Fluid Dynamics Summary

1
650:541 Fluid Dynamics II
Equations of Motion
Assumptions:
Inviscid
Einstein summation convention
Mass
@ + @uk = 0
@t @xk
Momentum
@ui + @ui uk = @p + F
i
@t @xk @xi
where F~ = (F1; F2; F3) is the body force per unit mass.
Alternately,
Dui = 1 @p + F
Dt @xi i
2 Derivation left for student.
Fluid Dynamics II Copyright
c D. Knight 1997 2
where
D = @ +u @
Dt @t k @xk
Note that D=Dt is the rate of change following the uid
particle.
Energy
@ h e + 1 u u i + @ h e + 1 u u u i = @puk + F u
@t 2 i i @xk 2 i i k @xk k k
where e is the internal energy per unit mass. Alternately,
De
Dt
@u
= p k
@xk
Also, the energy equation can be rewritten as
Ds
Dt = 0
where s is the entropy per unit mass
Tds = de p2 d
c D. Knight 1997 3
Equation of State
The equation of state depends on the uid. In general,
p = p(; s)
or equivalently, the pressure can be assumed to be a function

of any two thermodynamic state variables. For a thermally
perfect gas
p = RT
where R is the gas constant for the species.

Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions are
At solid boundary with unit normal nk (k = 1; 2; 3)

uk nk = 0
At innity with uniform velocity U~ 1,
~u U~ 1
Since the uid is assumed inviscid, a tangential velocity at a

solid surface is possible.
c D. Knight 1997 4
Vorticity and Circulation

We dene the vorticity
~! = r ~u
and the circulation
I
= C
~u d~r
where C is a closed continuous contour.
The vorticity and circulation are related by Stokes' theorem
I Z
C
~u d~r = S ~! ~ndS
where S is any smooth surface bounded by C , and ~n is the
unit normal to the surface element dS .
It is straightforward to show from Stokes' Theorem that if
!~ = 0 everywhere, then = 0 for all C .
The converse is also true: if = 0 for all C , then ~! = 0
everywhere.
Denition of Irrotational Flow
An irrotational ow everywhere satises
~! = 0
c D. Knight 1997 5
We are interested in irrotational ows because they are simpler

to analyze.
Under what conditions will a ow be irrotational ? The answer
is provided by Kelvin's Theorem.
Kelvin's Theorem
Q’
dr’
Q
dr P’
C(t) C(t+dt)
A closed contour C , comprised of uid particles, is identied at

time t.
At time t + dt, it has translated and deformed.
What is
d = d I ~u ~r
dt dt C(t)
By denition
d = lim 1 (I ~u d~r I ~u d~r)
dt dt ! 0 dt C(t+dt) C(t)
c D. Knight 1997 6
Note that the rst integral is evaluated on C (t + dt).

We need to nd an expression for the integrand of the rst
integral.
Expression for d~r on C (t + dt)
Now the incremental distance d~r in the rst integral is1
~xP 0 = ~xP + ~uP dt + O(dt2)

~xQ0 = ~xQ + ~uQ dt + O(dt2)
d~r 0 = d~r + (~uQ ~uP ) dt + O(dt2)
Thus, we need an expression for ~uQ ~uP . Now,
~uQ = ~uP + r~u d~r + O(dr2)
where r~u is a second order tensor

@ui
r~uij = @x
j
and the symbol implies the inner product of the tensor r~r
1 The sym O indicates the \order" of a term whose exact form is usually unspecied.
Additionally, there is a limit implied in the use of O. Specically, a term f(x) is O(g(x))
as x ! x0 if the ratio f(x)=g(x) approaches a nite non-zero value as x ! x0. Thus,
sin x is O(x) as x ! 0. This is written sin x = O(x), with the limit usually understood
from the context. Factors are typically omitted. Thus, a function f(x) = 3x2 is written
f(x) = O(x2 ).
c D. Knight 1997 7
with the vector d~r according to

@ui dr
r~u d~r = @x j
j
Thus
d~r 0 = d~r + r~u d~r dt + O(dr2dt) + O(dt2)

Expression for ~u on C (t + dt)
Since the contour C (t) is comprised of uid particles
~uC(t+dt) = ~uC(t) + D~
u dt + O(dt2)
Dt
Expression for Integrand
Thus, the rst integrand is
I D~
u !
C(t)
~u + Dt dt + O(dt ) d~r + r~u d~r dt + O(dr2dt) + O(dt2)
2
Note that it is now evaluated on the original contour C (t) by

virtue of the expansions.
Thus
d = I (~u (r~u d~r) + D~u d~r)
dt C(t) Dt
c D. Knight 1997 8

Moreover, the general identity
1 2
~u r~u = r 2 u + ~! ~u
2 Derive left for student.

where u2 = ui ui is the (scalar) magnitude of the velocity and
r 21 u2 is the gradient.
Assume that ~! = 0 at time t (this does not mean we assume
~! = 0 for all t).
Then the rst term in the integral yields
I I 1 2 I 1 2
C(t)
~
u (r~u d~
r ) = C(t)
r 2 u d~
r =
C(t) 2
u =0
1 2 1 2
where 2 u is the variation of 2 u along the contour.
For inviscid ow
D~u = 1 rp + F~
Dt
Thus
d =I 1 !
~
dt C(t) rp + F d~r
c D. Knight 1997 9
Assume
The body force is conservative

F~ = rf
The uid is barotropic
p = p()
i.e., the pressure is a function of the density only, or the
density is constant
= constant
Examples are isentropic ow (p ) and incompressible
ow.
Thus
0
I p dp 1
1
r p = r@
(p)
A
where H p implies the integration around the contour C (t) with

the pressure p as the variable of integration.
Thus,
d =0
dt
c D. Knight 1997 10
2 Derivation left to the student.

Kelvin's Theorem Consider a closed contour C comprised
of uid particles. Assuming the uid is inviscid, barotropic (or
constant density) and the body force is conservative, then
D =Dt = 0.
Theorem Under the conditions of Kelvin's Theorem, and
provided that the ow upstream has zero vorticity, then the
vorticity is zero everywhere and for all time.
Thus, vorticity cannot spontaneously occur in the uid under
the conditions of Kelvin's Theorem.
Sources of Vorticity
At a solid no-slip surface

At a curved shock wave
Incompressible Irrotational Flow
Consider an incompressible uid in an irrotational ow. By
denition, an incompressible uid satises
D = 0
Dt
Since the vorticity is zero by assumption, the velocity may be
c D. Knight 1997 11
expressed in terms of a potential function2
~u = r
or
@
ui = @x
i
The conservation of mass implies

@uk = 0
@xk
and thus
@ 2 = 0 or r2 = 0
@x2k
This equation is Laplace's Equation3.
A function satisfying Laplace's equation is a harmonic
function.
2 This is a direct consequence of the Helmholtz decomposition of a vector function and
the condition of irrotationality.
3 Histoire d l'Academie des Sciences de Paris, 1782/85, p. 135.
c D. Knight 1997 12

At solid boundary with unit normal ~n
@ = 0
@n
At innity with uniform velocity U~ 1
r U~ 1
Thus, the equation and boundary conditions for are
specied, and the problem is well-posed (except possibly for
the issue of uniqueness).
Note that only the conservation of mass has been used. What
information can be obtained from the conservation of
momentum ?
Assuming F~ = rf and using the identity
1 2
~u r~u = r 2 u + ~! ~u
the conservation of momentum becomes

@ 2 + @ 1 @ @ ! + @f = 1 @p
@t@xi @xi 2 @xk @xk @xi @xi
Interchanging the order of dierentiation,
@ @ + 1 @ @ + p + f ! = 0
@xi @t 2 @xk @xk
c D. Knight 1997 13
and thus
@ + 1 @ @ + p + f = g(t)
@t 2 @xk @xk
where g(t) is a function of t only and is determined by the
boundary conditions. Thus, the momentum equation
determines the static pressure.
Properties of Laplace's Equation
Reference:
Epstein, B., Partial Dierential Equations, McGraw-Hill, 1962.
Theorem (First Form of Maximum Principle) If is
harmonic in a bounded domain G and is continuous in G (the
domain G plus its boundary @G), then the maximum of is
attained at one or more points on the boundary of G.
Proof
Assume the maximum of is not attained on the boundary.
Then the maximum must occur in the interior. Call this point
Q. For some suciently small positive and some arbitrary
x-coordinate x0, the function
^ = + (x x0 )2
is larger at Q than at any boundary point.

This statement can be proved as follows. The maximum of occurs at Q
c D. Knight 1997 14
by assumption, and does not occur on @G. Dene
= (Q) max
@G
Then > 0. Now
max ^ max + max (x x0 )2

@G @G @G
Thus
max ^ (Q) +
max (x x0)2
@G @G
We can therefore choose such that
+
max (x x0)2 < 0
@G
Now
r2^ = r2 + 2 = 2
and thus
r2 > 0
c D. Knight 1997 15
However, at a maximum, the curvature along all three

directions must be negative, i.e.,
@ 2^ < 0 and @ 2^ < 0 and @ 2^ < 0

@x2 @y2 @z 2
but since r2^ > 0, then all three cannot be negative.

Thus, the maximum of must occur on the boundary.
Theorem (Principle of Superposition) If 1 and 2 are

solutions of Laplace's equation, then ^ = 1 + 2 is also a
solution.
2 Derivation left to student
Theorem (Maximum Velocity on Boundary) If is
harmonic in a bounded domain G, then the maximum of jrj
occurs on the boundary.
Proof
Consider a point Q in G. Assume @=@x is a maximum at Q.
Since
@ r2 = 0
@x
c D. Knight 1997 16
thus
@ !
r @x = 0
2
and thus @=@x is also a solution of Laplace's equation.

By Gauss' Theorem,
Z Z @f n dA
V
r2fdV = @V @xi i
Consider a small volume V surround Q. Then
Z @ @ ! n dA = Z r2 @ ! dV = 0
@V @xi @x i V @x
Thus
@ @ ! n = @ @ !
@xi @x i @n @x
cannot have a single sign on @V . But if Q is a maximum point
for @=@x, then it must be possible to select a suciently
small V such that
@ @ ! < 0
@n @x
c D. Knight 1997 17
everywhere. This contradicts

Z @ @ ! n dA = 0
@V @xi @x i
Thus, Q cannot be a maximum of @=@x. Hence, the
maximum of @=@x must occur on @G.
Since the same argument can be applied to the other two
derivatives of , the theorem is proved.
Uniqueness of r
Simply Connected
B
P1
P2
A
Consider two paths P1 and P2 connected points A and B .

If P1 can be continuously deformed into P2 without passing
outside the region G, then P1 and P2 are said to be mutually
reconcilable or reducible.
c D. Knight 1997 18
If all paths connected any two points in G are mutually

reconcilable, then G is simply connected.
Examples:
Region exterior to a body dened by a single surface in

3-D
Annulus between two spheres
Region inside a sphere
Doubly Connected
P1
P2
A
2-D Flow Past a Cylinder
Consider two points A and B and two paths P1 and P2.

If, for every pair A and B there are at most two irreconcilable
paths, then the region is doubly connected.
c D. Knight 1997 19
Examples:
2-D ow past a cylinder

2-D ow between two enclosing surfaces
Flow in a torus (doughnut)
Why is the connectivity important ?
R
Consider C ~u d~r where C is a closed contour.
Assume a velocity potential (x; y; z; t) exists.
Is uniquely dened at each point ?
Consider
Z Z Z
C
~u d~r = C r d~r = C
Denoting A as the starting and ending point,

Z
C
~u d~r = Aend Astart
Now
Z Z
C
~u d~r = S r ~u ~ndS
c D. Knight 1997 20
If the region is simply connected, then there it is possible to

dene a surface S which is bounded by C and is contained
entirely within the uid. If ~! = 0 in the uid, then
Aend = Astart ! (x; y; z; t) is unique

If the region is doubly connected, then there are certain curves
(e.g., surrounding the cylinder) for which there is no surface S
contained entirely within the uid. Thus, is not necessarily
unique for this situation.
2 Construct a function which shows no change around one type of closed
contour, but a nite change around another.
Conditions for Uniqueness of r
in Simply Connected Regions
n2
A2
V
A1
n1
Consider a bounded simply connected domain. We note the

following identity for incompressible ow
r (~u) = ~u ~u
c D. Knight 1997 21
2 Derivation left for student

Thus
Z Z
V
~u ~udV = V r (~u) dV
Z Z
= A2 ~u ~n2dA A1 ~u ~n1dA
Assume that the surfaces are stationary, i.e., ~u ~n = 0. Then

Z
V
~u ~udV = 0
which implies ~u = ~0 everywhere. Thus,

Theorem There is no irrotational motion of an
incompressible uid within a simply connected domain with
rigid boundaries.
This result can be used to prove uniqueness.
Theorem (Uniqueness) The irrotational motion of an
incompressible uid in a simply connected domain is unique.
Proof
Consider a bounded simply connected domain. Assume there
exist two solutions
~u = r
~u~ = r~
c D. Knight 1997 22
On the boundaries
~u ~n = Ub
~u~ ~n = Ub
Thus the function ^ ~ satises
r2^ = 0
@ ^ = 0 on @V
@n
By previous theorem, r^ = 0 and therefore ^ = constant.
Conditions for Uniqueness of r
in Doubly Connected Regions
n2
A2 C4
C2
C1
V
A1
C3
n1
Consider the doubly connected domain bounded by A1 and A2.

Consider the simply connected domain bounded by C1 to C4
c D. Knight 1997 23
From Stokes' Theorem,

I Z
~u d~r = A r ~u ~ndA
Since ! is zero,
I
~u d~r = 0
Thus
Z Z Z Z
C1
~u d~r + C2
~u d~r + C3
~u d~r + C4
~u d~r = 0
Since ~u is single-valued,
Z Z
C2
~u d~r + C4
~u d~r = 0
since C2 and C4 are identical but traversed in opposite

directions. Thus,
Z Z
C1
~u d~r = C3
~u d~r
Since C1 and C3 are arbitrary,

I
C
~u d~r =
c D. Knight 1997 24
where C is any closed contour surrounding the body A1 and

traversed in the CCW direction and is a constant (cyclic
constant). Thus,
I Z
C
r d~r = =
Hence changes by an amount for each circuit around the
body.
We will see that is related to the lift on the body inside C .
n
A2
V
A1 n
φ+
n
φ− S
n
Apply the Divergence Theorem

Z Z
V
~u ~udV = V
r (~u) dV
Since is multi-valued, a simply connected domain must be
dened. This is achieved by adding the barrier S . Note the
denition of + and .
c D. Knight 1997 25
Let ~n denote the outward normal to V . Then

Z Z Z Z
V
~u ~udV = A1+A2
~u ~ndA + S
+~u ~ndA + S ~u ~ndA
Thus,
Z Z Z
V
~u ~udV = A1+A2
~u ~ndA + +S
~u ~ndA+
where ~n in the second integral points towards . Now

I
~u d~r = + =
Thus
Z Z Z
V
~u ~udV = A1+A2
~u ~ndA S ~u ~ndA
Now consider two solutions and ~ which satisfy Laplace's

equation and the boundary conditions on A1 and A2. Then
^ ~ is a solution of Laplace's equation and
Z Z
V
~u^ ~u^dV = ^ S ~u^ ~ndA
since ~u^ = ~0 on A1 and A2. Now

Z
^ = C
~u ~u~ d~r
c D. Knight 1997 26
Thus, if = ~ then ^ = 0 and thus

Z
V
~u^ ~u^dV = 0
and the solution is therefore unique. This proves the following

theorem.
Theorem (Uniqueness) The irrotational motion of an
incompressible uid in a double connected domain is unique
provided that the circulation is dened.
Behavior of at Large Distances
in Simply Connected Regions
n2
A2
R
A3
A1
n1 X0
radius ε
Consider irrotational incompressible ow which is at rest at

innity.
We want to determine the asymptotic form of (x; y; z; t) as
~x ! 1.
The region is assumed three dimensional and simply connected.
c D. Knight 1997 27
Dene
Closed body with surface A1

Point ~x0 and sphere of radius which forms surface A3
Sphere of radius R with origin at ~x0 which forms surface
A2
The region bounded by A1, A2 and A3 is simply connected.
Applying Green's Theorem4 for arbitrary (smooth) functions F
and G
Z Z
Fr 2G Gr 2 F dV = (F rG GrF ) ~ndA
V A
where ~n is the outward normal at each surface (i.e., ~n points

out of V ).
Let
F =
G = j~x 1 ~x j
0
Now on A3
0 1
1 1
r@ j~x ~x0j
A =
3 (~x ~x0 )
4 Green's Theorem is obtained by applying the Divergence Theorem to the vector func-
tion F rG GrF.
c D. Knight 1997 28
(~x ~x0) ~n =
Thus
Z Z Z 1
(F rG GrF ) ~ndA = A3 2 dA A3 r ~ndA
A3
Now dA = 2d
where d
is the elemental subtended angle on
the surface of the sphere. Thus,
Z Z 1Z
(F rG GrF ) ~ndA = A3 d
A3 | A3 r{z ~ndA}
vanishes as ! 0
Thus,
Z
A3
(F rG GrF ) ~ndA = 4(~x0 )
On A2,
0 1
r@ 1 A = 1 (~x ~x )
j~x ~x0j R3 0
(~x ~x0) ~n = R
thus
Z Z dA Z 1 r ~ndA
A2
(F rG GrF ) ~ndA = A2 R2 A2 R
c D. Knight 1997 29
Since R is constant on A2,

