UNIT 1

I. VOCABULARY

1. Fill in with the correct derivative or root word:

BODY ORGANIZATION

Structural and .......................... (FUNCTION) levels of organization characterize the human

body, and each of its parts ............................. (CONTRIBUTION) to the total organism.
Cellular Level
The cell is the basic .................... (STRUCTURE) and functional component of life. Humans
are multicellular organisms composed of 60 to 100 trillion cells. It is at the ....................
(MICROSCOPE) cellular level that such vital functions of life as metabolism, ................
(GROW), irritability (........................(RESPOND) to stimuli), repair, and ..........................
(REPLICATE) are carried on.
Cells are composed of atoms — minute particles that are bound together to form larger
particles called molecules. Certain molecules, in turn, are grouped in specific ways to form
small functional structures called organelles (or''ga˘-nelz'). Each organelle carries out a
...................... (SPECIFY) function within the cell. A cell‘s nucleus, mitochondria, and
endoplasmic reticulum are organelles. The human body contains many distinct kinds of cells,
each specialized to perform specific functions. Examples of specialized cells are bone cells,
muscle cells, fat cells, blood cells, liver cells, and nerve cells. The unique structure of each of
these cell types is ................ (DIRECT) related to its function.
Tissue Level
Tissues are layers or groups of .................... (SIMILARITY) cells that perform a common
function. The entire body is ........................(COMPOSITION) of only four principal kinds of
tissues: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissue. An example of a tissue is the
muscle within the heart, whose function it is to pump the blood through the body. The
............ (OUT) layer of skin (epidermis) is a tissue because it is composed of similar cells that
together serve as a ....................... (PROTECTION) shield for the body. Histology is the
science concerned with the microscopic study of tissues.
Organ Level
An organ is an aggregate of two or more tissue types that ...................... (PERFORMANCE) a
specific function. Organs occur throughout the body and ...................... (VARIETY) greatly in
size and function. Examples of organs are the heart, spleen, pancreas, ovary, skin, and even
any of the bones within the body. Each organ usually has one or more primary tissues and
several .................... (SECOND) tissues. In the stomach, for example, the inside .....................
(EPITHELIUM) lining is considered the primary tissue because the basic functions of
........................ (SECRETE) and ..................... (ABSORB) occur within this layer. Secondary
tissues of the stomach are the ..................(CONNECT), nervous, and muscle tissues.
System Level
The systems of the body constitute the next level of structural .......................... (ORGANISE).
A body system consists of various organs that have similar or related functions. Examples of
systems are the .......................... (CIRCULATION) system, nervous system, digestive system,
and endocrine system. Certain organs may serve two systems. For example, the pancreas
functions with both the endocrine and digestive systems and the pharynx serves both the
respiratory and digestive systems. All the systems of the body are .......................
(INTERRELATION) and function together, making up the organism.

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2. Fill in the blanks with one suitable word:

ANATOMICAL NOMENCLATURE

Anatomy is a descriptive .................... Analysing anatomical terminology can be a rewarding

experience ............. that one learns something ................... the character of antiquity in the
process. ....................., understanding the roots of words is not ....................... of academic
interest. Familiarity ...................... technical terms reinforces the learning process. Most
anatomical terms are derived .................... Greek or Latin, but some of the more recent terms
are of German and French ........................ Some anatomical structures bear the names of
people ..................... discovered or described them. Such terms are totally nondescriptive;
unfortunately, they have little meaning in and of ...............................
Many Greek and Latin terms were coined more ................... 2,000 years ago.
Deciphering the meanings of these terms affords a glimpse ....................... our medical
heritage. Many terms referred ..................... common plants or animals. Thus, the term vermis
................. worm; cochlea , snail shell; cancer, crab; and uvula, little grape. Even the term
muscle comes .............................. the Latin musculus, which means ..........................
Other terms suggest the warlike environment:
xiphos means sword; and thorax, breastplate. Sella means saddle and stapes means stirrup.
Various tools or instruments were referred to in early anatomy. The malleus and anvil
........................ miniatures of a blacksmith‘s implements, and tympanum refers .................... a
drum. You will encounter many new terms ......................... your study of anatomy. You can
learn these terms more easily ................... you know the meaning of their prefixes and
suffixes. Anatomy is a very precise science because ....................... its universally accepted
reference language .................. describing body parts .............. locations.

