CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 1

9 CHAPTER 9: COLUMNS

9.1 First-Order versus Second-Order Analysis

A first-order analysis is based on the initial geometry of the structure, assuming elastic
behavior. On the other hand, second-order analysis considers the influence of lateral drift,
cracking, member curvature, shrinkage and creep on the forces in the structure.

9.2 Sway and Nonsway Frames

9.2.1 Nonsway Frames
Structural frames whose joints are restrained against lateral displacement by attachment to
rigid elements or bracing are called “nonsway frames”, shown in Figure 9.1.
According to ACI Code 10.10.5.1 a column in a structure is nonsway if the increase in
column end moments due to second-order effects does not exceed 5 percent of the first-
order end moments. Moreover, ACI Code 10.10.5.2 assumes a story within a structure is
nonsway if:

∑ Pu ∆o
Q= (9.1)
Vus lc

is less than or equal to 0.05, where Q is the stability index which is the ratio of secondary
moment due to lateral displacement and primary moment, ∑P u is the total factored
vertical load in the story, Vus is the factored horizontal story shear, l c is length of column
measured center-to-center of the joints in the frame, and ∆ o is the first-order relative
deflection between the top and bottom of that story due to Vus .
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 2

Figure 9.1: Nonsway frame

9.2.2 Sway Frames
Structural frames, not attached to an effective bracing element, but depend on the bending
stiffness of the columns and girders to provide resistance to lateral displacement are called
“sway frames”, shown in Figure 9.2.

Figure 9.2: Sway frame

9.3 Effective Length Factor “k” of Columns of Rigid Frames

The effective length of column is the length of a column hinged at both ends and having the
same buckling load as the column being considered. Thus, the effective length factor k, is
the ratio of the effective length to the original length of column.
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 3

The ACI Code R10.10.6.3 recognizes the Jackson and Moreland Alignment Charts, shown
in Figure 9.3, to estimate the effective length factor k for a column of constant cross section
in a multibay frame. The effective length factor k is a function of the relative stiffness at
each end of the column. In these charts, k is determined as the intersection of a line joining
the values of ψ at the two ends of the column. The relative stiffness of the beams and
columns at each end of the column ψ is given by Eq. (9.2)

ψ=
∑E c I c / lc
(9.2)
∑E b I b / lb

where,
l c = length of column center-to-center of the joints

l b = length of beam center-to-center of the joints

E c = modulus of elasticity of column concrete

E b = modulus of elasticity of beam concrete

I c = moment of inertia of column cross section about an axis perpendicular to the plane of
buckling being considered.
I b = moment of inertia of beam cross section about an axis perpendicular to the plane of
buckling being considered.
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 4

(a) (b)
Figure 9.3: Alignment chart; (a) nonsway frames; (b) sway frames

∑ indicates a summation of all member stiffnesses connected to the joint and lying in the
plane in which buckling of the column is being considered.
Consider the two-story frame shown in Figure 9.4. To determine the effective length factor
k for column EF,

Figure 9.4: Two-story frame

CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 5

Ec ( I DE / H1 ) + Ec ( I EF / H 2 )
ψE =
Eb ( I BE / L1 ) + Eb ( I EH / L2 )

and
Ec ( I EF / H 2 )
ψF =
Eb ( I CF / L1 ) + Eb ( I FI / L2 )
ACI Code 10.10.6.3 specifies that for columns in nonsway frames, the effective length
factor k should be taken as 1.0, unless analysis shows that a lower value is justified.
The ACI Code 10.10.4.1 specifies that the influence of cracking along the length of the
member, presence of axial loads, and effects of duration of loads be taken into
consideration when calculating k by using reduced values of moment of inertia as follows:
Beams -------------------------------- 0.35 I g

Columns------------------------------ 0.70 I g

Uncracked Walls -------------------- 0.70 I g

Cracked Walls ----------------------- 0.35 I g

where I g is the gross moment of inertia.

