is salty. This
3. The great advantage of solar pond it
water must have to be desalted in order to make
possesses built-in long term thermal energy
fresh water for drinking supplies. For a developing
storage, which no other
country like Bangladesh SGSP used desalination
solar collection device match.
method is the most suitable.
4. Solar pond can be economically
constructed if there is plenty of inexpensive
Advantages salt, flat land and
easy access to water.

1. Diffuse radiation (cloudy days) can be
5. A great factor in the future of solar
used.
pond operation is the implementation of
2. It is a unique energy trap with built-in
an acceptable means of
long term energy storage capacity.
salt recycling. This is a major point
3. For low grade heat (below 100 C)
when a solar pond is to be used on a
collection cost/m2 of collector area of
farm or private land. On-farm use will
SGSP is 1/5th that of flat plate collector
predominate in the more northerly
[15].
latitudes, because of availability of
4. 1 kg of salt as salt-water concentrate can
land, machinery and labor.
produce energy 3 times more than the
6. Solar pond can complement the use of
heat produced by burning the same
fossil fuel in industries to generate thermal energy
amount of coal in the combustion
and
chamber [15].
commercial electricity.
5. Pollution free.
7. Solar pond is highly promising for the
6. In Germany, cost of producing 1kWh of
tropics and the lower latitudes for
electricity by a SGSP is only 21% of that
electric power generation.
produced by photovoltaic cells [23].
8. Solar pond is eco-friendly.

9. Solar pond desalination is the most 4. Akbarzadeh, A., J. Andrews and P.
effective for Bangladesh. Golding, 2008: ’Solar Ponds’ in Solar
10. A solar pond multi-stage flash Energy Conversion and Photoenergy
distillation system appears to be Systems in Encyclopedia of Life
promising for the coastal districts of Support Systems (EOLSS), developed
Bangladesh for fresh water production. under the Auspices of the UNESCO,
11. Solar pond projects are yet to be started EOLSS Publishers, Ozfodr, UK. Vol. 1
in Bangladesh. Therefore, an – Solar Ponds.
experimental project on solar pond www.Toodoc.com/solar-ponds-
needs to be developed for data and pdf.html
recommendations on site selection, 5. Cirone, C.: Salt Gradient Solar Pond
linear selection, salt gradient https://netfiles.uiuc.edu/.../
establishment, heat extraction, 6. Akbarzadeh, A., P. Johnson and R.
environmental protection and cost Singh, 2009: Examining potential
analysis. benefits of combining a chimney with a
salinity gradient solar pond for
production of power in salt affected

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Figure Captions
Figure 1 Schematic view of a SGSP
Figure 2 The formation of the salinity gradient
Figure 3 Heat extraction using an internal heat exchanger by conventional method
Figure 4 Heat extraction using an external heat exchanger by conventional method
Figure 5 Schematic diagram of solar pond desalination

Figure 1 Schematic view of a SGSP

Figure 2 The formation of the salinity gradient

Figure 3 Heat extraction using an internal heat exchanger by conventional method

Figure 4 Heat extraction using an external heat exchanger by conventional method

Figure 5 Schematic diagram of solar pond desalination
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Solar pond and its application to desalination

Article · July 2012

A Z A Saifullah Arif Md Shahed Iqubal

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Solar pond and its application to desalination

whereas for typical solar stills it is 3-4 L/m2/day.

Keywords: solar pond, salinity gradient, sodium chloride, desalination, SPMSF

Introduction built open water reservoir commonly called as solar

pond [4]. Solar pond is a convenient and effective

July 2012 ATST-50201035©Asian-Transactions 1

research on solar ponds [18], [26], [32]. Simulation buildings.

has been performed for heat and mass transfer in a

Scope and Limitations

cooling system, solar refrigeration and air-

mechanical system includes solar thermal water

July 2012 ATST-50201035©Asian-Transactions 2

today. There are three types of non-convective solar ponds

in terms of the methods of maintaining layered

solar ponds – convective solar pond and non- pond [16].

convective solar pond. The shallow solar pond is a

energy is not available or at night placing insulation Zone): bottom layer.

on the top of the glazing reduces heat loss [15].

July 2012 ATST-50201035©Asian-Transactions 3

salinity gradient in NCZ holds back convection and

at nearly constant high temperature. Heat is stored in state condition,

LCZ, which should be sized to supply energy Qu  Qa  Qe

top layer of fresh water by natural convection. Due U0  Kw / b

July 2012 ATST-50201035©Asian-Transactions 4

where K w  thermal conductivity of water (dT / dZ )  ( I / K )[( (Z )  ]

In steady state, the energy equation can be written as U g  K (1/ D  bP / A)

and   fraction of solar radiation I surface area

where Z1  interface between the upper

convective zone and the gradient zone

July 2012 ATST-50201035©Asian-Transactions 5

criterion of dynamic stability is rather tough and is

obtained by perturbation analysis of the basic laws of  S    Pr 1  T

T S  Sc  1 the development of internal convective zones or

1  p  Wind-induced mixing is primarily responsible for

expansion coefficient interface and can be minimized by using floating

1    plastic nets or pipes. The density and temperature

expansion coefficient causes the erosion of the gradient zone-storage zone

Pr  Prandtl number interface. The gradient zone -storage zone interface

Sc  Schmidt number remains stationary, which was experimentally found

S T gradients satisfy the following relationship

where S is in kg/m3 and T in C.

within the gradient zone in order to prevent

development of internal convective zones within the Management of Solar Pond

gradient zone. A safety margin of 2 is essential as

Typically these are lined with a layer of sand

impermeable liner material [17].

July 2012 ATST-50201035©Asian-Transactions 6

Salt used: layers (10-20 cm thick) of decreasing salinity

stacked on top of the storage layer using horizontal

fertilizer salts as urea (NH2CO.NH2) satisfy the Maintenance of Salinity Gradient:

stability criterion and thus considered suitable for a

gradient zone. The transport of salt through the

is, latitudes between -40 to + 40 degree [16].

fresh water. When solar radiation fall on the pond,

July 2012 ATST-50201035©Asian-Transactions 7