Examples of Singular and Plural Forms of Body Terminology

Singular Plural Ending Examples

-a -ae Papilla, papillae; axilla, axillae
-en -ina Foramen, foramina; lumen, lumina
-ex -ices Cortex, cortices
-is -es Testis, testes
-is -ides Epididymis, epididymides
-ix -ices Matrix, matrices; appendix, appendices
-on -a Mitochondrion, mitochondria
-um -a Epithelium, epithelia; cilium, cilia; ovum, ova
-us -i Humerus, humeri; carpus, carpi; fasciculus, fasciculi
-us -ora Corpus, corpora
-x -ges Phalanx, phalanges; pharynx, pharynges
-y -ies Artery, arteries; ovary, ovaries

Descriptive Terminology
Anatomical Position
All terms of direction ........................ describe the relationship of one body part ................
another are made ........... reference to the anatomical position. In the anatomical position, the
body is ................, the feet are parallel ........... each other and flat on the floor, the eyes are
directed ................., and the arms are at the ................. of the body with the palms of the
hands turned ..................... and the fingers pointed straight ......................

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Clinical Procedures
Certain clinical procedures are important ........ determining anatomical structure and function
in a living individual. The most .................... of these are ............ follows:
• Inspection. Visually observing the body to ............... any clinical symptoms, such ......
abnormal skin colour, swelling, or rashes. ................... observations may include needle
marks ............... the skin, irregular breathing rates, ............ abnormal behaviour.
• Palpation. Applying the fingers ................. firm pressure to the surface of the body to feel
surface landmarks, lumps, tender ................, or pulsations.
• Percussion. Tapping sharply ............... various locations on the thorax or abdomen to
.............. resonating vibrations as an aid ............ locating excess fluids or organ abnormalities.
• Auscultation. Listening ........ the sounds that various organs .......... (breathing, heartbeat,
digestive sounds, and so forth).
• Reflex testing. Observing a person‘s automatic (involuntary) response ........ a stimulus.
One test ......... a reflex mechanism involves tapping a predetermined tendon .......... a reflex
hammer and noting the ..................

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II. GRAMMAR

PAST TENSES

Describing events • Main events

in the past The past simple is used to describe finished actions and events in
in the past
Susan went into the station and bought a ticket.
- Background description
The past continuous is used to describe actions in progress in the
past. It gives information about the background situation.
There were a lot of people waiting in the station. Some were
sleeping on the benches, and others were walking up and
down. Susan was looking for Graham, so she didn't sit down.
• Past before past
The past perfect is used to make it clear that one past event
happens before another past event. We use the past perfect for the
earlier event.
By the time the train arrived, Susan had managed to push her way
to the front of the crowd.
It is not always necessary to use the past perfect if a time
expression makes the order of events clear.
Before the train arrived, Susan managed to push her way to the
front of the crowd.
- Past continuous used with past simple
We often use the past continuous first to set the scene, and then
the past simple for the separate, completed actions that happen.
Susan was looking for Graham, so she didn't sit down. Instead,
she tried calling him on her mobile phone.
We often contrast an action in progress with a sudden event
which interrupts it.
While Susan was trying to get onto the platform, a man grabbed
her handbag.
• Participle clauses
Participle clauses are introduced by the time expressions before,
after and while. They have the same subject as the following
clause.
After struggling with him, Susan pulled the bag from his hands.
Habits in the past • Past simple
The past simple is used to describe past habits or states. A time
expression is usually necessary.
I always got up at six in those days, (habit)
I lived in Austria for several years. (state)

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 • Used to
Used to is used to describe past habits or states. A time
expression is not necessary.
I used to get up at six, but now I get up at eight.
I used to own a horse. (I owned a horse once.)
With negatives and questions used to becomes
use to.
I didn't use to like beer.
Did you use to swim every day?
When we use used to we suggest that the action is no longer true
and so make a strong contrast with the present.
• Would
Would is used to describe a person's typical activities in the past.
It can only be used to describe repeated actions, not states. It is
mainly used in writing, and in personal reminiscences.
Every evening was the same. Jack would turn on the radio, light
his pipe and fall asleep.
• Past continuous
The past continuous can be used to describe a repeated action in
the past, often an annoying habit. A frequency adverb is necessary.
When Peter was younger, he was always getting into trouble.
Politeness and We can use the past continuous with think, hope and wonder to give
uncertainty a polite or uncertain meaning.
I was thinking of having a party next week.
I was hoping you would join us at the cafe tonight.
I was wondering if you could help me.