As an alternate to using alignment charts to determine k, the following simplified equations

are used for computing the effective length factors for nonsway and sway frame members.
For columns in nonsway frames, the smaller of Eq. (9.3) and Eq. (9.4) is used

k = 0.7 + 0.05 (ψ A + ψ B ) ≤ 1.0 (9.3)

k = 0.85 + 0.05 ψ min ≤ 1.0 (9.4)

where ψ A and ψ B are the values of ψ at the two ends of the column, and ψ min is the
smaller of the two values.
For columns in sway frames restrained at both ends, k is taken as
for ψ m < 2

20 − ψ m
k= 1 + ψm (9.5)
20

for ψ m ≥ 2
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 6

k = 0.9 1 + ψ m (9.6)

where ψ m is the average of ψ values at the two ends of the column.

For columns in sway frames hinged at one end, k is taken as

k = 2.0 + 0.3 ψ (9.7)

where ψ is the values at the restrained end of the column.

9.4 The ACI Procedure for Classifying Short and Slender Columns
According to ACI Code 10.10.1, columns can be classified as short when their effective
slenderness ratios satisfy the following criteria:

For nonsway frames

≤ 34 − 12 (M1 / M 2 ) ≤ 40.0
k lu
(9.8)
r
or

For sway frames k l u / r ≤ 22 (9.9)

Furthermore, compression members are considered braced against sidesway when bracing
elements have a total stiffness, resisting lateral movement of that story, of at least 12 times
the gross stiffness of the columns within the story.

where
k = effective length factor
l u = unsupported length of member, defined in ACI Code 10.10.1.1 as clear distance
between floor slabs, beams, or other members capable of providing lateral support, as
shown in Figure 9.5.

Figure 9.5: Unsupported length of member

CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 7

r = radius of gyration associated with axis about which bending occurs. For rectangular
cross sections r = 0.30 h, and for circular sections, r = 0.25 h as specified by ACI Code
10.10.1.2.
h = column dimension in the direction of bending.
M 1 = smaller factored end moment on column, positive if member is bent single curvature,
negative if bent in double curvature.
M 2 = larger factored end moment on column, always positive.
Chart 9.1 summarizes the process of column design as per the ACI Code.

Column Design

Sway frame Non-sway frame

Neglect kl u
klu ≤ 34 − 12 ( M 1 / M 2 )
≤ 22 slenderness r
r
(short)

Moment
klu M 
kl 100 ≥ > 34 − 12 1 
22 < u ≤ 100 magnification r  M2 
r method (slender)

Exact P-∆
klu klu
> 100 analysis > 100
r r
(slender)

Chart 9.1: Column Ddesign

Example (9.1):
The frame shown in Figure 9.6 consists of members with rectangular cross sections, made
of the same strength concrete. Considering buckling in the plane of the figure, categorize
column bc as long or short if the frame is:
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 8

a. Nonsway
b. Sway.

Figure 9.6: Frame and loads on column bc

Solution:
a. Nonsway:
For a column to be short,

≤ 34 − 12 (M1 / M 2 ) ≤ 40.0
k lu
r
l u = 400 − 30 − 30 = 340 cm

k is conservatively taken as 1.0.

1 (340 )
kl/r = = 32.38
0.3 (35)

34 − 12 (M1 / M 2 ) = 34 − 12 (− 27 / 40) = 42.1 taken as 40 > 32.38

i.e., column is classified as being short.
b. Sway:
The column is classified as being short when k l u / r ≤ 22

[0.7 (30)(35)3 / 12 (400)]

ψc = = 0.406
[0.35 (30)(60)3 / 12 (900)] + [0.35 (30)(60)3 / 12 (750)]
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 9

ψb =
[0.7 (30 )(35) / 12 (400 ) ] + [ 0.7 (30 )(40) / 12 (450)]
3 3
= 0.945
[0.35 (30)(60)3 / 12 (900)] + [0.35 (30)(60)3 / 12 (750)]
k l u 1.14 (340 )
Using the appropriate alignment chart, k = 1.14, and = = 36.91 > 22
r 0.3 (35)
i.e., column is classified as being slender, or long.
ψ could have been evaluated using Eq. (9.5)
0.406 + 0.945
ψm = = 0.675
2
20 − 0.675
k= 1 + 0.675 = 1.25
20

9.5 Short Columns Subjected to Axial force and Bending

Generally, columns are subjected to axial forces in addition to some bending moments.
These moments are generally due to:
§ Unsymmetrically placed floors, as shown in Figure 9.7.