Z 1 Z 1Z
(F rG GrF ) ~ndA = 2 A2 dA
A2 R R A2 r ~ndA
From mass conservation
Z Z
A2
r ~ndA + A1
r ~ndA = 0
we dene
Z
m A1
r ~ndA
and thus m is positive is there is a net mass ow into V . Thus
Z 1 Z m
(F rG GrF ) ~ndA = dA
A2 R2 A2 R
Since F and G are harmonic,
Z
A1 +A2 +A3
(F rG GrF ) ~ndA = 0
Thus,
Z 1 Z (F rG GrF ) ~ndA
(~x0) = 4R2 A2 dA + 4m
1
R 4 A1
c D. Knight 1997 30
Consider again the conservation of mass

Z Z
A2
r ~ndA = A1
r ~ndA = m
Thus
Z @
dA = m
A2 @s s=R
where s j~x ~x0j. Since dA = R2d

,
Z @ @ Z
R2
A2 @s s=R
2
d
= R @R A2 d
= m
Thus
@ Z d
= m
@R A2 R2
and thus
Z m
A2
d
= 4 C R
It is possible to show5 that C is independent of ~x. Thus,
1 Z 1 Z m
4R2 A2
dA =
4 A 2
d
= C 4R
5 Batchelor, G., Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge, p. 119.
c D. Knight 1997 31
Thus
m + m 1 Z (F rG GrF ) ~ndA
(~x0) = C 4R
| {z 4R} 4 A1
cancel
Thus, using
0 1 0 1
1 1
rx0 @ j~x ~x0j
A= rx @ j~x ~x0j
A
we obtain
Z 2 0 1 3
(~x0) = C + 41 A1 4rx0 @ j~x 1 ~x j A + j~x 1 ~x j r5 ~ndA
0 0
Expanding as a Taylor series

0 1 0 1
1 = 1 x @ @ 1 A + 2 xixj
1 @ 2
@ 1 A + :::
jx~ ~x0j j~x0j @xi0 j~x0 j
i
@xi0 @xj0 j~x0j
This series converges for j~xj < j~x0j and is thus appropriate for
consideration when ~x0 ! 1. Substituting and integrating
term by term,
0 1 0 1
c @ @ 2
(~x0) = C + j~x j + ci @x j~x j + cij @x @x @ j~x1 j A + : : :
@ 1 A
0 i0 0 i0 j0 0
c D. Knight 1997 32
where
Z
C = 4 A1 r ~n1dA = 4m
1
1 Z
ci = 4 A1 (xi~n1 r n1 ) dA i
1 Z
cij = 4 A1 12 xi xj ~n1 r xin1 dA j
where C; c and cij are functions of t only. Thus, dropping the

subscript 0,
c @ 1 ! @ 2 1 !
(~x) = C + r + ci @x r + cij @x @x r + : : :
i i j
where r j~xj.
Thus, is a series of individual solutions
1!
r!
@ 1
@xi r !
@2 1
@xi @xj r
:::
which are called spherical harmonics. Each of these individual
functions satises Laplace's equation.
2 Proof of last statement left for student.
c D. Knight 1997 33
Behavior of at Large Distances

in Doubly Connected Regions
By a similar analysis using G = log j~x ~x0 j,
(~x) = C + 2 + c log r + ci @x@ (log r) + cij @x@@x (log r) + : : :

2
i i j
where C; ; c; ci and cij are in general functions of t.

Elementary 3-D Solutions
uniform flow
For uniform ow with velocity U~ 1, the velocity potential is
= U~ 1 ~x
2 Derivation by class
source
The velocity potential is
= 4m
r
where m is the volume ow rate.
c D. Knight 1997 34
doublet
Consider a source of strength m and a sink of strength m
oriented as shown
(x- ε,y,z) (x,y,z)

The potential is
= 4m
r
q m
4 (x )2 + y2 + z 2
p
where r x2 + y2 + z 2.
Expanding
(x )2 + y2 + z 2 = x2 + y2 + z 2 2x +!2
x
= r2 1 2 2 + O(2)
r
Thus,
2 ! 1=23
m x
= 4r 41 1 2 r2 + O( )
2 5
= m x3 + O(m2)
4 r
c D. Knight 1997 35
using the expansion for the square root.

Let ! 0 such that m = remains constant. Then the
velocity potential is
= 4 rx3
Note that
@ 1! = x
@x r r3
Thus, the expansion for can be expressed as
!
c @ 1
C + r + ci @x r + : : :
= |{z}
constant |{z} | {zi }
source doublets
Elementary 2-D Solutions

uniform flow
For uniform ow with velocity U~ 1, the velocity potential is
= U~ 1 ~x
source
= 2m log r
c D. Knight 1997 36
where m is the volume ow rate per unit depth.

doublet
By a similar derivation,
= 2 rx2
Note that
@ log r = x
@x r2
Thus, the expansion for can be expressed as
= |{z}
C + c| log r + c @ (log r) + : : :
i
| @xi {z
{z }
constant source }
doublets
Complex Potential Theory

Incompressible, irrotational ow in 2-D can be elegantly
expressed in terms of complex variable theory.
Dene
z x + iy
where i =
p 1, and x and y are real.
c D. Knight 1997 37
A complex function F (z ) is dened as
F (z ) f (x; y) + ig(x; y)
where f (x; y) and g(x; y) are real valued functions.
The derivative dF=dz exists at z = zo if and only if f and g
satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann conditions
@f = @g
@x @y
@f = @g
@y @x
It is straightforward to show that f and g are harmonic

functions (i.e., f and g satisfy Laplace's equation)
@ 2f + @ 2f = 0
@x2 @y2
@ 2g + @ 2g = 0
@x2 @y2
Then the derivative dF=dz is expressed as

dF = @f + i @g or
dz @x @x
dF = @g i @f
dz @y @y
c D. Knight 1997 38
Consider the complex potential

F (z ) (x; y; t) + i (x; y; t)
where (x; y; t) is the velocity potential and (x; y; t) is the
streamfunction.
Does dF=dz exist ?
@ = u and
@x
@ = u (1)
@y
thus the rst Cauchy-Riemann condition is met. Furthermore,
@ = v and
@y
@ = v (2)
@x
and thus the second Cauchy-Riemann condition is met.
Thus, dF=dz exists everywhere and
dF = u iv
dz
The function w is dened as
w dF
dz
c D. Knight 1997 39
A complex function which possesses a unique derivative within

a region is analytic. Thus, any analytic complex function
represents an incompressible irrotation ow.
Examples
Uniform flow with velocity components (u,v)
F (z ) = (U iV ) z
Source of strength m at zo
F (z ) = 2m log(z zo )
Doublet of strength aligned with x-axis
F (z ) = 2(z z )
o
Point vortex of strength at zo
F (z ) = 2i log(z zo )
Flow in a corner
F (z ) = Az n
c D. Knight 1997 40
n=2
Polar Coordinates
The analysis is facilitated by use of polar coordinates
r
θ
(x0 ,y0 )
where z z0 = rei for < .

For a point vortex
F (z ) = 2i log(z z0)

c D. Knight 1997 41
where
log rei = log r + i
and the principal value is assumed.

Thus,
F (z ) = i (log r + i)
2
= i log r
2 2
Consider the gradient operator r
r = @r@ e^r + 1r @@ e^
where e^r is the unit vector in the r direction. Then

e^
r = 2r
as expected.
c D. Knight 1997 42
Flow Past a Circular Cylinder

The complex potentials corresponding to two or more dierent
ows may be added to form a new potential ow. Consider
U az
2
F (z ) = Uz
|{z} +
Uniform ow in x-direction | {z }
Doublet aligned with x-axis
where a is a real constant and U is a velocity.

Thus,
0 1
dF = U @1 a2 A
dz z2
Expressing the complex Cartesian velocity w(z ) dF=dz in
polar notation,
w(z ) = u iv
and thus the equivalent complex polar velocity is
vr iv = w(z )ei
Thus for the combined potential,

c D. Knight 1997 43
0 1
vr iv = U @ei a2 e i A
0
r 2
a 21 0
a 21
= U cos @1 2 A + iU sin @1 + 2 A
r r
and thus
0 21
a
vr = U cos @1 r2 A
0 21
a
v = U sin @1 + 2 A r
Hence, vr = 0 on r = a and thus the cylinder of radius a is a

streamline. Furthermore, ~v ! U~ as r ! 1. Thus, the complex
potential represents uniform potential ow past a cylinder of
radius a.
Additional
The complex conjugate of a complex variable z is denoted z
and is dened as
z x iy
c D. Knight 1997 44
Thus, z z = x2 + y2. A similar denition applies to any complex

function.
Laurent Series
C1 C2
zo
If f is analytic (i.e., df=dz exists) on concentric circles C1 and

C2 and throughout the region between two circles, then at
every z in the annulus f (z ) can be expressed as
f (z ) =
1
X
an(z z0)n +
1
X bn
n=0 n=1 (z z0 )n
where an and bn are complex constants dened by

1 Z f (z )dz
an = 2i C1 (z z )n+1
0
Z
bn = 21i C2 (z f (zz ))dzn+1
0
The residue of f (z ) at z0 is the value of

Z f (z )dz
C 2i
c D. Knight 1997 45
where C is a closed contour enclosing z0 and f is analytic

everywhere inside and on C except at z0.
Cauchy-Goursat Theorem
If f (z ) is analytic in the simply connected domain D, then for
every closed contour C within D,
I
C
f (z )dz = 0
Residue from Laurent Series

Under the appropriate conditions the Laurent series may be
substituted into the denition of the residue
1 Z
residue = f (z )dz
2i C 8
Z <X 9
= 1 1
a (z z )n+ X1 b n =
dz
2i C :n=0 n 0
n=1 (z z 0 )n ;
Consider a circle of radius r around z0. Then
z z0 = rei
and
dz = irei d
c D. Knight 1997 46
since dr = 0 on the circle. Thus,
1 X1 Z n+1 i(n+1) 1 X1 Z ei(1 n) d

residue = a ir e
2i n=0 | n {z
d + 2i ibn
}
zero
n=1 | r{zn 1 }
zero unless n = 1
and thus the residue is b1, i.e., the coecient of the (z z0 ) 1

term.
Residue Theorem
Let C be a closed contour within and on which a function f (z )
is analytic except at a nite number of points z1, . . . , zn
interior to C . Let 1, . . . , n denote the residues of f at these
points. Then
Z n
X
f (z )dz = 2i m
m=1
where the integral is taken counterclockwise around C .
C2
z2
z1 z3 C3
C1
C
c D. Knight 1997 47
Blasius' Theorem
Consider a 2-D incompressible, irrotational, steady ow in the

absence of body forces.
Denote the force on the body as (Fx; Fy )
The momentum equation is
@ Z ~vdV + Z ~v~v ~ndA = X F~ j
@t on uid
Consider the control volume dened by the body surface and

the outer circle.
n
U X
From Bernoulli's equation,

p + 1 (u2 + v2 ) = p1 + 1 U 2
2 2 1
c D. Knight 1997 48
Now
u2 + v2 = ww
Thus
p = p1 + 21 U12 1
2 ww
Since (Fx; Fy ) is the force on the body, therefore
( Fx; Fy ) is the force on the uid.
The x momentum equation is therefore
Z Z
C
u~v ~ndA = Fx C
pnxdA
where C is the circle of radius R, and using the condition that
~v ~n = 0
on the surface of the body.
Thus,
Z
Fx = C
(u~v ~n + pnx ) dA
Since the unit outwards normal on C is
~n = (cos ; sin )
c D. Knight 1997 49
and using Bernoulli's equation,
Z 2
Fx = u (u cos + v sin ) rd
Z02
p + 1 U 2 cos rd
1 2 1
Z02
+ 0 21 ww cos rd
and likewise
Z 2
Fy = v (u cos + v sin ) rd
Z02
p + 1 U 2 sin rd
1 2 1
Z02
+ 0 12 ww sin rd
Now
i
u cos + v sin = 12 wei + we
Furthermore, on C ,
dz = irei d
c D. Knight 1997 50
It is left as an exercise to complete the derivation and show

I
Fx iFy = i w2dz
1
2
This expression was derived by H. Blasius (Z. Math. Phys.,

58, p. 90, 1910) and is known as Blasius' Theorem.
We can derive Blasius' Theorem in a dierent but equivalent
manner.
Consider a closed body (i.e., streamline). On the body surface,
dFx = pdy
dFy = pdx
where the integral is taken in the counterclockwise direction
around the body. Thus,
I
Fx iFy = (pdy + ipdx)
I
= i pdz
where dz = dx idy. From Bernoulli's equation,

p + 21 u2 + v2 = p1 + 12 U12
and
u2 + v2 = ww
c D. Knight 1997 51
where w = dF=dz . Thus,

I
Fx iFy = 12 i wwd
z
Now
dF !
wd
z =
dz dz
d
F
=
dz dz
= dF
On a solid boundary (i.e., streamline),

dF = d + i
= d |{z}
d
=0
= d
= dF
=
dF dz
dz
= wdz
Thus,
I
Fx iFy = i w2dz
1
2
c D. Knight 1997 52
which is Blasius' Theorem.

Reference:
Milne-Thomson, L. M., Theoretical Hydrodynamics, Dover
Publications, New York, 1958.
Zhukovskii's Theorem
Using Blasius' Theorem, we can derive in a straightforward

manner one of the most fundamental theorems in aerodynamcs.
Consider the steady ow past an arbitrary body. The ow at
innity is U and is aligned with the x axis with no loss of
generality.
The complex potential may be expressed in a Laurent series as
z ! 1 as
F = Uz + m2i log z + 2z

+ O(z 2)
where
Uz is uniform ow
2m log z is the net source
2i log z is a vortex
2z is a doublet
c D. Knight 1997 53
For a nite closed body, m = 0.

It is also evident that the circulation is .
The application of Blasius' Theorem yields
Fx iFy = iU
In 1902, the German mathematician M. Wilheim Kutta

(1867-1944) suggested a connection between lift and
circulation. However, he failed to postulate any mathematical
relationship between the two6 .
In 1906, the Russian aerodynamicist and applied
mathematician Nicolai E. Zhukovski (1847-1921)
independently proposed the mathematical expression relating
the lift l per unit span and the circulation ,
l = U
Brief remarks7 on the career of Nicolai E. Zhukovski:
PhD, Applied Mathematics, Moscow University, 1882

Professor of Mechanics, Moscow University and Moscow
Higher Technical School
6 Anderson, J., Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, McGraw Hill, Inc., 1991, pp. 311-312.
7 Ibid.
c D. Knight 1997 54
Built rst wind tunnel in Russia in 1902 at Moscow

Higher Technical School
Flow Past a Cylinder
The complex potential is

0 21
a
F (z ) = U @z + A z
Thus
0 1
w = U @1 a2 A
z2
The integrand in Blasius' Theorem is w2, which can be seen to
have no term in z 1. Thus, the residue is zero and the net
force on the cylinder is zero.
Flow Past a Cylinder

with Circulation
Consider the complex potential

0 21
a
F (z ) = U @z + A i log z
z 2
c D. Knight 1997 55
It is left as an exercise to show that this represents ow past a

cylinder of radius a with circulation . The proof requires
demonstration of three conditions :
1. The velocity potential satises r2 = 0

2. The normal velocity on the cylinder is zero
3. The circulation is
We obtain
0 1
w = U @1 a2 A i
z 2 2z
From the Residue Theorem, the only contribution to the force

arises from the term in w2 proportional to z 1, and thus
Fx iFy = iU
and thus
Fy = U
c D. Knight 1997 56
Conformal Transformations
Consider a transformation from the (x; y) to the (; ) plane

where
z = x + iy
= + i
where
= f (z )
and f (z ) is analytic in the neighborhood of zo.

Assume df=dz 6= 0.
Express
df (z ) = Rei
dz
Then

lim f = R
z !0 z
!
lim arg f =
z !0 z
c D. Knight 1997 57
Consider a smooth curve C through zo.

S is the image of the curve in the plane.
Y
C η
S
ζ
zo ο
X ξ
Examples for class

f (z ) Curve in z plane
z x axis
iz x axis
z 2 y axis
z 1 1 x 2, y = 0
Dene a direction of z along C , which yields a corresponding

direction along S .
Let denote the angle of the curve C with respect to the
x axis at zo for z ! 0.
The corresponding angle of S at f (zo ) as
c D. Knight 1997 58
f ! 0 is denoted by where
f f (zo + z ) f (zo)
Since
f
f = z
z
Thus
f !
arg f = arg z
z
and
f
arg f = arg + arg z
z
= +
Thus the curve C is rotated through the angle

f !
zlim!0 arg z
or
= arg df
dz
c D. Knight 1997 59
This results holds provided f is analytic in the neighborhood

of zo and df=dz 6= 0 at zo.
Since df=dz is unique at zo under these conditions, then every
curve C through zo is rotated by the same angle .
Thus, the angle between two curves C1 and C2 which pass
through zo is preserved upon transformation to the plane.
A transformation (or \mapping") which preserves angles
between every pair of curves at each point is conformal.
Furthermore,

lim
f df
=

z !0 z dz
= R
Thus, the transformation magnies the length of an

innitesimal line segment by the amount R jdf=dz j.
A point where df=dz = 0 is a critical point.
c D. Knight 1997 60
Zhukovskii's Transformation
The Transformation
Consider the transformation
a
=z+ z
2
where
= + i
By substitution,
0 21 0 1
a
= @r + A cos + i @r a2 A sin
r r
Since
cos2 + sin2 = 1
thus
2 + 2 = 1
a2 2 a2 2
r+ r r r
What is the nature of the transformation ?
c D. Knight 1997 61
Y η
a
X ξ
4a
r = a ) (; ) = (2a cos ; 0)
Note that is the angle in the z-plane

Thus, can nd ow past a at plate at angle of attack in
-plane by considering ow past circular cylinder in z -plane.
The Complex Potential
Flow past cylinder with U aligned with x axis
0 21
a
F (z ) = U @z + A i log z
z 2
Flow past cylinder with U aligned at angle with respect to

x axis is obtained by letting z ! ze i
Why the minus sign ?
c D. Knight 1997 62
Thus, the complex potential is

0 2ei2 1
F (z ) = Ue i @z + a A i log z
z 2
What happened to the constant in the log z term ?

The complex velocity w = u iv in the z plane is
0 1
w = dF
dz = Ue
i @1 a2ei2 A i
z2 2z
The complex velocity ! i in the plane is
dF dF dz dF d ! 1
! = d = dz d = dz dz
It is left as an exercise to show
! Ue i as ! 1
= 0 on = 0 for 2a 2a
Thus, the boundary conditions as ! 1 and on the at plate
are satised.
c D. Knight 1997 63
Kutta Condition
The Kutta condition at trailing edge of the at plate is
enforced by including circulation .
The trailing edge of the at plate in the plane corresponds
to z = a. This must be a stagnation point in the z plane.
Why can't the velocity w be non-zero at the trailing edge ?
Thus,
0 = Ue i 1 ei2
i
2a
Thus,
= 4aU sin
Force
The force in the -plane is obtained from
Blasius' Theorem
I dF !2
F iF = i 1
2 d d
where F and F are the components of the force on the body
in the - and -directions.
c D. Knight 1997 64
Now
I dF !2 I dF !2 d ! 1
d d = dz dz dz
and thus the integral may be taken in the z plane.

Expanding the integrand in a Laurent series about z = 0
dF !2 d ! 1 i Ue i + : : :
dz dz z
and thus
F iF = iUe i
This corresponds to a lift force of magnitude

U
oriented normal to the ow at innity.
Since
= 4aU sin
the lift force is
4aU 2 sin
c D. Knight 1997 65
Dening the lift coecient
cl = 1 Ul 2c
2
where c is the chord (= 4a),

cl = 2 sin
Circle Theorem
References:
Milne-Thomson, L. M., \Hydrodynamical Images", Proc. Camb. Phil.
Soc., Vol. 36, 1940, pp.246-247.
Batchelor, G. K., An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge, 1970, p.
422.
Consider the irrotational, two dimensional ow of an
incompressible uid in an innite domain with no boundaries.
The ow is comprised of an arbitrary collection of simple ows
(e.g., uniform ow, vortex, doublet, etc.). The complex
potential of the ow is denoted as F (z ) = + i .
Assume a cylinder of radius a is now placed at the origin, with
none of the singularities of the ow inside the cylinder. The
surface of the cylinder is a streamline.
Then the complex potential for the modied ow is
0 21
F (z ) + F @ a A
z
c D. Knight 1997 66
where the function F (a2=z ) is obtained by the following

procedure:
1. Dene the function F (x) where the complex variable z is

replaced by the real variable x
2. Determine the complex conjugate F (x) of F (x)
3. Replace x by a2=z in the expression for F (x)
Example
Consider uniform ow in the x-direction
F (z ) = Uz
where U is real. Using the procedure,
1. F (x) = Ux
2. F (x) = Ux (no change)
3. Complex potential for uniform ow past a cylinder is
a 2
Uz (1 + z 2 )
c D. Knight 1997 67
Proof
By assumption, F (z ) has no singularity inside the cylinder of
radius a placed at the origin. Thus, on the surface r = a, it
may be expressed by a Taylor series
1
X
F (z ) = anz n
n=0
where an are complex constants.

On the circle r = a,
a2 = a2
z rei
= a i
2
ae
= ae i
= z
By denition,
1
X
F (x) = anxn
n=0
where an is the complex conjugate of an.

c D. Knight 1997 68
Thus on r = a,
1
X
F (z ) = anzn
n=0
Writing z = rei ,
1
X
F (z ) = anrne in
n=0
1
X
= anein rn
n=0
and thus the complex potential on the circle r = a is

1
X
F (z ) + F (z ) = anein + anein rn
n=0
The quantity inside the parentheses is real, and thus the

streamfunction is zero. Hence, the circle r = a is a streamline.
c D. Knight 1997 69
Compressible Potential Flow
Relevance
Potential ow methods are commonly used in the aerospace
industry.
P. E. Rubbert (Boeing Commercial Airplane Group) gave the
following examples of recent applications of potential ow
methods8:
Improvement in the understanding of the interference

drag of a pylon-mounted engine nacelle under the wing
\The existence of unwanted interference drag had been
revealed by wind tunnel testing, but the source of the
interference was still unknown. CFD modeling techniques
were developed to represent the underwing nacelle
installation and study the details of ow in that area.
This work was based on the use of panel methods to solve
the linear potential equations."
8 Rubbert, P., \The Impact of Supercomputers on CFD", Computer Systems in Engi-

neering, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1990, pp. 1-6.
c D. Knight 1997 70
Identication of aerodynamic interference associated with

engine exhaust
\A recent TRANAIR-based CFD study of new engine /
airframe installation revealed that a serious aerodynamic
interference problem with the engine exhaust would arise
when the engine was operating. Neither the earlier
linear-based CFD methods nor conventional wind tunnel
testing, in which engine exhausts are not simulated, would
have detected this problem. The problem could have gone
undetected until late in the conguration development,
when any changes would be extremely expensive to
implement . . . "
\TRANAIR [is] a nite element solver for the nonlinear
full potential equations . . . "
Recent reviews
Caughey, D., \The Computation of Transonic Potential
Flows", Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 14, 1982, pp.
261-283.
Hess, J., \Panel Methods in Computational Fluid Dynamics",
Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 22, 1990, pp. 25-274.
c D. Knight 1997 71
Assumptions
Inviscid
Irrotational
Conservative body forces
Barotropic uid
Is the ow across a shock wave barotropic ?
Velocity Potential
Assume the ow is irrotational9
~! = r ~v = 0
Then,
@
ui = @x
i
where is the velocity potential.

9 In component notation,
! = @u
i
@x
ijk
k
where is the cyclic tensor = 1 if are cyclic, -1 if are anti-cyclic, and 0

ijk ijk ijk ijk
otherwise. Thus 123 = 231 = 312 = 1, 321 = 213 = 132 = -1, and all others are zero.
c D. Knight 1997 72
Compressible Bernoulli Equation

The conservation of momentum is
@u
@t
i
+ uj @ui = @p + fi
@xj @xi
Since the body force fi is conservative
@F
fi = @x
i
then
@ 2 + @ 1 u u ! + ! u + 1 @p + @F = 0
@t@xi @xi 2 j j ijk j k
@xi @xi
where the vorticity !j = 0 by assumption. For a barotropic
uid,
1 @p = @ Z dp !
@xi @xi
Therefore,
0 1
@ @ @ + 1 @ @ + Z dp + F A = 0
@xi @t 2 @xj @xj
c D. Knight 1997 73
Consequently,
@ + 1 @ @ + Z dp + F = (t)
@t 2 @xj @xj
where the constant of integration (t) is a function of time

and is typically determined by the boundary conditions (e.g.,
at innity).
For isentropic ow,
@ + 1 @ @ + p + F = (t)
@t 2 @xj @xj 1
or equivalently,
@ + 1 @ @ + 1 a2 + F = (t)
@t 2 @xj @xj 1
Compare the results for incompressible ow and compressible,

isentropic ow:
For compressible isentropic ow,
@ + 1 @ @ + p + F = (t)
@t 2 @xj @xj 1
c D. Knight 1997 74
For incompressible ow,

@ + 1 @ @ + p + F = (t)
@t 2 @xj @xj
, the twentieth letter of the Greek alphabet, is pronounced up'silon
or, in Great Britain, upsi'lon, where ' denotes the accent.
How can the compressible expression be consistent with the
incompressible result for low speed ?
2 An opportunity will be provided for anyone who wishes to present a 5
min proof of the consistency of these two expressions at the beginning of
the next lecture.
For steady uniform ow at innity of magnitude U1 and
neglecting body forces,
@ + 1 @ @ + p = 1 U 2 + 1 a2
@t 2 @xj @xj 1 2 1 1 1
Full Potential Equation
Assume
Inviscid
Irrotational
Conservative body forces (and @fi=@t = 0)
Isentropic (not simply barotropic)
c D. Knight 1997 75
The conservation of momentum,
@u
@t
i
+ uj @ui = @p + fi
@xj @xi
The inner product with ui yields,

0 1
@u i @ui @p + f u
@ui @t + ui uj @x A = ui @x i i
j i
Using the identity
@ui @ 1 !
uj @x = @x 2 uj uj + ijk !j uk
j i
and since !i 0,
(@ 1 ! @ 1 !) @p + f u
@t 2 uiui + ui @x 2 uj uj = ui @x i i
i i
Since the ow is assumed isentropic,
@p = a2 @
@xi @xi
where a is the local speed of sound.
c D. Knight 1997 76
From conservation of mass,
@ =
ui @x @ + @ui !
i @t @xi
Thus,
@p = a2 @ + a2 @ui
ui @x
i @t @x i
Similarly,
@p = a2 @
@t @t
therefore
@ 1 u u ! + u @ 1 u u ! = 1 @p + a2 @ui + f u
@t 2 i i i
@xi 2 j j @t @xi i i
Dierentiating the compressible Bernoulli equation with

respect to time, assuming the body forces are steady,
@ 2 + @ 1 u u ! + 1 @p = 0
@t2 @t 2 j j @t
c D. Knight 1997 77
Therefore,
0 1
@ 2 + @ @ @ ! + @ @ @ 1 @ @ A
@t2 @t @xi @xi @xi @xi 2 @xj @xj
@ 2
,! a @x2 fi @x
2 @ = 0
i i
or equivalently,
@ 2 + @ (r r) + r r 1 r r!!

@t2 @t 2
a2r2 f r = 0
where r2 = @ 2=@x2i . The speed of sound a may be

expressed in terms of the velocity potential using the
compressible Bernoulli equation.
@ = 0
ni @x
i
at an impermeable stationary boundary, and

@ = U
@xi 1 i
c D. Knight 1997 78
at an innite distance where U1 are the components of the

i
fareld velocity.

Solution of the full potential equation yields the entire
oweld.
The static pressure is determined by the compressible
Bernoulli equation together with the isentropic relation.
The static temperature is determined by the ideal gas equation.
The advantage of the full potential equation is the reduction of
the governing equations from ve to one. This reduces CPU
and memory requirements.
A general solution of the full potential equation for arbitrary
geometries has not been achieved.
Solutions have been obtained for simplied versions of the full
potential equation for subsonic, transonic and supersonic ow.
Subsonic Flow
Consider uniform steady ow past a two dimensional body.
With no loss of generality, the uniform ow may be assumed to
be aligned with the x-axis.
The velocity potential may be written,
= U1 x +
c D. Knight 1997 79
where is the perturbation velocity potential.
U α X
Geometry of Two-Dimensional Airfoil
Assume the velocity perturbations are everywhere small

compared to the freestream speed of sound a1,
1 @ = O() and 1 @ = O()

a1 @x a1 @y
where 1.
Assume the freestream Mach number is subsonic, i.e., M1 < 1.
The full potential equation may be approximated to lowest
order by
M2 @
2 @ 2
1 1 @x2 + @y 2 =0
c D. Knight 1997 80
where the neglected terms are O(M1) and O(2).

Since M1 < 1, the equation may be recognized as a variant of
Laplace's Equation.
The boundary condition at an impermeable
stationary surface becomes
!
nx U1 + @x + ny @
@
@y = 0
where nx and ny are the components of the surface normal.
Linearize this equation as
nxU1 + ny @
@y = 0
For an airfoil, this becomes
@ = U dys
@y 1 dx
where ys(x) is the airfoil surface.

Thus
dy !
s
= O M1 dx
c D. Knight 1997 81
The boundary condition at innity becomes

@ = 0; @ = 0
@x @y
For M1 ! 0, the full nonlinear potential equation becomes
Laplace's equation,
@ 2 + @ 2 = 0
@x2 @y2
Channel with Wavy Boundary
Consider two dimensional, subsonic potential ow in a channel.

Lower surface is y = h sin kx where k = 2= and is the
wavelength.
Upper surface is y = H .
Y H
h
X
Channel with Wavy Wall

c D. Knight 1997 82
Assume the velocity perturbations are O(a1).

The implications of this assumption will be developed
a posteriori.
Then

1 M2
@ 2 + @ 2 = 0
1 @x2 @y2
Provided kh 1, the boundary condition at the lower surface
may be linearized about the mean surface (y = 0),
@ = U kh cos kx on y = 0
@y 1
At the upper surface y = H ,
@ = 0 on y = H
@y
A solution may be obtained using the method of separation of
variables,
(x; y) = U1 h sinh
cos kx cosh (k (y H ))
kH
q
where = 1 M12 and = O(1).
c D. Knight 1997 83
Furthermore, kH = O(1) (or possibly kH ! 1, i.e., a

semi-innite domain). Thus,
1 @ = O(M kh)
1
a1 @x
and
1 @ = O(M kh)
1
a1 @y
Thus, the condition
1 @ 1 @
= O() and
a1 @x a1 @y = O()
implies
M1kh = O()
Linearization of the surface boundary condition required
kh 1
Thus, the solution is valid provided kh = O() where 1.
The pressure coecient is dened as
cp = 1p Up12
2 1 1
c D. Knight 1997 84
To lowest order,
cp = U2 @
1 @x
and therefore on the wavy surface
cp = 2kh sin kx
tanh kH
Note that the surface pressure is 180 deg out of phase with the
surface elevation (i.e., the surface pressure is a maximum at
the minimum elevation, and vice-versa).
Supersonic Flow
Consider uniform steady ow past a two dimensional body.
With no loss of generality, the uniform ow may be assumed to
be aligned with the x-axis.
The velocity potential is written
= U1x +
where is the perturbation velocity potential.
The velocity perturbations are assumed everywhere small
according to
M1 @ = O() and M1 @ = O()
a1 @x a1 @y
c D. Knight 1997 85
where 1 and M1 > 1.

How do these conditions dier from subsonic ow ?
The full potential equation may be approximated to
lowest order by
1 @ 2 @ 2 = 0
2 2
M 1 @x @y2
where the neglected terms are O().
This is the wave equation.
The boundary condition at a solid boundary is
@ = 0
ni @x
i
which may be linearized to yield

@ = U dys
@y 1 dx
where ys(x) is the airfoil surface.
From
M1 @ = O() and M1 @ = O()
a1 @x a1 @y
c D. Knight 1997 86
it is evident that
= O(M12 dys=dx)
Wavy Wall
Consider two dimensional, supersonic potential ow past a
wavy wall.
Lower surface is y = h sin kx where k = 2= and is the
wavelength.
Semi-innite in y direction.
The simplied potential equation is
2 @ 2 @ 2 = 0
M 1 1
@x2 @y2
Provided kh 1, the boundary condition at the wavy wall
may be linearized about the mean surface (y = 0),
@ = U kh cos kx on y = 0
@y 1
The solution is
= U1 h sin k(x y)
c D. Knight 1997 87
q
where = M12 1. Thus,
M1 @ = O( M12 kh)
a1 @x
and
M1 @ = O(M 2 kh)
a1 @y 1
The condition implies M12 kh = O() where 1.

The pressure coecient on the wavy surface is
cp = 2 kh
cos kx
Note that the surface pressure leads the surface shape by 90
deg (i.e., the surface pressure is largest at the point of
maximum surface slope).
Supersonic Thin Airfoil
Consider 2-D supersonic ow past a thin airfoil.
The airfoil surface is
y = yu(x) on upper surface

y = yl (x) on lower surface
c D. Knight 1997 88
U
x
The chord length is c.

= U1 x +
Assuming small perturbations,
@ 2 2 @ 2 = 0
@y2 @x2
q
where M12 1.
r ! 0 as ~x ! 1
r n^ = 0 on surface
c D. Knight 1997 89
Linearizing the boundary condition about y = 0,

1 @ dy
= u
U1 @y y=0+ dx

1 @ = dyl
U1 @y y=0 dx
Divide the airfoil geometry into three parts,

yu(x) = y(x) + yc(x) + yt(x)
yl (x) = y(x) + yc(x) yt(x)
where y is the contribution due to the angle of attack of the
mean chord line, yc is the camber distribution (with
yc(0) = yc(c) = 0), and yt is the thickness distribution.
Note that
1
(y (x) + yl (x)) = y(x) + yc(x)
2 u
1 (y (x) y (x)) = y (x)
2 u l t

1 @
U1 @y y=0+ = + dy c dyt
dx + dx
1 @ + dy c dyt
U1 @y y=0 = dx dx
c D. Knight 1997 90
The perturbation potential may be written
= + c + t
Each of the terms satises the wave equation, and the
respective components of the boundary condition at the airfoil.
The general solution to the 2-D wave equation is
(x; y) = f (x y) + g(x + y)
where f represents a right-running wave and g a left-running
wave.
The solution for is
8
< U1(x y)= 0 x y c; y > 0
>
>
= > U1(x + y)= 0 x + y c; y < 0
>
:0 otherwise
The full solution is
= U1 f(x y) yc(x y) yt(x y)g
for 0 x y c and y > 0, and
= U1 f (x + y) + yc(x + y) yt(x + y)g

c D. Knight 1997 91
for 0 x + y c and y < 0, and zero otherwise.

From the compressible Bernoulli equation,
cp U2 @
1 dx
The section lift coecient cl = l= 21 1U12 is

Z c
cl = 0
cp jl cp ju c 1dx
and the section drag coecient is

Zc dy dy !
cd = 0
cp dx cp dx c 1dx

u l
2 Derivation is left to student

Substituting
cl = q 42
M1 1
8 9
4 < 2 Z c dyc !2 1 Z c dyt !2
1 =
cd = q 2 + c dx + c dx
M1 1 : 0 dx 0 dx ;
c D. Knight 1997 92
Conclusions:
Lift is due to mean angle of attack only

Drag is due to thickness and camber
The section moment about the aerodynamic center is
independent of . This is the denition of the aerodynamic
center.
The aerodynamic center is located at the one-half chord point
and
4 Z 1 x dyc 1
cm a:c:
=
0 c dx c dx
2 Derivation is left to student
For an airfoil in incompressible ow, the aerodynamic center is
located at the quarter-chord point.
c D. Knight 1997 93
Supersonic Flow Past Body of Revolution

y
M
x
Slender body
Consider supersonic ow past an axisymmetric body.