Figure 9.7 Unsymmetrically placed floors

§ Lateral loading such as wind or earthquake loads, shown in Figure 9.8.
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 10

Figure 9.8: Rigid Frame

§ Loads from eccentric loading such as crane loads acting on corbels.
§ End restraints resulting from monolithic action between floor beams and columns.
§ Accidental eccentricity resulting from column misalignment or other execution
deficiencies.
9.5.1 Interaction Diagram
Unlike pure axial or bending loading, where unique strength exists for a particular section,
combined axial load and bending result in an infinite number of strength combinations
evaluated by using equilibrium equations and compatibility of strains. When these strength
combinations are plotted, a strength curve called “Interaction Diagram” is produced. To
plot an interaction diagram for a particular cross section, at least five strength combinations
are required, as shown in Figure 9.9. All strength combinations located in the area under the
curve are possible safe strength capacities while combinations located outside the curve are
failure cases.
§ Point “A”:
This point on the curve represents pure axial compression capacity of the column cross
section, where the eccentricity e is equal to zero. The nominal axial capacity PnA is given
by Eq. (9.10)

PnA = 0.85 f c′ (Ag − Asg ) + Asg f y (9.10)

where Asg is total column reinforcement.

CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 11

Figure 9.9: Strength interaction diagram

§ Point “C”:
This point on the curve represents pure flexural capacity of the column cross section
analyzed as doubly reinforced section, where the eccentricity e is equal to infinity. The
nominal flexural capacity M nC is given by Eq. (9.11)

M nC = C c (d − a / 2 ) + C s (d − d ′) (9.11)

§ Point “B”:
This point is characterized by its maximum bending strength and represents a balanced
failure of the column section. Crushing of the concrete occurs simultaneously with yielding
of the reinforcement, or
ε c = ε cu = 0.003 , and ε t = ε y .

§ Point “D”:
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 12

Points along the curve between points A and B are characterized by compression failure of
the section. Failure is initiated by crushing of the concrete before the initiation of yielding
of the reinforcement, or
ε c = ε cu = 0.003 , and ε t < ε y .

The eccentricity e is smaller than the eccentricity at balanced failure eb , where the
eccentricity increases when moving from point A towards point B along the interaction
curve.
§ Point “E”:
Points along the curve between points B and C are characterized by tension failure of the
section. Failure is initiated by yielding of the reinforcement, or
ε c = ε cu = 0.003 , and ε t ≥ 0.005 .

The eccentricity e is larger than the eccentricity at balanced failure eb , where the
eccentricity increases when moving from point B towards point C along the interaction
curve.
§ Point “F”:
This point on the curve represents pure axial tension capacity of the column cross section
where the eccentricity e is equal to zero. The nominal axial capacity PnF is given by Eq.
(9.12)

PnF = Asg f y (9.12)

where Asg is total column reinforcement.

9.5.2 Modes of Failure

Three modes of failure are possible for columns subjected to axial force plus bending.
9.5.2.1 Balanced Failure
Figure 9.10 shows a rectangular section subjected to an axial load with eccentricity adjusted
so as to produce a balanced failure using the principle of static equivalence.
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 13

Figure 9.10: Balanced failure

The distance to the neutral axis from the extreme compression fiber is given as

 6120 
xb =  d (9.13)
 6120 + f 
 y 

The compressive force resisted by concrete is given by

C cb = 0.85 fc′ β 1 xb b

The tensile force resisted by reinforcement in the tension side is

Tb = As f y

The compressive force resisted by reinforcement on the compression side of the cross
section is
C sb = As′ ( f y − 0.85 f c′ )
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 14