= U1 x +
Assuming small perturbations,
M2 )@
2 @ 2 @ 2
(1 1 @x2 + @y 2 + @z 2 =0
r ! 0 as ~x ! 1
r n^ = 0 on surface
c D. Knight 1997 94
An elementary solution of the incompressible potential

equation is a point source
= 4Qr
For subsonic ow, the transformation
x = xq
y = q1 M12 y
z = 1 M12 z
yields
@ 2 + @ 2 + @ 2 = 0
@ x2 @ y2 @ z2
and thus a \subsonic" source is
= p Q
4 x2 + y2 + z2
= q 2 Q
4 x + (1 M12 )(y2 + z 2)
The equi-potential lines are

x2 + 1 M12 y2 + z 2 = constant
c D. Knight 1997 95
which represent ellipsoids of revolution.

For supersonic ow, proceeding formally,
x = xp q
y =
p 1 qM12 1 y
2
z = 1 M1 1 z
yields
@ 2 + @ 2 + @ 2 = 0
@ x2 @ y2 @ z2
and thus a source in supersonic ow is
= p Q
4 x2 + y2 + z2
= q Q
4 x2 (M12 1)(y2 + z 2)
The argument of the p is real for
x2 (M12 1)(y2 + z 2) > 0

Consider the surface
x2 (M12 1) r2 = 0
c D. Knight 1997 96
where r2 = y2 + z 2. This represents a cone with vertex at

x = 0 and axis coinciding with the x axis.
The half-angle of the cone is
dr = q 1
dx M12 1
and therefore the half-angle is the Mach angle
= sin 1 M1
1
r
(x,r)
ξ βr
Consider a superposition of sources along the axis of the body.

The strength of source at x = extending over length d is
f ( )d , where f is the strength distribution.
c D. Knight 1997 97
The potential d at (x; r) due to source at point x = on axis

is
d = q f ( )d
4 (x ) 2 2r2
q
where = M12 1, provided that (x; r) lies within the Mach
cone dened by the Mach line at x = .
The potential due to the line of sources is
1 Zx r f ( )d
= 4 0 q
(x )2 2r2
The problem is to relate f ( ) to the body shape. This is
accomplished through satisfying the boundary condition on the
body surface.
Dene the axial and radial perturbation velocities
u = @
@x
v = @
@r
This yields
Zx f 0 ( )d
u = 41 0
r
q
(x )2 2r2
c D. Knight 1997 98
v = 1 Zx r 0
f ( ) x ! q d
4 0 r (x )2 2r2
where f 0 ( ) df=d:
2 Derivation is left to student.
The radius of the body is R(x).
Thus the linearized surface boundary condition is
v = U1 dR
dx
thus
0 1
dR = 1 Z x f ( ) @ x
r 0 A q d
dx 4U1 0 R(x) (x )2 2R2(x)
Since the body is slender
R(x) x
R(x) x
over most of the body surface.
Thus,
dR 1 Z x f 0 ( ) d
dx 4U1 0 R(x)
c D. Knight 1997 99
which yields
f (x) = 4U1R(x) dRdx(x)
or in terms of the cross-sectional area S (x) = R2,
f (x) = 2U1 dSdx(x)
The pressure coecient is
cp U2 @
1 @x
thus
Zx r d2 S d
cp = 1 0 q
d 2 (x )2 2r2
and thus on the body surface
1Zx r d2 S d
cp = 0 q
d 2 (x )2 2R2(x)
Cone
For a cone of half-angle ,
S (x) = (x tan )2
c D. Knight 1997 100
where x is measured from the vertex. Assuming is small,

tan where is in radians.
Thus,
8 q 2 9
<
cp(x) = 22 log : x + x 2 R2 (x) =
R(x) ;
Since R(x) x, the pressure coecient on the cone surface is

0 1
cp 22 log @ 2 x A
R(x)
and since R=x on the surface,
0 1
cp 22 log @ q 22 A
M1 1
Parabolic Body
The body is
2 !2 3
L x 1
R(x) 2F 41 4 L 2 5
for 0 x L.
F is the neness ratio
length
F maximum diameter
The surface pressure coecient is

8 0 1
cp = F : 12x 1 + 6 2 R2(x) cosh 1 @ xR
4 <h 2 + 0:5 A
i
+
(x)
q
6 [(x + 0:5) 4x] (x + 0:5)2 2R2(x)
where x x=L 0:5

Note that R(x) = R( x) since the paraboloid is symmetric
about the midpoint.
However, cp(x) 6= cp( x). Consequently, there is nite drag on
the body. This is known as wave drag.
Transonic Flow
The simplied version of the potential equation for subsonic or
supersonic ow is
M2 @
2 @ 2
1 1 @x2 + @y 2 =0
The equation is singular at M1 = 1.

Consider ow past an airfoil of chord c at angle of attack
with respect to the oncoming ow.
The airfoil thickness ratio is dened as
maximum thickness 1
chord
Consider the transformation
x = x=c
y = y=(c a)
where a is a constant.
Note that x and y are dimensionless.
Assume the velocity potential is
= U1x + U1 c b (x; y)
where b is a constant. Note that is dimensionless.

The constants a and b are to be determined such that
@ = O(1)
@ x
@ = O(1)
@ y
Consider the boundary condition at the airfoil surface
v = dy
u dx
By substitution,
a) @
v = U1 (b @ y
0 1
@
u = U1 @1 + b @ x A
Assuming b > 0 (to be veried a posteriori), then since 1,

dy
a) @
(b @ y dx
Express
yu(x) = (x c) tan + yu(x)
yl (x) = (x c) tan + yl (x)
where yl and yu are zero at x = 0 and x = c.

Note that the camber is
yc(x) = 12 (yl (x) + yu(x)) + (x c) tan
Thus,
yc(x) = 21 (yu(x) + yl (x))

The thickness distribution yt(x) is dened by

yu(x) = (x c) tan + yc(x) + yt(x)
yl (x) = (x c) tan + yc(x) yt(x)
and
yt(x) = 12 (yu(x) yl (x))

Now
dyt = O()
dx
Furthermore, assume
= O()
dyc = O()
dx
Thus, the boundary condition at the airfoil yields

a) @
(b @ y = O()
Since @ =@ y = O(1), thus
b a=1
Expand the speed of sound

a2 = a21 ( 1)U12 b @@x + U12 O(2(b a)) + U12 O(2b)
Note that the exponent a could be negative.
Substitute into the full potential equation.
Multiply by c=(a21U12b).
8 9
@ 2 < (M12 1) + ( +1)M 2 @ + M 2 O(b; (b 2a) )= +
@ x2 : b8 1 @ x 1 ;
@ 2 (b+2a) < 1 + 2(b a)M 2 @ !2 + b( 1)M 2 @ + M 2 O(2(b a); 2b)
@ y2 : 1 @y 1 @x 1
@ 2 (b+2a) (2bM 2 @ 1 + b @ !) = 0
@ x@ y 1 @y @x
Consequently,
b + 2a = 0
1 M12 = O(2=3)
Thus,
a = 1=3
b = +2=3
and
8 9 2
< 2 @ = @ @ 2
:K ( +1)M1 ; 2 + 2 = 0
@ x @ x @ y
where K = (1 M12 )=2=3 is the transonic similarity parameter.

It can be directly shown that the pressure coecient is
cp U2 @
1 @x
and consequently
cp = 2 @
2=3 @x
This yields the transonic similarity rule
cp = f (K; x; y)
2=3
Hodograph Equation
Introduction
The full potential equation is nonlinear in .
A linear equation for a modied potential function can be
obtained for two dimensional, steady ow.
The independent variables are the velocity magnitude U and
direction ,
u = U cos
v = U sin
where u and v are the Cartesian velocity components.

A modied potential function (U; ) is dened by
= + xu + yv
where is the velocity potential.
Derivation of equation for (U; )
The conservation of mass is

@U cos + @U sin = 0
@x @y
This may be rewritten as,
@ (U cos ; y) @ (U sin ; x) = 0 (y)

@ (x; y) @ (x; y)
where
@ (f; g) = @f @g @f @g
@ (x; y) @x @y @y @x
is the Jacobian.
2 Derivation of (y) by member of class
Multiplying by @ (x; y)=@ (U; ),
@ (U cos ; y) @ (U sin ; x) = 0

@ (U; ) @ (U; )
Derivation of this step left to student
An expression for x(U; ) and y(U; ) can be obtained from the
denition of . It may be directly veried that
d = xdu + ydv
2 Derivation by member of class

Thus,
x = cos @@U sinU @@

@ + cos @
y = sin @U U @
2 Derivation by member of class

From the steady compressible Bernoulli equation,
1 @ @ + p = 1 U 2 + 1 a2
2 @xj @xj 1 2 1 1 1
and the isentropic relation, it can be shown that is a function

of U only, and
0 1
dU = @1 U 2 A
dU a2
Substituting into conservation of mass,
@ 2 + U 2 @ 2 + U @ = 0
@2 (1 U 2=a2) @U 2 @U
This is Chaplygin's equation or the hodograph equation.

The speed of sound a may be expressed in terms of U through

the compressible Bernoulli equation.
Chaplygin's equation is linear.
The boundary conditions for (U; ) are nonlinear.
Shapiro, A., The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid

Flow, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1953.
Surface Waves
Assumptions:
1. Incompressible
2. Inviscid
3. Body force is gravity
The free surface is y = (x; z; t).

The mean depth is h.
There may be a uid above y = , or it may be a vacuum.
Y
y = η (x,z,t)
Assuming the ow is irrotational at some instant of time, it

remains irrotational by Kelvin's Theorem. Thus,
r2 = 0
This equation holds separately in the upper and lower uids.
There are two conditions at the free surface.
The rst condition is the kinematic condition.
The free surface is dened by
y (x; z; t) = 0
A particle of uid at the free surface must remain at the free

surface. Thus,
D (y ) = 0
Dt
where D=Dt is the convective derivative. Substituting,
@ + @ @ + @ @ = @
@t @x @x @z @z @y
It is noted that this boundary condition is applied at the free
surface y = (x; z; t)
2 Derivation by member of the class.
The second condition is the pressure condition.

At the free surface, the pressure is the same on either side
(neglecting surface tension eects).
Bernoulli's equation is
@ + p + 1 @ @ + g = G(t)
@t 2 @xi @xi
This boundary condition is applied at free surface y = (x; z; t).
The boundary condition at the lower boundary is
@ = 0
@y
applied at y = h.
The principal diculty in solving the problem arises from the
nonlinearity of the boundary conditions at the free surface, and
the unknown shape of the free surface which must be found as
part of the solution.
Analytic solutions can be achieved under the simplifying
assumption of small perturbations.
Small Amplitude Plane Gravity Waves

Additional assumptions:
1. Two dimensional
2. Small amplitude waves
3. Constant pressure at surface
The implication of \small" amplitude becomes apparent from

the derivation.
Assuming the wave amplitude is small compared to the
wavelength, the surface boundary condition may be expanded
about the mean wave elevation y = 0 to obtain
@ = @
@t @y
applied at y = 0.
Similarly, the boundary condition on the pressure becomes
@ + p + g = 0
@t
where G(t) has been incorporated into .
Derivation left for student.
Consider a monochromatic surface wave

(x; t) = sin k(x ct)
where k = 2= is the wavenumber, is the wavelength, c is
the wave speed and ! = kc is the wave frequency.
This represents a surface wave travelling to the right with
velocity c.
The velocity potential (x; y; t) may be obtained by separation
of variables,
(x; y; t) = cos k(x ct) fC1 sinh ky + C2 cosh kyg
where C1 and C2 are constants.
Why is there not a term sin k(x ct) ?
The kinematic condition yields
C1 = c
The boundary condition at y = h yields
C2 = C1= tanh kh
The pressure condition yields
c2 = kg tanh kh
which is known as the dispersion formula, and determines the

wave speed c in terms of the wave number k and depth h.
Dene deep water waves as satisfying kh 1, and hence
s
c kg
For example, a deep water wave with = 1 km travels at

c = 39:5 m/s = 88:3 miles/hr.
Small Amplitude Plane Capillary Waves

Additional assumptions:
1. Two dimensional
2. Small amplitude waves
3. Constant pressure at surface
4. Surface tension incorporated
Since the interface has zero mass, the sum of the forces acting
upon it at any instant must be identically zero,
(p po )x sin + ( + ) sin( + ) = 0
where is the surface tension.

The units of are force/length.
σ + δσ
θ + δθ
Po
θ
P(x,t)
σ
∆x
y
Surface Tension
The surface angle is
tan @
@x
Assuming 1, the equilibrium condition becomes
@ 2 + @ @ = 0
p po + @x 2 @x @x
For many applications, may be assumed constant and thus,

@ 2 = 0
p po + @x 2
The pressure boundary condition becomes

@ @ 2 + g = 0
@t @x2
The remaining boundary conditions are the same as employed

for the previous analysis.
The governing equation and boundary conditions yield
0 1
g k 2
c = k 1 + g A tanh kh
2 @
which reduces to the previous results for gravity waves when

k2 1
g
which implies
v
u
2 u
t
g
For an air-water interface at 20C, this implies
1:7 cm
q
Surface waves with = O( =g ) are called capillary waves.
Group Velocity
Consider two planar deep water waves with same amplitude ,
but slightly dierent wavenumbers k and k0 , and thus slightly
dierent wave frequencies ! and !0 .
The solutions for the velocity potentials may be superimposed

to lowest order, and thus the surface elevation is
(x; t) = sin(kx" !t) + sin(k0x !0 t)#
= 2 cos 1 (k k0)x 1 (! !0 )t
"21 2
1 #
,! sin 2 (k + k )x 2 (! + ! )t
0 0
where k k0 k and ! !0 !.
This represents a train of waves of wavenumber k but of
elevation which varies with x at any instant of time. The
envelope of the wave elevation has wavenumber
(k k0 )
kenvelope = 2 k
and frequency
(! !0 )
!envelope = 2 !
The speed of propogation of the envelope is
(! ! 0)
cenvelope = (k k0 )
which in the limit k0 ! k becomes
cg = d!
dk = d(kc) = c + k dc
dk dk
and is known as the group velocity.

For deep water gravity waves,
cg = 12 cphase
while for deep water capillary waves,
cg = 23 cphase
Question:
Consider two waves of wavelength k and k0 approaching an observer. The most
prominent feature is the envelope. What is the relative motion of the individual crests
with respect to the envelope for deep water gravity waves ? for deep water capilliary
waves ?
Complex Potential for 2-D Gravity Waves

Consider a monochromatic surface wave
= sin k(x ct)
in a uid of depth h.
It was previously shown that the corresponding velocity
potential is
(x; y; t) = c cos k(x ct) [sinh ky + coth kh cosh ky]

with the dispersion formula
c2 = kg tanh kh
The streamfunction may be obtained directly by integration

of the equations
@ = @
@y @x
@ = @
@x @y
to yield
(x; y; t) = c sin k(x ct) [cosh ky + coth kh sinh ky]
Using the trigonometric identities
sin i = i sinh
cos i = cosh
the complex potential F + i is
F (z; t) = c csch kh [cos ikh cos k(z ct) sin ikh sin k(z ct)]
= c csch kh cos k(z ct + ih)
where csch kh = 1= sinh kh.

Particle Paths for 2-D Gravity Waves
Consider the Lagrangian description of a uid particle.
Denote the Cartesian coordinates of the particle by
(xp(t); yp(t)).
Form the complex particle position zp(t)
zp(t) xp (t) + iyp(t)

Thus,
dzp = dxp + i dyp
dt dt dt
and
dzp = dxp i dyp
dt dt dt
where zp represents the complex conjugate. Since the
Lagrangian particle velocity equals the Eulerian uid velocity
at a point,
dzp = u iv
dt
and hence
dzp = dF
dt dz
The previous expression for the complex potential may be
dierentiated to yield
dzp = kc csch kh sin k(z ct + ih)
dt
The interpretation of the terms on the right side is important.
At any instant of time, the complex coordinate z on the right
side is the location of the particle, thus the equation is
interpreted as
dzp = kc csch kh sin k(z ct + ih)
p
dt
Assuming small waves (i.e., k 1), the location zp of the
particle may be assumed to vary only slightly in time.
Thus, the coordinate zp is assumed approximately constant in
the right side, and integrating
zp(t) zp(to) = csch kh [cos k(z ct + ih) cos k(zp(to) cto + ih)]
and
zp(t) A = csch kh cos k(z ct + ih)
where
A = zp (to) csch kh cos k(zp(to) cto + ih)
Now the temporal mean value of the right side is zero,
Z
0
csch kh cos k(z ct + ih) dt = 0
where 2=! is the period of the travelling wave.
Dening
zp zp(t) A
it is evident that zp represents the complex conjugate of the
deviation of the particle from its average position.
It is therefore evident that
zp =
F (z )
c
and hence
xp = + cos k(x ct) [sinh ky + coth kh cosh ky]
yp = sin k(x ct) [cosh ky + coth kh sinh ky]
Using the trigonometric identity
sin2 + cos2 = 1
the particle trajectories satisfy

x2p yp2
+ =1
2 [sinh ky + coth kh cosh ky]2 2 [cosh ky + coth kh sinh ky]2
which represents an ellipse.
For deep water gravity waves,
x2p + yp2 = (eky )2
which represents a circle with radius eky .
Standing Waves
Consider two travelling waves with same wavenumber k
moving in opposite directions
1(x; t) = 1 sin k(x ct)
2(x; t) = 2 sin k(x + ct)
Within the approximations described previously, the complex

potentials, and hence the wave elevations, may be
superimposed.
Assuming 1 = 2,
(x; t) = 1(x; t) + 2(x; t)
= sin kx cos !t
where ! kc is the wave frequency.

The corresponding complex potential is
F (z; t) = c csch kh sin k(z + ih) sin !t
By analysis similar to travelling waves, the complex conjugate
of the deviation of a particle from its average position is
zp = csch kh cos !t [cos kx cosh k(y + h) i sin kx sinh k(y + h)]
Express zp in polar form,
zp rpei p
Thus,
r
rp = csch kh cos !t cos2 kx cosh2 k(y + h) + sin2 kx sinh2 k(y + h)
p = tan 1 ftan kx tanh k(y + h)g
For xed x and y, the polar angle p of the particle motion

(relative to its average position) is a constant, and the radius
rp varies with time.
The nodes are the locations xn where the surface elevation is
constant (and zero)
(xn; t) = 0
and thus
kxn = n
where n = 0; 1; 2; : : : .

From
zp = csch kh cos !t [cos kx cosh k(y + h) i sin kx sinh k(y + h)]
it is evident that
xpjnode = ( 1)n csch kh cos !t cosh k(y + h)

ypjnode = 0
which indicates horizontal motion.

Note that the particle motion at successive nodes correlates with the wave
motion between the nodes in the sense of conservation of mass
Waves in Cylindrical Domain
Reference: I. G. Currie, Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids, pp. 205-209.
The previous analyses considered innite domains (in x and z ).
It was observed that there were no restrictions on the
wavelength for standing or travelling gravity and/or capillary
waves.
Consider a cylindrical container of radius a with an average

depth h.
2a
h
z
r θ
Laplace's equation in cylindrical polar coordinates in
1 @ @ ! 1 @ 2 @ 2
r @r r @r + r2 @2 + @z 2 = 0
The linearized boundary conditions at the surface are
@ @ = 0
@t @z
@ + g = 0
@t
applied at z = h for 0 r a.
The boundary condition at the lower surface is
@ = 0
@z
applied at z = 0 for 0 r a.
The boundary condition at the wall of the cylinder is
@ = 0
@r
applied at r = a for 0 z h.
Using separation of variables,
(r; ; z; t) = R(r)()Z (z ) sin !t

where ! is the frequency. This form implies a solution for
standing waves.
Substitution into Laplace's equation yields,
() = A1 sin m + A2 cos m

Z (z ) = B1 sinh kz + B2 cosh kz
where m must be an integer in order to satisfy
(r; + 2; z; t) = (r; ; z; t)

The remaining dierential equation is
d dR !
r dr r dr + k2 r2 m2 R = 0
which is Bessel's equation of order m.

The general solution to Bessel's equation is
R(r) = D1mJm (kr) + D2mYm(kr)
where Jm and Ym are Bessel functions of the rst and second

kinds, respectively, and D1m and D2m are constants.
The function Ym(kr) is singular at r = 0, however, and thus
D2m = 0
for all m.
Therefore, the solution is
m(r; ; z; t) = (A1m sin m + A2m cos m)

(B1m sinh kz + B2m cosh kz ) Jm (kr) sin !t
where the subscript m has been added to A and B denoting

the dependence on m.
Applying the boundary condition at z = 0,
B1m = 0
The boundary condition on the pressure @=@t + g = 0 can

be dierentiated with respect to time yielding

@ 2 + g @ = 0
@t2 @z
which determines the dispersion formula
!2 = gk tanh kh
The solution is therefore
m(r; ; z; t) = (E1m sin m + E2m cos m) cosh kzJm (kr) sin !t
The boundary condition at r = a requires
Jm0 (ka) = 0
where the prime denotes dierentiation. There are a countably
innite number of solutions to this equation denoted as
Jm0 (kmna) = 0
where n = 1; 2; : : :. The rst few values for m = 0 are
n k0n a
0 3.832
1 7.016
2 10.174
The solution is
mn(r; ; z; t) = (E1mn sin m + E2mn cos m) cosh(kmn z )Jm(kmn r) sin !mn t
and the general solution is therefore

1 X
X 1
(r; ; z; t) = mn (r; ; z; t)
m=0 n=0
The constants E1mn and E2mn are determined from

@ + g = 0
@t
at t = 0 and the initial specication of the surface (r; ; t)jt=0.
Rayleigh-Taylor Instability
Reference: I. G. Currie, Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids, pp. 209-214.
Consider two incompressible uids of densities 1 and 2 and
mean velocities U1 and U2.
Consider a two-dimensional, monochromatic surface

displacement
n ct) o
(x; t) = R eik(x
where is real and R implies the real part.
U2
Surface
U1
Express
c = cr + ici
where cr and ci are real numbers. Then, the surface is stable if
and only if ci 0.
2 Verication by member of class
The uid is assumed irrotational and semi-innite in both
regions.
The kinematic boundary conditions at the interface are
@ + U @ @1 = 0
@t 1 @x @y
@ + U @ @2 = 0
@t 2 @x @y
where 1 and 2 are the perturbation velocity potentials in the
lower and upper regions, respectively.
The pressure boundary condition, neglect surface tension

eects, is
1 @
@t
1
+ 1U1 @1 + 1g = 2 @2 + 2U2 @2 + 2g
@x @t @x
All boundary conditions are applied at the mean elevation
y = 0.
The solution is
1(x; y; t) = A1e+ky eik(x ct)

2(x; y; t) = A2e ky eik(x ct)
The kinematic boundary condition yields
A1 = +i ( c + U1)
A2 = i ( c + U2)
and the pressure condition implies

v
u
c= 1 U1 + 2 U2 u
ut (1 2) g U1 U2 !2
1 + 2 (1 + 2) k 1 2 1 + 2
Gravity Waves
For 2 = 0,
s
c = U1 kg
which represents gravity waves on a uid with mean velocity
U1. Since c is real, the interface is stable.
Rayleigh Instability
Consider 1 = 2.
This is a shear layer (if U1 6= U2) in a homogeneous uid.
Then,
c = (U1 +2 U2) i (U1 2 U2)
Thus, ci < 0 (for one of the two possible signs) and the
interface is unstable.
This is known as the Rayleigh or Helmholtz instability.
Taylor Instability
Assume U1 = U2 = 0. Then
v
u
u (1 2 ) g
c = u
t
(1 + 2) k
The interface is stable if 1 > 2 and unstable if 2 > 1.

This is known as the Taylor instability.
Gerstner Waves
Reference: C.-S. Yih, Fluid Mechanics, pp. 198-201.
All discussion to date on surface waves has focused on linear
waves.
An exact nonlinear solution of the Euler equations for surface
waves was obtained by Gerstner10.
Consider the Lagrangian coordinates Xi where i = 1; 2; 3.
At time t = 0, consider a rectangular parallelepiped. Along the
edges of the parallelepiped the increments in the Langrangian
coordinates are di where i = 1; 2; 3.
dξ2
dξ3
dξ1
Xii(t)
y
10Gerstner, F., \Theorie der Wellen", Abhandl. Kgl. Bohm. Ges. Wiss., 1802.
The volume of the parallelepiped is
dV = @ (@X(1;;X 2;;X)3) d1d2d3

1 2 3
From the conservation of mass,
dV = @ (@X(1;;X 2;;X)3) d1d2d3 = constant

1 2 3
where the constant depends on the initial parallelepiped only,

and the density is not necessarily constant.
@ 2Xi = 1 @p + F
@t2 @Xi i
where p is the static pressure and Fi is the body force per unit
mass.
Multiplying by @Xi=@j and summing over i,
0 2 1
@ @ Xi FiA @Xi + 1 @p = 0
@t2 @j @j
Assume two-dimensional motion in the x y plane, with
gravity acting in the negative y direction. Thus, F1 = 0 and
F2 = g.
A solution is
X = + k1 ek sin k( ct)

Y = k1 ek cos k( ct)
where X X1, Y X2, 1, 2, and c and k are
constants.
Note that c is a phase velocity and k is a wavenumber.
It may be directly veried that
@ (X; Y ) = 1 e2k
@ (; )
and thus the volume of a parallelepiped is constant.
The momentum equations become
1 @p @ (gY )
+ = kc2ek sin k( ct)
@ @
1 @p + @ (gY ) = kc2 ek cos k( ct) + kc2 e2k
@ @
Multiplying the rst equation by d and the second by d and

integrating,
dp = d g + 1 c2e2k
2
provided
c2 = kg
Assume is a function of only (to be shown).
Then p is a function only of .
Therefore,
X = + k1 ek sin k( ct)

represents an exact wave motion of nite amplitude in a uid
of arbitrary stratication (i.e., = ().)
Gerstner's waves are rotational.
It may be directly shown
2 kce2k
! = 1 e2kb
Demonstrate = ()
Consider a frame of reference moving with velocity c in the
positive x direction. In this frame, the solution is
X = ct + k1 ek sin k( ct)

The rst equation indicates that ct is a function of , k and

X . Substitution (conceptually) into the second equation yields
a (transcendental) equation for the particle position X and Y
which depends only upon , since k is a constant.
Thus, the streamline (in the steady frame of reference) is a
function only of .
The conservation of mass in Eulerian coordinates is
D = @ui
Dt @xi
For an incompressible uid,
@ui 0
@xi
Note that this does not necessarily imply is a constant.
Example: Seawater, where depends on the salinity and thus
typically varies with depth.
Thus, the density is a constant along a streamline.
Hence, for Gerstner waves, is a function of only.
Q.E.D.
Stokes Waves
Reference: C.-S. Yih, Fluid Mechanics, pp. 201-204.
The existence of nonlinear irrotational surface waves in an
incompressible uid was rst investigated by Stokes11.
Consider the velocity potential

(x; y) = c x eky sin kx
where c, k and are constants.
The potential (x; y) exactly satises Laplace's equation.
The corresponding streamfunction is

(x; y) = c y eky cos kx
On the streamline (x; y) = 0
y = eky cos kx
The asymptotic solution, by the method of successive
approximations, is
y = 1 k 2 + 1 + 9 k 2 2 cos kx +
2 8
1 k 2 cos 2kx + 3 k 2 3 cos 3kx + : : :
2 8
11G. G. Stokes, \On the Theory of Oscillatory Waves", Cambridge Trans., Vol. 8, 1847.
Dene the amplitude as the coecient of the term cos kx

a 1 + 89 k2 2
Assuming ka 1, the streamline (x; y) = 0 is
y 1
2 ka2 = a cos kx + 12 ka2 cos 2kx + 83 k2 a3 cos 3kx + O(k3a4)
The pressure is obtained from Bernoulli's equation

p = constant gy 1 2 2
u +v
2
Substituting,
p = constant + kc2 g k3c2 2 y + : : :

and thus the static pressure is constant if
c2 = kg 1 + k2a2 + O(k3a3)

Analysis indicates that the next term is the expansion for c2 is

actually O(k4a4).
0.5
Y 0.0
Stokes’ Wave
Sinusoid
-0.5
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

X
Stokes' Wave for ka = 0.45

Solitary Wave
Solitary Waves
References:
Yih, C.-S., Fluid Mechanics, 1977, pp. 204-206.
Lamb, H., Hydrodynamics, 1932, pp. 423-425
All previous waveforms in innite domains have been innite
wavetrains with periodic structure.
The solitary wave is a traveling wave of permanent form with a
single crest.
Consider a two-dimensional, irrotational ow of a uid of
uniform density.
Assume there exists a steady traveling wave of permanent form
moving with velocity c in the x-direction over a uid of depth
h at innity.
The x y coordinate system is attached to the wave, with
y = 0 representing the (impermeable) lower boundary, and
x=0
corresponding to the wave crest.
The complex potential is
F (z ) = + i
where F (z ) is an analytic function.

F (z ) may be expanded in a Taylor series

X1 dn F (z zo )n
F (z ) = F (zo) + dz n n!
n=1 z=z o
Consider the Taylor series expansion about z = x. Then,
z zo = iy
Furthermore, since F (z ) is analytic, its derivatives dn F=dz n

can be determined by taking the limit z ! zo in any direction
desired.
Thus, selecting z ! zo along the horizontal x direction,
dnF = dnF F (n) (x)
dz n z=z dxn z=x
o
since zo = x.
Thus,
1
X (n)
F (z ) = F (x) + F (x) (iy ) n
n=1 n!
The lower surface y = 0 is a streamline dened by (x; 0) = 0.
Thus, F (x) is real.
Furthermore,
@F = @ + i @ = @
@x @x @x @x
since (x; 0) = 0.
Dierentiating the Taylor series with respect to x and
evaluating at y = 0,
@F (z ) = @F (x)
@x @x
and thus F (1)(x) is real. Similarly, F (n)(x) is real for all n.
Thus, the real and imaginary parts of the Taylor series may be
directly identied and
(x; y) = F (x) y2! F (2)(x) + y4! F (4)(x) + . . .

2 4
(x; y) = yF (1)(x)
y3 F (3) (x) + y5 F (5)(x) + . . .
3! 5!
Since the surface elevation is y = h at x = 1, Bernoulli's

equation applied at the free surface yields
2 2
1
2 u + v + gy = 21 c2 + gh
since the pressure p is constant and the ow velocity at
x = 1 is c.
From the previous expansion,
u = F (1)(x)y2 F (3)(x) + y4 F (5)(x) + . . .

2! 4!
v = y 3 y 5
yF (x) + 3! F (x) 5! F (6)(x) + . . .
(2) (4)
and thus
(1)2
F y2F (1)F (3) + y2 F (2) 2 + . . . = c2 2g (y h)(3)
On the free surface, (x; h) = ch. 2 Why ?
Thus, the free surface is dened by
yF (1) y3 F (3) + y5 F (5) + . . . = ch (4)

3! 5!
Equations (3) and (4) implicitly dene the free surface shape.
Rewriting (4),
8 9
< 1 y 2 =
F (1) = ch : y + 6ch F (3) + . . . ;
Assuming the series inside the brackets f g is convergent, and

consider y to be a function of x dened by (4), yields
0 100
F (3) 1
= ch @ A + . . .
y(x)
where the prime denotes dierentiation with respect to x.

Thus,
8 2 1 !00 9
< 1 y =
F (1) = ch : y + 6 y + . . . ;
Using (3),
1 + 2 y00 1 y02 = 1 2g(y h)

y2 3 y 3 y2 h2 c2h2
to the order indicated in the expansions.
Multiply by y0 and integrating,
1 1 y02 1 (y h) g(y h)2
+ = + 2
y 3y h h c2h2
where the constant of integration is determined by the
boundary condition y0(x) = 0 at y = h (i.e., at x = 1).
Simplifying,
y02 = 3(y h)2 "1 gy #

h2 c2
Note that y0(x) = 0 at y = h (i.e., at x = 1) and y = c2=g
which represents the value of y at the crest.
Dene the maximum elevation a of the surface wave by

ycrest h + a
Thus,
c2 = g(h + a)
This expression agrees with the empirical formula of Scott
Russell12.
Dene
(x) y(x) h
then
d = 1 !1=2
dx b a
where
b2 h 2 (h + a)
3a
and the solution is
(x) = a sech2 x!
2b
12Russell, S., \Report on Waves", Brit. Assoc. Report, 1844.
2 Is this an exact solution ?

The gure on page 1 corresponds to a = h=2 and thus b = h.
This analysis was originally developed by Rayleigh13.
An independent analysis was presented by Boussinesq14.
Internal Waves in a Stratied Fluid
References:
Yih, C.-S., Fluid Mechanics, 1977, pp. 228 f.
All previous surface waves (with the exception of Gerstner
waves) have involved constant density uids.
A typical property of these surface waves (e.g., surface gravity
and capillary waves, surface waves in nite containers, Stokes
waves, solitary waves, etc.) is the absence of an internal
horizontal nodal plane, i.e., a plane where the vertical velocity
was zero.
Stratied uids exhibit internal waves, i.e., wave motion within
the uid manifesting one or more horizontal nodal planes.
A stratied uid is an incompressible uid
@ui = 0
@xi
13Rayleigh, \On Waves", Phil. Mag. (5), i. 257, 1876. Lord Rayleigh's actual name
was John William Strutt (1842-1919).
14Boussinesq, Comptes Rendus, June 19, 1871.
with a non-constant density (x; y; z; t) satisfying

@ + u @ = 0
@t i @xi
This is equivalent to D=Dt = 0.
Du
Dt
i
=
@p + F
@xi i
Governing Equation
Consider a two-dimensional statied uid with
= (x; y; t)
@=@y < 0
F1 = 0 and F2 = g
Consider small perturbations to a quiescent, stably stratied
ow
(x; y; t) = (y) + 0 (x; y; t)

p(x; y; t) = p(y) + p0 (x; y; t)
where d=dy < 0 (i.e., stably stratied).

The velocity components u(x; y; t) and v(x; y; t) are not

expanded since their quiescent values are zero.
The quiescent density and pressure satisfy
0=
@ p g
@y
The full conservation of momentum is
( + 0 ) @u + u @u + v @u ! = @ p @p0
@t @x @y ! @x @x
( + 0 ) @v + u @v + v @v = @ p @p0 ( + 0 )g
@t @x @y @y @y
Thus, neglecting quadratic terms,
@u @p0
@t = @x0
@v
@t =
@p 0g
@y
The pressure may be eliminated by cross dierentiation

@ @u ! @ @v ! g @0 = 0 (5)
@y @t @x @t @x
The condition of incompressibility

@u + @v = 0
@x @y
is identically satised by the introduction of a streamfunction
u = @@y and v = @@x
Anticipating travelling waves, the streamfunction is written

n o
(x; y; t) = R f (y)eik(x ct)
where f (y) is complex and the real R part of the right side is
used.
Thus,
df eik(x ct)
u = + dy
v = ikfeik(x ct) (6)
The conservation of mass becomes

@0 + u @0 + v @ + v @0 = 0
@t @x @y @y
Neglecting terms quadratic in the perturbations,
@0 + v d = 0
@t dy
The conservation of mass suggests
0 (x; y; t) = a(y)eik(x ct)
Thus the conservation of mass yields
ikc0 = v ddy
Consider the reduction of (5).