In the last of the previous equations, it is assumed that compression reinforcement does
 x −d′
yield, or ε s′ ≥ ε y . This can be easily checked from similar triangles, or ε s′ = 0.003  b 
 xb 
If yielding of the reinforcement does not occur, where ε s′ < ε y , the compressive force in
compression reinforcement is given as C sb = As′ ( f s − 0.85 f c′ )

where the stress in the compression reinforcement is evaluated using Hook’s law, or
f s = ε s′ E s

From equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction

Pnb = C cb + C sb − Tb (9.14)

Substituting C cb , C sb , and Tb in Eq. (9.14), one gets

Pnb = 0.85 fc′ β 1 xb b + As′ ( f y − 0.85 fc′ ) − As f y (9.15)

From equilibrium of moments, by taking the moments about the centroid of the cross
section,

Pb eb = M nb = Ccb (d − a / 2 − d ′′) + Csb (d − d ′ − d ′′) + Tb d ′′ (9.16)

M nb
and eb =
Pnb

The balanced strain condition represents the dividing point between compression-controlled
sections and the transition zone of the strength interaction diagram.

9.5.2.2 Tension Failure

Figure 9.11shows a rectangular section subjected to an axial load with eccentricity chosen
larger than eb .
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 15

Figure 9.11: Tension failure

The compressive force resisted by concrete is given by C c = 0.85 fc′ β 1 x b

0.003 x
where = and x = 0.375 d
0.003 + 0.005 d

The tensile force resisted by reinforcement in the tension side is T = As f y

The compressive force resisted by reinforcement on the compression side of the cross
section is Cs = As′ ( f y − 0.85 fc′) when ε s′ ≥ ε y .

If yielding of the reinforcement does not occur, where ε s′ < ε y , the compressive force in
compression reinforcement is given as Cs = As′ ( fs − 0.85 fc′)

where the stress in the compression reinforcement is evaluated using Hook’s law, or
f s = ε s′ E s

From equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction

Pn = Cc + C s − T (9.17)
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 16

Substituting C c , C s , and T in Eq. (9.17), one gets

Pn = 0.85 f c′ β 1 x b + As′ ( f y − 0.85 f c′ ) − As f y (9.18)

From equilibrium of moments,

Pn (e + d' ' ) = C c (d − a / 2 ) + C s (d − d' ) is used to evaluate e

The nominal flexural strength M n = Pn e .

9.5.2.3 Compression Failure

When the nominal compression strength Pn exceeds the balanced nomial compression
strength Pnb , or when the eccentricity e is less than eb or when ε t at the extreme layer
of steel at the face opposite the maximum compression force is less than ε y , the section is
compression controlled.
Figure 9.12 shows a rectangular section subjected to an axial load with eccentricity chosen
smaller than eb .

Figure 9.12: Compression failure

The compressive force resisted by concrete is given by
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 17

C c = 0.85 f c′ a b

Since the reinforcement does not yield, the tensile force resisted by reinforcement in the
tension side is
 d −x  β d −a 
T = As fs = As Es ε s = As Es ε cu   = As (6120) 1 
 x   a 
The compressive force resisted by reinforcement on the compression side of the cross
section is
C s = As′ ( f y − 0.85 f c′ ) for ε s′ ≥ ε y .

From equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction

Pn = C c + C s − T (9.19)

Substituting C c , C s , and T in Eq. (9.18), one gets

 β d −a 
Pn = 0.85 f c′ a b + As′ ( f y − 0.85 f c′ )− As (6120 )  1  (9.20)
 a 

From equilibrium of moments, by taking the moments about the axial load
C c (d − a / 2 − e − d ′′) + C s (d − e − d ′ − d ′′) + T (d ′′ + e ) = 0

Cc (− d + a / 2 + e + d ′′) + Cs (− d + e + d ′ + d ′′) − T (d ′′ + e ) = 0 (9.21)

Substituting C c , C s , and T in Eq. (9.21), one gets

0.85 fc′ a b (− d + a / 2 + e + d ′′) + As′ ( f y − 0.85 fc′) (− d + e + d ′ + d ′′)

β d −a  (9.22)
− As (6120 )   (e + d ′′) = 0
 a 

Eq. (9.22) which is a cubic equation in terms of a , can be written in the following form:

Aa 3 + B a 2 + C a + D = 0 (9.23)

where,
A= 0.425 f c′ b

B = 0.85 f c′ b (e + d ′′ − d )

C = As′ ( f y − 0.85 f c′ )(e + d ′ + d ′′ − d ) + As (6120 )(d ′′ + e )

CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 18

D = − As (6120) β 1 (d ′′ + e ) d

Eq. (9.23) can be solved using Newton-Raphson iteration method, or any available
mathematical software. When this iteration method is used,

f (a ) = Aa 3 + B a 2 + C a + D (9.24)

and the first derivative of this function is given by

f ′ (a ) = 3 Aa 2 + 2 B a + C (9.25)

Assume a trial value for a , named a o

The first iteration value a1 is given as

f (a o )
a1 = a o − (9.26)
f ′ (a o )

A second iteration is evaluated using a1 evaluated from Eq. (9.26). Repeat for more
iterations until you reach a converged value for a . Then, a is substituted in Eq. (9.20) to
get Pn . The nominal flexural strength is evaluated by multiplying Pn by e .

Example (9.6):
For the column cross section shown in Figure 9.13, plot a nominal strength interaction
diagram, using five strength combinations at least.

Use f c′ = 250 kg / cm 2 , f y = 4200 kg / cm 2 , and E s = 2.04 (10) kg / cm 2 .

6

F
Figure 9.13: Column cross section

Solution:
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 19

d = 55 –6.25 = 48.75 cm
d ′ = 6.25 cm
d ′′ = (55.0 – 6.25 –6.25)/2 = 21.25 cm
4200
εy = = 0.002
2.04 (10)
6

§ Point “A”:
This is a case of pure axial compression load, the nominal axial load is

Pn =
1
[0.85 (250) (55 × 35 − 39.27) + 39.27 (4200)]= 565.65 tons
1000

§ Point “B”:
The strength combination at this point corresponds to a balanced failure.
 
 (48.75) = 28.91 cm
6120
xb = 
 6120 + 4200 
a b = 0.85 (28.91) = 24.573 cm

Ccb = 0.85 (250)(24.573)(35) / 1000 =182.76 tons

 4200 
Tb = 19.64   = 82.49 tons
 1000 

 28.91 − 6.25 
ε s′ = 0.003   = 0.0023 > ε y
 28.91 

C sb =
19.64
(4200 − 0.85 × 250 ) = 78.31 tons
1000
From equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction,
Pnb = 182.76 + 78.31 − 82.49 = 178.58 tons

From equilibrium of moments,

M nb =
182.76
(48.75 − 24.57 / 2 − 21.25) + 78.31 (48.75 − 6.25 − 21.25)
100 100
+
82.49
(21.25) = 61.97 t.m
100
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 20

61.97
The eccentricity causing balanced failure eb = = 0.347 m
178.58
§ Point “E”:
x 0.003
= and
d 0.003 + 0.005

x = 0.375 d = 0.375 (48.75 ) = 18.281 cm

 18.281 − 6.25 
ε s = 0.003   = 0.00197 ≅ ε y
 18.281 

 0.66 − 6.25 
ε s′ = 0.003   = − 0.0254
 0.66 
Cc = 0.85 (250 )(0.85 )(18.281)(35 ) / 1000 = 115 .57 tons

 4200 
T = 19.64   = 82.49 tons
 1000 

Cs =
19.64
(4200 − 0.85 × 250 ) = 78.31 tons , assuming that ε s′ ≥ ε y
1000
From equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction,

Pn = Cc + C s − T

Pn = 115 .57 + 78.31 − 82.49 = 113 .39 tons

From equilibrium of moments,

Pn (e + d' ' ) = C c (d − a / 2 ) + C s (d − d' )

 0.85 (18.281) 
113 .39 (e + 21.25 ) = 115 .57  48.75 −  + 78.31 (48.75 − 6.25 )
 2 
and e= 51.15 cm

 51.15 
M n = 111 .39   = 56.97 t .m
 100 
§ Point “D”:
The eccentricity is set at 0.25 m (smaller than 0.347 m) in order to locate a compression
failure strength combination.
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 21