The third term in (5) may be expressed
0
g @
@x = gik0
= gv d
c dy
Using (6), equation (5) becomes
d df ! k2 1 + 1 g d! f = 0
dy dy 2 dy
where kc has the units of frequency.
Boundary Condition at y = 0
Consider a stratied uid of mean depth h with the bottom
corresponding to y = 0.
The boundary condition at y = 0 is v = 0, and thus
f (0) = 0
Boundary Condition at y = h
Consider two possible upper boundary conditions
Rigid upper boundary at y = h

Free surface y = h + (x; t) where h is the mean depth
and the perturbation is small.
In the rst case, the boundary condition is
f (h) = 0
In the second case, the exact boundary condition (neglecting

surface tension) is
(p(y) + p0 (x; y; t))jy=h+(x;t) = 0

Expanding in a Taylor series about y = h

0
p(h) + p0(x; h; t) + ddyp (x; t) + @p
@y (x; t) + : : : = P
where P is a constant.
From the conservation of momentum, it is recognized that the
fourth term is quadratic, and thus
dp(x; t)
p0 (x; h; t) = dy
and from the quiescent momentum equation

p0 (x; h; t) (h) g (x; t) = 0
From the momentum equation,
df eik(x ct)
p0 = c dy
Furthermore, the kinematic condition at the free surface

@ + u @ = v
@t @x
is linearized about the mean surface (y = h)
@ = v
@t
Thus, from v = @ =@x,
(x; t) = fc eik(x ct)
and the free surface boundary condition (at y = h) becomes
df gf =0
dy c2
Summary
d df ! k2 1 + 1 g d! f = 0
dy dy 2 dy
f = 0 at y = 0
f = 0 at y = h
or df g2 f = 0 at y = h
dy c
(7)
The governing equation and boundary conditions are solved for

a given mean density prole (y).
Discussion
The governing equations and boundary conditions represent a
Sturm-Liouville-B^ocher system.
The eigenvalues of the wavenumber k are determined in solving
the governing equations with specied frequency kc and
mean density prole (y).
Solutions are usually obtained numerically, although important
general results may be derived analytically.
Maximum Frequency with Rigid Boundaries
Consider internal waves in a stratied uid with rigid lower
and upper boundaries.
It is evident that if f (y) is a solution, then f (y) is also a
solution. Thus, it may be assumed that df=dy > 0 at y = 0
with no loss of generality.
2 Is it possible that df =dy = 0 at y = 0 ?
Integrating
Zy
df (y ) df
(y) dy = dy + 0 k2 (y0)
(y0) f (y0) dy0 (8)
y=0
where

(y) 1 + 12 g d
dy
Assume
(y) > 0 for 0 y h.
Then, as y increases from y = 0, equation (8) implies that
df (y)=dy is always positive, and thus f (y) > 0 for y > 0.
Hence, the upper boundary condition f (h) = 0 cannot be
satised.
Dene
v
u
BV t g dy
u d
where BV is known as the Brunt-Vaisala frequency.

Then
(y) > 0 implies
1 BV !2 > 0

or
> BV
Hence, for a stratied uid contained within rigid horizontal
boundaries, wave motion is infeasible for frequencies greater
than the Brunt-Vaisala frequency.
Summary
d df ! k2
f = 0
dy dy
f = 0 at y = 0
f = 0 at y = h
or
df g f = 0 at y = h
dy c2
where

(y) 1
BV !2

with
v
u
BV t g dy
u d
The governing equation and boundary conditions are solved for

a given mean density prole (y).
What is the nature of the eigenvalue problem ?
No wavemotion is feasible for > BV (y).
Thus, for internal waves
(y) < 0 in some portion (or all) of
oweld.
Theorem
If the depth is nite, then for any k2 the eigenvalues of c2 for
internal waves have a nite maximum and converge to zero as
the number of nodal planes increases indenitely. Hence, for
each k2 there are an innite number of modes of internal
waves. This result is applicable for a rigid upper boundary or

free surface.
Discussion
Integrating,
Zy
df (y ) df
(y) dy = dy + 0 k2 (y0)
(y0) f (y0) dy0
y=0
Without loss of generality, assume df=dy > 0 at y = 0.

As seen previously, if > BV (y) for 0 < y < h, then no wave
motion is possible for any value of k.
Assume that is suciently small that
(y) < 0 in the
vicinity of y = 0. Then it is evident that can be taken
suciently small that df (y)=dy becomes negative at some y
and remains negative for some distance in y thereafter.
Hence, f (y) can be made to eventually become zero at y < h.
If
(y) is still negative, then the sign of the integrand changes
with the change in sign of f (y), and an oscillatory (in y)
behavior of f is observed.
The number of zeros of f (y) in 0 < y < h increase as
decreases for xed k.
Low Reynolds Number Flow
References
Currie, I. G., Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids, 1974, pp. 252-275.
Yih, C.-S., Fluid Mechanics, 1977, pp. 362-382.
Batchelor, G., An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, 1967, pp. 216-245.
Introduction
Many practical problems in uid mechanics involve low
Reynolds numbers, for example:
Lubrication
Drops and bubbles
Bio uidynamics
See, for example,
H. Hasimoto and O. Sano, \Stokeslets and Eddies in

Creeping Flow", Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Vol.
12, 1980, pp. 335-363.
J. Brady and G. Bossis, \Stokesian Dynamics", Annual
Review of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 20, 1988, pp. 111-157.
The Stokes Equations

Consider an incompressible, viscous uid. The governing
dimensional equations are
@ui = 0
@xi
@ui + u @ui = 1 @p + @ 2ui
@t j @xj @xi @x2j
Non-dimensionalize the equations according to
xi = Lx~i
L 2
t = t~
ui = U u~i
p = U
L p~
where ~ indicates a dimensionless quantity.

Dropping the ~ for convenience,
@ui = 0
@xi
0 1
@ui + Re @u @ui A = @p + @ 2ui
j
@t @xj @xi @x2j
where Re UL= is the Reynolds number.

The boundary conditions for ow past a solid body are
ui = 0 on a stationary solid boundary
ui = U1 at innity
The limiting form of the governing equations as Re ! 0 is

@ui = 0
@xi
@ui = @p + @ 2ui
@t @xi @x2j
which are known as Stokes equations.
The solution to Stokes equations, subject to the specied
boundary conditions, can be considered to be the rst term in
an asymptotic expansion in Re.
It is important to note that the Stokes equations are the same
mathematical order as the Navier-Stokes equations, and hence
the nature and number of the boundary conditions remains the
same.
A similar asymptotic expansion for high Reynolds number

leads (formally, at least) to the Euler equations whose
mathematical order is reduced. The boundary conditions for
the Euler equations are not the same as those for the
Navier-Stokes equations, thus requiring the introduction of a
boundary layer in which the governing equations are scaled in
such a manner as to include viscous diusion.
An alternate form of Stokes equations may be obtained by
taking r r of the momentum equation, and utilizing the
identity
r (r ~a) = r (r ~a) r2~a

Note that r2~a can be written in Cartesian tensor form as @ 2a =@x2.
i j
However, in other coordinates (e.g., spherical polar), r2~a must be properly

interpreted. See, for example, Appendix 2 of Yih, C.-S., Fluid Mechanics.
This yields,
@ 2 @ui ! = @ 4ui
@x2j @t @x2j @x2k
wherein the pressure p does not appear. An equation can be
obtained for the pressure alone by taking the divergence of the
momentum equation and using conservation of mass
@ 2p = 0
@x2j
3
Since the Stokes equations are linear, it is useful to seek
fundamental solutions in a manner similar to the investigation
of potential ows.
The Rotlet
Consider a steady oweld of the form
~v = ~r r
where (x; y; z ) is a scalar function and r is the position
vector.
In Cartesian tensor notation
@
ui = ijk xj @x
k
where ijk is the cyclic tensor,

8
>
< +1 if i; j; k are cyclically increasing (e.g., 1 2 3, 2 3 1, etc)
>
ijk = > 1 if i; j; k are cyclically decreasing (e.g., 2 1 3, etc.)
>
: 0 if any two of the indices i; j; k are the same
The divergence of the velocity is

0 1
@ui = @ @xj @ + x @ 2 A
@xi ijk @xi @xk j @xi @xk
Now
ijk @xj
@xi = 0
Also, the term xj @ 2=@xi @xk is symmetric in i and k, and
thus its product with ijk is zero.
2 Why ?
Thus, ~v = ~r r satises conservation of mass for any
(x; y; z ).
Assume the static pressure p is a constant.
Stokes equations become
@ 2ui = 0
@x2l
Substituting
0 1
@ 2ui = @ @ 2xj @ + 2 @xj @ 2 + x @ 3 A
@x2l ijk @x2l @xk @xl @xl @xk j @x2l @xk
This becomes
0 1
@ 2ui = x @ @ @ 2 A
@x2l ijk j @xk @x2l
Any function satisfying Laplace's equation
@ 2 = 0
@x2i
therefore yields a velocity
@
ui = ijk xj @x
k
which satises Stokes equations with p = constant.

Consider the rst fundamental solution of Laplace's equation
in spherical coordinates
= A
r
where r2 = x2 + y2 + z 2.
This yields ui = 0.
Consider the second fundamental solution
= B cos2
r
where cos x=r. This corresponded to a doublet aligned
with the x axis in potential ow.
The velocity is
~v = B ~er
r2
~ex
where ~er is the unit vector is the direction of the position

vector ~r and ~ex is the unit vector in the x direction.
The streamlines are concentric circles about the x axis.
Y
Rotlet r
X
The Rotlet
Ref: Currie, I. G., Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids, 1974, pp. 252-275.
The rotlet is
@
ui = ijk xj @x
k
where
= B cos2
r
Y
Rotlet r
X
where cos x=r and r2 = x2 + y2 + z 2 = x21 + x22 + x23.

The rotlet does not exert a force on the uid. Consider a
spherical control volume surrounding the rotlet. The force on
the control volume surface is
Z
Fi = S
( pij + ij ) nj dS
where nj are the the Cartesian components of the outwards

normal and ij is the viscous stress tensor.
Since the static pressure p is constant, there is no contribution
to the integral. Since ui r 2 and dS r2, Fi r 1 and thus
taking the sphere to innity, Fi = 0.
The rotlet does exert a moment on the uid. The moment is
Z
M~ S ~r T~ dS
where T~ is the surface traction. In Cartesian notation

Z
Mi = S ijk xj Tk dS
where
Tk = kl nl
and
@u @u !
k l
kl = p kl + @x + @x
l k
Since p is constant, it does not contribute to the moment.

Since nl = xl =r for a sphere,
Z @u @u !
k l
Mi = r S ijk xj xl @x + @x dS
l k
Employing the velocity distribution,
xl @uk
@x = 2uk
l
2 Homework Problem
Also,
@ul = @ (x u ) u @xl
xl @x
k @xk l l l
@xk
The rst term on the right is zero since ~r ~v is zero.
2 Why is ~r ~v = 0?
Thus,
@ul = u
xl @x k
k
and
Z
Mi = 3r S ijk xj uk dS
and
M1 = 8B
M2 = 0
M3 = 0
2 Homework Problem
The Stokeslet
Recall that the Stokes equations are
@ui = 0
@xi
@ui = @p + @ 2ui
@t @xi @x2j
Additionally, the divergence of the momentum equation yields
@ 2p = 0
@x2j
The rotlet is characterized by a constant p.

Instead, consider a non-uniform pressure obtained as a solution
of Laplace's equation, and then obtain the corresponding
velocity from the momentum equation.
This yields other fundamental solution(s) of Stokes' equations.
In general, these solutions correspond to an innite ow
domain.
The rst fundamental solution of Laplace's equation is
p = Ar
This does not lead to a particularly interesting solution for the

velocity.
2 Homework Problem
The second fundamental solution of Laplace's equation is
p = 2c xr31
where the constant has been taken to be equal to 2c for

convenience and r2 x2i .
Therefore
0 1
@ 2u1 = c @ 2 6 x21 A
@x2i r3 r5
The solution is
cx 2
u1 = r31 + u~1
where u~1 is any harmonic function.

Then
@ 2u2 = 6c x1 x2
@x2i r5
The solution is
u2 = cxr13x2 + u~2

And
@ 2u3 = 6c x1 x3
@x2i r5
The solution is
u3 = cxr13x3 + u~3
Thus,
ui = cxr13xi + u~i
Substitution into the conservation of mass yields
@ui = cx1 + @ u~i
@xi r3 @xi
The harmonic function u~i must therefore satisfy
@ 2u~i = 0
@x2j
and
@ u~i = cx1
@xi r3
The solution is
u~1 = c=r
u~2 = 0
u~3 = 0
The solution is
p = 2c xr31
0 2 1
x 1
u1 = c @ r31 + r A
u2 = cxr13x2
u3 = cxr13x3
This is known as a Stokeslet.

The force exerted by the Stokeslet on the uid is
Z
Fi = S
( pij + ij ) nj dS
After some analysis,
F1 = 8c
F2 = 0
F3 = 0
The Stokeslet does not exert a moment on the uid.

Rotating Sphere
Consider a sphere of radius a rotating with angular velocity
in an otherwise undisturbed uid. Assume the axis of rotation

is the x axis.
Assume the Reynolds number Re
a2= 1. Thus, Stokes'
equations are a rst approximation to the governing equations.
@ui = 0
@xi
@ui = @p + @ 2ui
@t @xi @x2j
The boundary conditions on the sphere surface are
~v =
a~er ~ex
where ~er is the unit vector in the r direction.

The outer boundary condition is ~v ! 0 as r ! 1.
The Stokes' equations and boundary conditions are satised by
a rotlet provided
B =
a3
The moment acting on the sphere is equal in magnitude and

opposite in sign to the moment acting on the uid, and thus

the moment acting on the sphere is
M1 = 8
a3
Uniform Flow Past a Sphere

Consider the superposition of the fundamental solutions
corresponding to uniform ow, a doublet and a stokeslet
0 1 0 1
u1 = U + A @ 13 x 2
1 x2 1
3 5 + c 31 + A
A @
r r r r
u2 = 3A xr1x5 2 + cxr13x2
u3 = 3A xr1x5 3 + cxr13x3
p = 2c xr31
This expression satises Stokes' equations, and the boundary

condition u1 ! U; u2 ! 0; u3 ! 0 as r ! 1.
To examine whether it is possible to satisfy the no-slip
condition at r = a, consider setting ui = 0 at
x1 = a; x2 = 0; x3 = 0 which corresponds to the rear stagnation
point.
This yields
U + aA3 + ac = 0
3 A3 + c = 0
a a
thus
A = 1
4 Ua3
c = 3 Ua
4
Therefore, using vector notation, the solution is

82 0 13 0 1 9
<
~v = U :41 1 a @ a2 + 3A5 ~e + 3 ax1 @ a2 1A ~e =
x r;
4 r r2 4 r2 r2
p = 3 U ax1
2 r3
where it is evident that the solution for ~v satises the no-slip
condition at r = a.
The force on the sphere is equal and opposite to the force on
the uid. There are no contributions to the force from the
uniform ow and doublet, and thus the force arises from the
Stokeslet only
F1 = 6Ua F2 = 0 F3 = 0
and the corresponding drag coecient, relative to the frontal

area a2 is
Cd = 1 UF21a2 = Re
24
2
where Re 2Ua= . This result has been found experimentally

to be valid for Re < 1.
Uniform Flow Past a Circular Cylinder
References:
Batchelor, G., An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, 1970, pp. 240 .
Currie, I. G., Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids, 1974, pp. 270-275.
Van Dyke, M., Perturbation Methods in Fluid Mechanics, 1964, Chap. 8.
Consider steady, two dimensional viscous ow past a right
circular cylinder at low Reynolds numbers.
The dimensional governing equations are
@u + @v = 0
@x @y
0 1
@p + @ @ 2u + @ 2u A = 0
@x @x2 @y2
0 1
@p + @ @ 2v + @ 2v A = 0
@y @x2 @y2
The curl of the momentum equation yields

@ 2 ! + @ 2! = 0
@x2 @y2
where ! is the vorticity
@v @u
! = @x @y
2 Why is there only one component of vorticity in 2-D ow ?
Dening the streamfunction
@ u; @ v
@y @x
and thus
@2 + @2 = !
@x2 @y2
and hence satises the biharmonic equation
0 2 2 12
@ @ @ A =0
@x2+ 2 @y
Consider the non-dimensionalization
= Ua ~
r = ar~
where a is the radius of the cylinder.

Drop the~for simplicity of notation.
In cylindrical coordinates, the dimensionless streamfunction
satises
0 2 2 12
@
@ + 1 @ 1 @ A =0
@r2 r @r + r2 @2
The boundary condition at the surface of the cylinder r = 1 is
= 0
@ = 0
@r
The boundary condition at innity is

! r sin as r ! 1
This latter boundary condition suggests a solution of the form
for the dimensionless streamfunction
(r; ) = f (r) sin
Substitution into the biharmonic equation for yields
A !
(r; ) = sin + Br + Cr log r + Dr 3
r
The boundary conditions at the surface imply

0 1
(r; ) = sin @ (1+ ) 1 1 r + (1+2 ) r log r r3A
2 r 2 2
where and are constants.

The boundary condition at r ! 1 cannot be satised for any
value of , however.
It is evident that a uniformly valid solution of Stokes'
equations for low Reynolds number ow past a circular
cylinder does not exist. The paradox arise from the neglect of
the convective terms.
The proper solution of the problem requires the modication of
the governing equations to incorporate the convective terms.
The rst work in this area was published by Oseen in 1910 (see
references).
Lubrication Theory
Ref: Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, 1968, pp. 108 .
Consider the two dimensional ow betwen a slide block and
guide surface.
The guide surface moves with velocity U . The slide block is
xed. The pressure at the entrance and exit is ambient po .
slide block
guide surface
U
Figure 1: Bearing
The inertia and viscous forces may be estimated
@u
inertial forces u U 2
@x l
and
@
viscous forces 2 U2
2u
@y h
and thus
inertial forces Ul h !2 Re
^
viscous forces l
Thus, provided Re^ 1, the governing dimensional equations
to lowest order are expected to be Stokes' equations
@u + @v = 0
@x @y
0 1
@p + @ @ 2u + @ 2u A = 0
@x @x2 @y2
0 1
@p + @ @ 2v + @ 2v A = 0
@y @x2 @y2
Since the height h is small compared to the length l,

@ 2u @ 2u
@x2 @y2
Similarly, since the pressure is equal to the ambient pressure po
at the entrance and exit, we expect
@p @p
@y @x
Thus, the x momentum equation becomes
dp + @ 2u = 0
dx @y2
the y momentum equation can be neglected, and the
conservation of mass is replaced by a condition of constant
volume ux
Z h(x)
Q= 0
udy = constant
where h(x) is the local height of the bearing channel.

u = U on y = 0
u = 0 on y = h(x)
p = po at x = 0
p = po at x = l
The solution is
0 1
u(x; y) = @U h2p0 y A 1 y !
2 h h
where p0 dp=dx and h is a function of x.
The pressure gradient p0 is determined by Q = constant,
Uh h3 p0
Q = 2 12
and
p0 = 12 U Q!
2h2 h3
Integrating p(x) = po + Rox p0 dx, and requiring p(l) = po,
Rl 2
U
Q = 2 Rol hh 3dx
dx
o
Dene the characteristic thickness of the channel

Zl ! Zl ! 1
H o
h 2 dx
o
h 3 dx
which depends only on the channel geometry.

Then,
Q = 12 UH
and
p(x) = po + 6Ub1 (x) 12Qb2 (x)
where
Z h(x)
b1(x) o h 2dx
Z h(x)
b2(x) o h 3dx
and thus
!
6 U H
p0 = h2 1 h
Wedge Shaped Bearing

To achieve a positive pressure p > po , it is evident that p0 > 0
over part of the bearing. This is achieved for a wedge shaped
bearing as indicated in Fig. 1. Writing
h(x) = (a x) tan (a x)
where is the wedge angle in radians,
Q = U a(2(aa ll))
and
p(x) = po + 6U hx2(2

(l x)
a l)
Describing the wedge shaped channel in terms of the inlet and
exit heights h1 and h2, respectively, where h1 > h2,
H = (h2h+1hh2 )
1 2
The resultant vertical force due to the pressure is

Zl 2 3
Fy o pdx = ( 1)2h2 4log 2((+1)1) 5
Ul
6 2
2
where h1=h2.
Michell15 found the resultant force has a maximum for 2:2
with
Fymax Ul
0:16 h2
2
2
The horizontal force on the guide surface is

Z l @u 2 3
Ul
Fx o @y dx = ( 1)h 44 log 6( 1) 5
y=0 2 ( +1)
For 2:2,
Fx 0:75 Ul
h 2
The kinetic coecient of friction & is dened by
G &F
and thus for maximum Fy ,
& 4:7 hl2
and therefore & can be very small.

15Michell, A., Z. Math. u. Physik, Vol. 52, 1905, p. 123.
Lubrication Theory
Ref: Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, 1968, pp. 108 .
Y
slide block
guide surface
U
Figure 2: Bearing
The center of pressure is located at
8 9
xc = 21 l : (21) (2 1 2 log ) =
<
[(2 1) log 2( 1)2 ] ;
where = h1=h2.
For 1, the pressure distribution approximates a parabola
with maximum pressure at x 21 l.
At x = 12 l,
pmax = U (2a l l)h2

2
m
where the height distribution h(x) is
h(x) = (x a)
and hm h( 12 l).
The magnitude of the maximum pressure can be signicant.
For example, consider U = 30 ft/s, = 8 10 4 lbf-sec/ft2,
l = 4 in, hm = 0:008 in. This yields pmax = 41:7 lbf/in2.
Hele-Shaw Flow
References:
Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, 1968, pp. 114 .
Liggett, J., Fluid Mechanics, 1994, pp. 166
Consider slow viscous ow between parallel plates separated by
a distance 2h. An obstacle (e.g., a cylinder) is placed between
the plates. The x y plane is parallel to the plates and
midway between the plates.
The velocity prole far upstream of the obstacle corresponds to
fully developed channel ow
0 1
u = U1 @1 z 2 A ; v = 0; w = 0
h2
Stokes equations are

@u + @v + @w = 0
@x @y @z
0 1
1 @p + @ @ 2u + @ 2u + @ 2u A = 0
@x @x2 @y2 @z 2
0 1
1 @p + @ @ 2v + @ 2v + @ 2v A = 0
@y @x2 @y2 @z 2
0 1
1 @p @ @ 2w @ 2w @ 2w A
@z + @x2 + @y2 + @z 2 = 0
Solution
A solution of Stokes equations is
0 1
u = u^(x; y) @1 z2 A
0
h2 1
v = v^(x; y) @1 z2 A
h2
w = 0
2 Z x
p = p^(x; y) h2 x u^(x; y)dx o
where u^(x; y); v^(x; y) are solutions to the 2-D potential ow

around the cylinder with corresponding pressure p^(x; y)
@ u^ + @ v^ = 0
@x @y
@ u^ + v^ @ u^ =
u^ @x 1 @ p^
@y @x
@ v^ + v^ @ v^ =
u^ @x 1 @ p^
@y @y
Explanation
Substitution of the solution into conservation of mass yields
@ u^ + @ v^ = 0
@x @y
Substitution into the x momentum equation yields
@ 2u^ + @ 2u^ = 0
@x2 @y2
and likewise into the y momentum equation yields
@ 2v^ + @ 2v^ = 0
@x2 @y2
where the continuity equation @ u^=@x + @ v^=@y = 0 has been
used.
Thus, u^(x; y) and v^(x; y) represent the planar velocity eld
obtained from a 2-D potential ow.
Thus, the slow viscous ow has the same streamlines as

potential ow.
The boundary condition at z = h is satised. However, the
no-slip boundary condition at the cylinder surface is not
satised, and hence there is a discrepancy in actual
experiments.
Inviscid Compressible Flow

Theory of Characteristics
Y s
n
θ>0
Consider the two-dimensional streamline-normal coordinate

system where s is the arclength measured along a streamline, n
is the normal distance to the streamline, and is the angle
between the x-axis and the streamline. Let U denote the
magnitude of the velocity.
The governing inviscid equations are
@U + U @ = 0
@s @n
U @U + @p = 0
@s @s
U 2 @ + @p = 0
@s @n
Tt = constant
Consider the directional derivative in the direction where

is oriented (in a counter-clockwise sense) at the local Mach
angle sin 1 M 1 relative to the streamline.
n
µ
s
µ
By denition
ds = cos
d
dn = sin
d
and thus
p
@f = M 2 1 @f + 1 @f
@ M @s M @n
where M (x; y) is the local Mach number and f (; ) is an
arbitrary function.
Likewise, consider the directional derivative in the direction

where is oriented (in a clockwise) sense at the local Mach
angle relative to the streamline.
Then
p
@f = M 2 1 @f 1 @f
@ M @s M @n
These may be rewritten as
@f = p M @f + @f !
@s 2 M 2 1 @ @
@f = M @f @f !
@n 2 @ @
Substitution into the conservation equations yields

p
@ = M2 1 @p
@ p U2
2 @
@ = + M 1 @p
@ U 2 @
Since the ow is isentropic, the total pressure is constant

0 1 =( 1)
pt = p @ 1 + ( 1) MA
2
2
and thus
p
@ = M 2 1 @M 2
@ M 2 1 + ( 21) M 2 @
which may be directly integrated

v v
u
u u ( 1) p
= t +1 tan
u 1u 1
t (M 2 1) tan M 2 1 + constant
1 ( +1)
Dene
v v
u
u u ( 1) p
(M ) t +1 tan
u 1u 1
t (M 2 1) tan M2 1
1 ( +1)
thus
= constant on characteristic
and similarly
+ = constant on characteristic
The characteristics are denoted the left running

characteristics, and the characteristics are denoted the right
running characteristics.
Example
Consider compressible inviscid ow past a corner.
expansion
fan
M1
M2
Consider a right-running characteristic originating in the

upstream ow at point a.
The right-running characteristic will intersect the surface
downstream of the corner. Denote the intersection point by b.
Then
a + a = b + b
Assuming the x axis is aligned with the upstream ow, a = 0.
From the geometry, b = wall .
Given the value of M1, then a can be computed.
b is obtained from the above equation, and M2 determined.
For M1 = 1:95, a = 25 .

Assume wall = 30 .
Then b = 55 and M2 = 3:287.
Prandtl Meyer Expansion
expansion
y fan
M1
r
θ M2
x
θw
Application of Buckingham Theorem

The velocity is
~v = u~er + v~e
where ~er and ~e are the unit vectors in the r and directions.
The ow variables are u, v, p and .
Consider the radial velocity u.
We may express
u = f (r; ; u1 ; p1 ; 1; w ; )
or
F (u; r; ; u1 ; p1 ; 1; w ; ) = 0
The fundamental units are length, mass, time and temperature.
For the above equation, the number of variables is n = 8.
Similarly, the number of fundamental units is m = 3 (i.e.,
mass, length and time).
Hence, there are 5 parameters. By inspection,
1 = u=u1
2 = 2
3 =
4 = M1
5 =
It is evident that r does not appear among any parameters.

It is not possible to create a combination of terms which have
the units of length and therefore there is no means to
non-dimensionalize r.
Thus, the ow cannot depend upon r.

Thus,
F (u; ; ; u1 ; p1; 1; w ; ) = 0
and n = 7, m = 2 and there are 5 parameters.

We therefore seek a solution for u, v, and p which depends
on and is independent of r.
The governing equations are
1 @ur + 1 @v = 0
r @r r @
v @u v2 = 0
r @ r
v @v + uv = 1 @p
r @ r r @

cpT + 21 u2 + v2 = constant
Since the ow variables are independent of r,

dv = u v d mass
d d
du = v r momentum
d
dv = dp
u v1 d momentum
d
Assuming the ow is isentropic,

dp = a2 d
d d
q
where a = p= is the speed of sound.
Thus, mass and the momentum equations are
dv = u v d mass
d d
dv = a d
u v
2
momentum
d d
By inspection, v = a.
Since the ow is isentropic, a2=( 1).
Thus,
1 d 2 dv
=
d ( 1)v d
Thus,
dv = u ( 2 1) dv mass
d d
du = +v r momentum
d
Combining the equations,

d2v + 2v = 0
d2
where
2 = (( +1)
1)
The equation is valid only within the expansion fan, as v is not

twice continuously dierentiable everywhere.
The upstream boundary condition is applied at = 1 where
1 = (M1). At this location,
v = U1 sin 1 = U1=M1 = a1
The downstream boundary condition is applied at = 2 w .
At this location,
v = U2 cos(=2 2) = U2 sin 2 = a2
The solution for v is
v = f a1 sin (sin (2+ w) ++a2 sin

)
( 1)g
1 2 w
valid for 2 w < < 1 .

The solution for u is
u = fa1 cos ( sin2+(w ) a+2 cos

)
( 1)g
1 2 w
Note that the solution has discontinuous derivatives at = 1

and = 2 w .
Point Explosion
Ref: Thompson, P., Compressible Fluid Dynamics, 1972, pp. 495 .
shock
rs(t) p1
ρ1
fluid at rest
Consider the release of a xed amount of energy E at t = 0 in

a quiescent uid.
A spherical shock wave is formed which travels outward.
Denote the radius of the shock rs (t).
Consider the instantaneous conditions at the shock front.
shock
V2 V1
p2 p1
Frame of reference attached to shock
In a frame of reference attached to the shock, the

Rankine-Hugoniot conditions apply across the shock wave.
2 What is the eect of the acceleration of the coordinate system ?
Thus,
p2 = 1 + 2 M 2 1
p1 ( +1) 1
2 = ( +1)M12
1 ( 1)M12 + 2
V1 = 2
V2 1
2 3 2 3
( 1)
M2 = 41 + 2 M1 5 = 4 M1
2 2 2 ( 1) 5
2
h ih i
T2 = 2 M12 ( 1) ( 1)M12 + 2
T1 ( +1)2M12
Consider a strong explosion, i.e., M1 ! 1 where
M1 Va1 = Vas
1 1
where Vs drs =dt. Note that M1 is not constant.

Then
M 2p = 2 V 2
p2 ( 2+1) 1 1 ( +1) 1 s
and
2 (( +1)
1) 1
and
v
u
M2 t ( 1)
u
2
and
2 ( 1) 2 2( 1) V
T2 ( +1)2 M1 T1 = ( +1)2 Rs
2
where R is the gas constant, and
V2 = 1 V1 (( +1)
1) V
s
2
and thus the radial velocity u in the laboratory frame

immediately behind the shock is
2
u2 Vs V2 ( +1) Vs
In summary, the conditions immediately behind the shock, in

the limit M1 ! 1, are
2
p2 ( +1) 1Vs2
2 (( +1)
1) 1
2( 1)
T2 ( +1)2 R V s
2
2 V
u2 ( +1) s
It is evident that the ow is independent of p1 for M1 ! 1.

Consider application of the Buckingham Theorem.
The shock radius rs may be assumed a function of the
following parameters
rs = f (E; 1; cp; cv ; t)

where cp and cv are the specic heats at constant pressure and

volume, respectively.
Thus,
F (rs ; E; 1; cp; cv ; t) = 0
The number of variables n = 6. The number of fundamental

units is m = 4 (i.e., mass, length, time, temperature).
The Buckingham Theorem implies that there will be two
dimensionless parameters. By inspection,
1 = cp
cv
r
2 = 2s1/5
Et
1
What does this imply ?

The direct implication is
0 2 11=5
rs (t) = C @ Et A 1
where C is a function of . Solution of the dierential
equations yields C = 1:033 for = 1:4.
The prediction was rst obtained by G. I. Taylor16 in Great

Britain in 1941, although publication was delayed for
government security reasons until 1950. Taylor obtained the
solution by numerical methods. Sedov17 published an analytic
solution in 1946.
Linearized One Dimensional Unsteady Flow
Consider the small disturbance motion due, for example, to an
oscillating piston.
piston moving in
arbitrary manner in x
The ow is assumed to be initially at rest and uniform. The

uid is inviscid, and body forces are neglected.
The ow is expanded about the uniform state
= 1 + 0(x; t)
p = p1 + p0 (x; t)
16Taylor, G. I., \The Dynamics of the Combustion Products Behind Plane and Spherical
Detonation Fronts in Explosives", Proc. Roy. Soc. London, A200, 1950, pp. 235-247.
17See Sedov, L., Similarity and Dimensional Methods in Mechanics, M. Holt (ed.), trans.
from Russian, Academic Press, New York, 1959.
T = T1 + T 0 (x; t)
u = u0 (x; t)
The perturbations are assumed small
0 1
p0 p1
T0 T1
u0 a1
example
Consider a sound wave with a Sound Pressure Level (SPL) of
100 dB in air. By denition
SPL = 20 log10 prms

pref
where pref = 2:04 10 5 Pa. Hence prms = 2 10 5 atm.
Substitute into the conservation of mass

@1 + @0 + u0 @1 + u0 @0 + @u0 + 0 @u0 = 0
@t @t @x @x 1 @x @x
To lowest order
@0 + @u0 = 0
@t 1 @x
Since the ow is initially uniform and Ds=Dt = 0, the entropy
remains constant and thus
@p = @p @ + @p @s
@x |@{zs} @x @s |{z} @x
a2 zero
where a is the speed of sound, and thus

@p = (a + a0)2 @ a2 @0
1
@x @x 1 @x
The conservation of momentum therefore becomes
@u 0 @ 0
2
1 @t = a1 @x
Dierentiating the momentum equation with respect to x,

@ 2 u0 @ 2 0
2
1 @t@x = a1 @x2
and using conservation of mass,

@u0 @ 0
1 @x = @t
hence
@ 20 a2 @ 20 = 0
@t2 1 @x2
which is the Wave Equation.
Alternately, writing

@p @p
p1 + p0 = p1 + @ 0 + @s s0 + . . .

s
and noting that s0(x; t) = 0, thus

p0 (x; t) = a210 (x; t)
and thus
@ 2p0 a2 @ 2p0 = 0
@t2 1 @x2
Alternatively, dierentiating the momentum equation with
respect to t and using conservation of mass,
@ 2u0 a2 @ 2u0 = 0
@t2 1 @x2
and also
@ 2T 0 a2 @ 2T 0 = 0
@t2 1 @x2
The general solution of the wave equation is

0 (x; t) = |F (x {z a1t)} + G
| (x +{z a1t)}
wave moving to right wave moving to left
Dening
x a1 t
x + a1t
then
0 (x; t) = F ( ) + G()
The relationship between the ow variables are be determined.
From the momentum equation,
@u0 = a21 @0 = a21 dF + dG !
@t 1 @x 1 d d
Integrating,
u0 = a1 (F ( ) G()) + H (x)