A = 0.425 (250 )(35) = 3718.75 kg / cm

B = 0.85 (250 )(35)(25 + 21.25 − 48.75) = − 18593.75 kg

C = 19.64 (4200 − 0.85 × 250)(25 + 6.25 + 21.25 − 48.75)
+ 19.64 (6120 )(21.25 + 25) = 5852781.37 kg.cm

D = − 19.64 (6120)(0.85)(21.25 + 25)(48.75) = − 2.3035529 (10 ) kg .cm 2

8

f (a ) = 3718.75 a 3 − 18593.75 a 2 + 5852781.37 a − 2.3035529 (10)

8

f ′ (a ) =11156 .25 a 2 − 37187.5 a + 5852781.37

Let a o = 25 cm as a first trial

f (25) = − 37551380.75

f ′ (25) = 11895750 .12

The first iteration value a 1 is given as

f (25) 37551380.75
a 1 = 25 − = 25 + = 28.15 cm
f ′ (25) 11895750 .12

f (28.15) = 2619416.5

f ′ (28.15) = 13646417
f (28.15) 2619416.5
a 2 = 28.15 − = 28.15 − = 27.96 cm
f ′ (28.15) 13646417

f (27.96 ) = 37237.75

f ′ (27.96 ) = 13534547

f (27.96) 37237.75
a 3 = 27.96 − = 27.96 − = 27.96 cm
f ′ (27.96 ) 13534547

 27.96 / 0.85 − 6.25 

ε s′ = 0.003   = 0.0024 > ε y O.K
 27.96 / 0.85 

Pn = 0.85 (250 )(27.96 )(35) / 1000 + (4200 − 0.85 × 250)

19.64
1000
 6120   0.85 (48.75) − 27.96 
− 19.64   = 228.32 tons
 1000   27.96 
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 22

M n = 228.32 (0.25) = 57.08 t.m

§ Point “F”:
This is a case of pure axial tension load, the nominal axial load is
Pn = Asy f y = 39.27 (4200 / 1000 ) =164.93 tons .

§ Point “C”:
This is a case of pure bending moment where the nominal flexural strength is calculated as
follows:
Cc = 0.85 (250)(0.85)( x)(35) / 1000 = 6.32 x tons

 4200 
T = 19.64   = 82.49 tons
 1000 

Cs =
19.64
(4200 − 0.85 × 250 ) = 78.31 tons , assuming that ε s′ ≥ ε y
1000
From equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction,
6.32 x + 78.31 − 82.49 = 0 , and x = 0.66 cm

 0.66 − 6.25 
ε s′ = 0.003   = − 0.0254 , which means that the compression reinforcement is
 0.66 
stressed in tension, a contradiction to the equilibrium equation.
19.64   x − 6.25    751.23 
Cs = 6120   − 0.85× 250 = 116 .023 −  tons
1000   x    x 
From equilibrium of forces,
751.23
6.32 x + 116 .023 − = 82.49
x
6.32 x 2 + 33.533 x − 751.23 = 0

− 33.533 ± (33.533)2 + 4 (6.32 )(751.23)

x=
2 (6.32)
− 33.533 ± 141.829
x=
12.64
x = 8.568 cm, and the other root is negative (rejected)
CHAPTER NINE COLUMNS 23

 8.568    8.568 
M n = 6.32   48.75 − 0.85  
 100    2 
 751.23   48.75 − 6.25 
+ 116.023 −   = 36.472 t.m
 8.568   100 
Figure 9.14 shows the resulting strength interaction diagram for the given cross section.

Figure 9.14: Strength interaction diagram

9.5.3 Design Interaction Diagrams
The design interaction diagram for a tied or spirally-reinforced column is evaluated by
carrying out three modifications on the nominal strength interaction curve, shown in Figure
9.15 as follows:
a. All nominal strength combinations on the curve are multiplied by the strength reduction
factor Φ . This factor is equal to 0.65 for tied columns and 0.75 for spirally reinforced
columns.