1
From conservation of mass,

@u0 = 1 @0
@x 1 @t
wherefrom it is possible to conclude that H (x) = 0. Thus,
u0 (x; t) = a1 (F ( ) G())

1
Similarly, from the conservation of momentum and isentropic

relations,
p0 (x; t) = a21 (F ( ) + G())

T 0 (x; t) = ( 1) T1 (F ( ) + G())
1
linearized shock tube

diaphragm
Region 4 Region 1
t
x+at=0 x-at=0
The uid is initially at rest. A diaphragm separates the high

pressure (left) side, denoted as region 4, from the low pressure
(right) side, denoted as region 1. The undisturbed conditions
correspond to region 1.
The initial conditions are

8 0
<
0 (x; 0) = : 04 for x<0
for x > 0
u0 (x; 0) = 0 for 1 < x < 1
The solution is
0 (x; t) = F (x a1t) + G(x + a1t)

u0 (x; t) = a1 (F (x a1t) G(x + a1t))
1
From the initial conditions,

8 0
<
F (x) + G(x) = : 04 for x<0
for x > 0
F (x) G(x) = 0 for 1 < x < 1
Thus, F (x) = G(x) for 1 < x < 1. Hence,
F (x) + G(x) = 04 for x < 0
and thus,
F (x) = G(x) = 24` for x < 0

F (x) = G(x) = 0 for x > 0
The solution is
81 0
<
F ( ) = : 02 4 for < 0
for > 0
81 0
<
G() = : 02 4 for < 0
for > 0
diaphragm
Region 4 Region 1
t
x+at=0 x-at=0
ρ’ = ρ’ ρ’ = ρ’/2 ρ’ = 0
4 4
expansion wave compression wave
X
Note the compression wave moving to the right, and the

expansion wave moving to the left.
2 What are the solutions for u (x; t); p (x; t) and T (x; t) ?
0 0 0
interaction of a simple wave with a rigid wall
L
P
p’
o
X
U
u’
o
Consider the interaction of a simple wave (compression or

expansion) with a rigid wall. The general form of the solution
is
u0 (x; t) = a1 (F (x a1t) G(x + a1t))

1
0
(x; t) = F (x a1t) + G(x + a1t)
p0 (x; t) = a21 0 (x; t)
Denoting the initial density change across the incident wave by

02, and noting that the wavefront is located at x = 0 at t = 0,
then
8 0
<
F (x) = : 02 for 1<x<0
for 0 < x < L
At x = L, the perturbation velocity u0 (L; t) = 0, and thus
F (L a1t) = G(L + a1t) for all t
or
G( ) = F (2L ) for 1< <1

Using the initial condition,
8 0
F (x
<
a1t) = : 02 for 1 < x a1t < 0
for 0 < x a1t < L
and thus F (x; t) is known for x L and t > 0.

Using the initial condition
G(x + a1t) = 0 for 1 < x + a1 t < L

(i.e., there are initially no left-moving waves).
From the boundary condition at x = L,
G(x + a1t) = F (2L (x + a1t)) for 1 < x + a1t < 1

(i.e., for 1 < t < 1).
Using the initial condition,

8 0
F (2L
<
(x + a1t)) = : 02 for
for 1 < 2L (x + a1t) < 0
0 < 2L (x + a1t) < L
Thus,
8 0
F (2L
< for 2L < x + a1t < 1
(x + a1t)) = : 02 for L < x + a1t < 2L
Therefore,
8
< L < x + a1t < 2L
G(x + a1t) = : 00 for
2 for 2L < x + a1t < 1
Using the initial condition for G(x; t), then

8
<
G(x + a1t) = : 00 for 1 < x + a1t < 2L
2 for 2L < x + a1t < 1
The behavior may be summarized as:
Re ection from Solid Boundary

Incident Wave Re ected Wave
compression compression
expansion expansion
L
P p’
o reflected wave
p’
o
initial wave
X
U
u’o
Nonlinear One Dimensional Unsteady Flow
Consider the one-dimensional unsteady Euler equations

@ + @u = 0
@t @x
@u
@t
@u
+ u =
@x
@p
@x
@s + u @s = 0
@t @x
Assuming the ow variables are continuously dierentiable and

the entropy s is initially uniform, the energy equation implies
that the ow remains isentropic.
Consider an arbitrary curve x(t) in the x t plane. For any
variable F (x; t), the derivative of F on this curve is

dF = @ F + @ F dx
dt @t @x dt
Thus, the energy equation is
ds = 0 on
dx = u(x(t); t)
dt dt
Inotherwords, the entropy s is constant along a streamline.
This particular derivative is denoted Ds=Dt.
Are there any other curves of such special signicance ?
From the denition of entropy,
s s1 cv ln pp cp ln
1 1
thus
Ds = cv Dp cp D = 0
Dt p Dt Dt
and since a2 = p= for a perfect gas,
Dp a2 D = 0
Dt Dt
or
@p + u @p a2 @ + u @ ! = 0
@t @x @t @x
From continuity,
@ + u @ = @u
@t @x @x
and thus
@p + u @p + a2 @u = 0
@t @x @x
Multiplying conservation of momentum by a and adding to the
above,
@p + u @p + a @p + a @u + u @u + a @u ! = 0
@t @x @x @t @x @x
or
@p + (u + a) @p + a " @u + (u + a) @u # = 0
@t @x @t @x
Therefore,
1 dp + du = 0 on dx = u + a
a dt dt dt
Since the ow is isentropic, and a are functions of p, and

d (Z dp + u) = 0
dt a
which yields
d 2 a + u! = 0 on
dx = u + a
dt 1 dt
Similarly, it is possible to derive
d 2 a u! = 0 on dx = u a
dt 1 dt
The unsteady one-dimensional Euler may therefore be
rewritten as
d 2 a + u! = 0 on
dx = u + a
dt 1 dt
d 2 a u! = 0 on dx = u a
dt 1 dt
ds = 0 on dx = u
dt dt
These are known as Riemann invariants. Note that, in general,
u and a are functions of x and t.
The curves dx=dt = u + a are the positive characteristics, and
the curves dx=dt = u a are the negative characteristics.
centered expansion
t
piston 3
dx/dt =- u p
4 2
1
6
Consider the centered expansion created by the movement of a

piston. At t < 0, the piston (and the uid) is at rest. For
t > 0, the piston moves to the left with velocity up(t).
Denote the initial conditions by the subscript 4. Thus,
u = 0
p = p4
= 4
for t < 0 and x > 0.

The boundary condition is
u = up (t) on dx = up(t)
dt
Consider a positive characteristic originating from location 1

on x = 0 for t < 0. On this characteristic,

2
1 a+u =
2
1 a + u = 2 1 a4
1
Consider a negative characteristic from location 2. On this

characteristic,

1
2 a u= 1
2 a u 2 = 2 1 a4
Thus at the intersection of these two characteristics 3,
2
1 a+u = 1 a4
2
2
1 a u = 1 a4
2
and hence a = a4 and u = 0 as expected.

Consider a positive characteristic originating from the piston
path 4,

2 2 2
1 a + u = 1 a + u 4 = 1 a4 upj4
The slope of the characteristic dx=dt = u + a is steeper (in the
(x; t) plane) we anticipate, since u < 0 at the piston path 4.
The negative characteristic originating at 2 is continued until it
intersects the previous characteristic at 5. At this intersection,
1 a5 + u5
2 = 2
1 aj4 + uj4
2 2
1 a5 u5 = 1 a4
NOTE: a4 indicates the undisturbed speed of sound, while aj4

indicates the speed of sound at location 4.
These equations may be solved
a5 = 12 (a4 + aj4) + 4 1 uj4

1
u5 = 2 uj4 + 1 ( aj4 a4)
2
Consider a negative characteristic from 4 to 6,

2
1 aj4 uj4 = 2 1 a4
and thus
aj4 = a4 + 2 1 uj4
Substituting into the previous results,
u5 = uj4
a5 = aj4
Thus, on the positive characteristic originating at 4, u and a

are constant and equal to their values at 4. Hence, the positive
characteristic dx=dt = u + a is a straight line.
We can now obtain the solution for the limiting case of an

instantaneous acceleration of the piston from rest to a constant
velocity up .
t
dx/dt = a4 - (γ +1)up /2
uniform
conditions dx/dt = a4
piston
dx/dt =- u p expmmansion fan
quiescent fluid
In the region of uniform conditions
u = up
since u5 = uj4, and
a = a4 ( 2 1) up
since a5 = aj4 = a4 + ( 1)uj4=2 and uj4 = up .
In the expansion region, we can represent u at the piston face

parametrically as
u = for 0 < < up on dx

dt = u + a
But
a = a4 + ( 2 1) u dropping j4 notation
Thus
dx = u + a + ( 1) u = a ( +1)
4 4
dt 2 2
and hence
2 3
u = on x = 4a4 ( +1) 5 t
2
Inverting,
!
u = ( +1) t a4 for a4 ( +1)
2 x
2
u x
p < < a4
t
Thus,
8
> x < a4 ( +1)
< up for 2 up t
>
>
u(x; t) = > ( +1)
2 x
t a4 for a4 ( +1)
2 up t < x < a4 t
>
>
:0 for a4t < x
From the previous solution, it can be shown

8
> ( 1) u x < a4 ( +1)
< a4 for 2 up t
>
> 2 p
a(x; t) = > a4 + ( +1)
( 1) x
t a4 for a4 ( +1)
2 up t < x < a4 t
>
>
: a4 for a4t < x
Since the ow is isentropic, the solution for the remaining ow
variables is
p = a !2 =( 1)
p4 a4
= a !2=( 1)
4 a4 !
T = a 2
T4 a4
(9)
It is interesting to compare the exact result with the solution

obtained from linear theory. For example, in the region of
uniform ow
pexact plinear = ( +1) up !2 + : : :
p4 4 a4
and thus linear theory overestimates the pressure drop.
Riemann Shock Tube
diaphragm
p4, T4 , γ 4 p1 , T1 , γ 1
Initial Condition
expansion contact surface shock

After diaphragm removed
Consider an innite tube with a diaphragm initially separating

two quiescent regions. The uid properties in the driver section
(i.e., 4) may dier from those in the driven section (i.e., 1 ).
The ow is assumed inviscid and non-heat conducting.
At t = 0 the diaphragm is instantaneously removed.
There are ve regions in the ow:
Region 1 The undisturbed ow in the driven section

Region 2 The ow between the shock wave and the contact
surface
Region 3a The ow between the contact surface and the
rightmost extent of the expansion region
Region 3b The ow in the expansion region

Region 4 The undisturbed ow in the driver section
The boundary conditions at the contact surface are:
u2 = u3
p2 = p3
Note, however, that T2 6= T3, and 2 6= 3.
Insofar as the driven gas is concerned, the contact surface is
analogous to a piston, moving at speed u2, which creates a
shock wave.
The relationship between u2 and the shock speed (denoted cs )
is (Liepmann and Roshko, Elements of Gas Dynamics)
2 (Ms2 1)
u2 = ( +1) M 2 cs
1 s
where Ms cs =a1 is the shock wave Mach number. Thus, the

contact surface moves slower than the shock.
The pressure ratio across the shock wave is obtained from
normal shock wave theory (assuming a reference frame
attached to the shock),
p2 = 1 + 2 1 M 2 1
p1 ( 1 +1) s
Insofar as the driver gas is concerned, the contact surface is

analogous to a piston, moving at speed u2, which creates a
centered expansion.
Therefore, there is a centered expansion dened by
a4 dx
dt a 4+
( 4 +1) u
2 3
where u3 = u2.
In the shock region, the velocity and pressure are related by
(Liepmann and Roshko, Ibid.),
v
!u
u 2 1
u2 = a 1 pp2
u
1 u
t p2 1+1 1 1

1 1 +p1 1 +1
In the expansion region,

2 3
p3 = a3 !2 4=( 4 1)
= 41 ( 4 1) u3 52 4=( 4 1)
p4 a4 2 a4
and thus
2 1)=2 4 3
u3 = ( 2a41) 41 p3 !( 4 5
4 p4
Equating the results for u2 and u3 and noting p3 = p2,

8 9 2 4=( 4 1)
p4 = p2 <1 ( 4q 1)(a1=a4)(p2=p1 1) =
p1 p1 : p 2 1 2 1 + ( 1 +1)(p2=p1 1) ;
This equation can be solved iteratively for p2=p1 given p4=p1

and the gas properties.
The ow variables are as follows, where p2 =p1.
Shock speed
v
u
cs = a1t ( 1 1) + ( 1 +1)
u
2 1 2 1
Region 2
T2 = ( ( 11+1)1) +
T1 1 + ( ( 11+1)1)
2 = 1 + ( ( 11+1)1)
1 ( 1+1) +
( 1 1)
v
u
u2 = 1 ( u
u
2 1
( +1)
1) u
t 1
a1 1 + ( ( 11+1)1)
Region 3
p3 = 1
p2
T3 p !( 1)= 4
3 4
=
T4 p4
3 p !
3 1= 4
=
4 p4
u3 = 1
u2

Fluid Dynamics Summary

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1

650:541 Fluid Dynamics II

where e is the internal energy per unit mass. Alternately,

or equivalently, the pressure can be assumed to be a function

where R is the gas constant for the species.

 At solid boundary with unit normal nk (k = 1; 2; 3)

Since the uid is assumed inviscid, a tangential velocity at a

Vorticity and Circulation

We are interested in irrotational ows because they are simpler

A closed contour C , comprised of uid particles, is identi ed at

Note that the rst integral is evaluated on C (t + dt).

~xP 0 = ~xP + ~uP dt + O(dt2)

Thus, we need an expression for ~uQ ~uP . Now,

~uQ = ~uP + r~u  d~r + O(dr2)

where r~u is a second order tensor

with the vector d~r according to

d~r 0 = d~r + r~u  d~r dt + O(dr2dt) + O(dt2)

Note that it is now evaluated on the original contour C (t) by

2 Derivation left for student.

2 Derive left for student.

 The body force is conservative

where H p implies the integration around the contour C (t) with

2 Derivation left to the student.

 At a solid no-slip surface

expressed in terms of a potential function2

The conservation of mass implies

The boundary conditions are

the conservation of momentum becomes

is larger at Q than at any boundary point.

by assumption, and does not occur on @G. De ne

Then  > 0. Now

max ^  max  + max (x x0 )2

We can therefore choose  such that

However, at a maximum, the curvature along all three

@ 2^ < 0 and @ 2^ < 0 and @ 2^ < 0

but since r2^ > 0, then all three cannot be negative.

Theorem (Principle of Superposition) If 1 and 2 are

and thus @=@x is also a solution of Laplace's equation.

everywhere. This contradicts

Consider two paths P1 and P2 connected points A and B .

If all paths connected any two points in G are mutually

 Region exterior to a body de ned by a single surface in

2-D Flow Past a Cylinder

Consider two points A and B and two paths P1 and P2.

 2-D ow past a cylinder

Denoting A as the starting and ending point,

If the region is simply connected, then there it is possible to

Aend = Astart ! (x; y; z; t) is unique

Consider a bounded simply connected domain. We note the

2 Derivation left for student

Assume that the surfaces are stationary, i.e., ~u ~n = 0. Then

which implies ~u = ~0 everywhere. Thus,

Thus the function ^   ~ satis es

Consider the doubly connected domain bounded by A1 and A2.

From Stokes' Theorem,

since C2 and C4 are identical but traversed in opposite

Since C1 and C3 are arbitrary,

where C is any closed contour surrounding the body A1 and

Apply the Divergence Theorem

Let ~n denote the outward normal to V . Then

where ~n in the second integral points towards  . Now

Now consider two solutions  and ~ which satisfy Laplace's

since ~u^ = ~0 on A1 and A2. Now

At solid boundary with unit normal nk (k = 1; 2; 3)

A closed contour C , comprised of uid particles, is identied at

~uQ = ~uP + r~u d~r + O(dr2)

d~r 0 = d~r + r~u d~r dt + O(dr2dt) + O(dt2)

The body force is conservative

At a solid no-slip surface

by assumption, and does not occur on @G. Dene

Then > 0. Now

max ^ max + max (x x0 )2

We can therefore choose such that

@ 2^ < 0 and @ 2^ < 0 and @ 2^ < 0

but since r2^ > 0, then all three cannot be negative.

Theorem (Principle of Superposition) If 1 and 2 are

and thus @=@x is also a solution of Laplace's equation.

Region exterior to a body dened by a single surface in

2-D ow past a cylinder

Aend = Astart ! (x; y; z; t) is unique

Thus the function ^ ~ satises

where ~n in the second integral points towards . Now

Now consider two solutions and ~ which satisfy Laplace's

Thus, if = ~ then ^ = 0 and thus

Closed body with surface A1

where s j~x ~x0j. Since dA = R2d

Behavior of at Large Distances

(~x) = C + 2 + c log r + ci @x@ (log r) + cij @x@@x (log r) + : : :

where C; ; c; ci and cij are in general functions of t.

A complex function F (z ) is dened as

Doublet of strength aligned with x-axis

Point vortex of strength at zo

where z z0 = rei for < .

F (z ) = 2i log(z z0)

log rei = log r + i

r = @r@ e^r + 1r @@ e^

vr iv = w(z )ei

Thus, z z = x2 + y2. A similar denition applies to any complex

where an and bn are complex constants dened by

1 X1 Z n+1 i(n+1) 1 X1 Z ei(1 n) d

and thus the residue is b1, i.e., the coecient of the (z z0 ) 1

Consider the control volume dened by the body surface and

F = Uz + m2i log z + 2z

PhD, Applied Mathematics, Moscow University, 1882

Built rst wind tunnel in Russia in 1902 at Moscow