Practice
1. Underline the most suitable verb form in each sentence. The first one is done for you.
a) I suddenly remembered that I forgot/had forgotten my keys.
b) While Diana watched/was watching her favourite television programme, there was a
power-cut.
c) Tom used to live/would live in the house at the end of the street.
d) Who was driving/drove the car at the time of the accident?
e) By the time Sheila got back, Chris went/had gone.
f) David ate/had eaten Japanese food before, so he knew what to order.
g) I did/was doing some shopping yesterday, when I saw that Dutch friend of yours.
h) I used to like/was liking sweets much more than I do now.
i) What exactly were you doing/did you do when I came into your office yesterday?
j) Laura missed the party because no-one was telling/had told her about it.
k) Tanya would/used to be a doctor.

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2. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable past verb form. Only use the past perfect
where this is absolutely necessary.
a) While I (try) was trying to get my car started, a passing car (stop)..................................
and the driver (offer) ..............................................to help me.
b) The police (pay)................................................. no attention to Clare's complaint because
she (phone) .........................................................them so many times before.
c) Mary (not wear).................................................. her glasses at the time, so she (not notice)
................................................what kind of car the man (drive)..................................................
d) Nick (lie).................................... down on the grass for a while, next to some tourists who
(feed)............................................... the ducks.
e) Tony (admit).................................... that he (hit)....................................... the other car, but
said that he (not damage) it.
f) Sorry, I (not listen) ..........................................to you. I (think) .....................................about
something else.
g) Helen (feel).........................................very tired, and when she (finish).................................
her work, she (fall)...................................... asleep.
h) The police (get).............................. to Clare's house as fast as they could, but the burglars
(disappear)...................................................
i) I (phone)................................you last night but you (not answer)...........................................
What (you do)...............................................?
j) We (not go)........................................ out yesterday because it (rain)......................................

3. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable past verb form.

When Professor Mallory, the famous archaeologist, (1) ...invited. (invite) me to take part in
his expedition to find the Lost City of the Himalayas, I (2)..................................................
(not hesitate) to accept his invitation. Mallory (3)................................................... (discover)
an ancient map showing the position of the city, although no European
(4)..................................... (ever go) to the area before. In fact, most of Mallory's colleagues
either (5).......................................... (believe) that the city (6)....................................... (never
exist) or (7)................................................ (feel) that it (8)............................................
(vanish) long ago and (9)................................................. (become) simply a legend.
According to the Professor, the builders of the city (10)................................................. (hide)
it among the mountains in order to protect its immense riches. He (11)................................
(believe) that the descendants of these ancient people (12)...................................................
(still keep) themselves apart from the rest of mankind for the very same reasons. So when we
(13).......................................... (set off) on a cool May morning towards the distant
mountains, each of us (14)......................................... (look forward) to exciting discoveries.
For a week or more we (15)......................................... (climb) higher and higher, following
the map, which Mallory (16)........................................ (study) from time to time. Then one
afternoon, while we (17)............................................ (rest) at the top of a valley, we (18)
.................................................(notice) that a rider on a horse (19)
...........................................(wave) at us from the other side of the valley. A rider whose
clothes (20) ...........................................(shine) like gold!

4. Rewrite each sentence beginning as shown. Use a participle clause.

a) Norman collected the parcel, but then he realised it was the wrong one.
After collecting the parcel, Norman realized it was the wrong one.
b) Sue left the house but first she checked that she had her keys.
Before...........................................................................................................................................

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c) Mark was parking his car when he noticed the wing-mirror was broken.
While............................................................................................................................................
d) Julia cleaned the house, but then she fell asleep on the sofa.
After ............................................................................................................................................
e) Brian bought a new television, but first he checked all the prices.
Before ..........................................................................................................................................
f) Alan was skiing in Switzerland and met his old friend, Ken.
While ...........................................................................................................................................
g) Kate took two aspirins, and then she felt a lot better.
After ............................................................................................................................................
h) Sheila went out for the evening, but first she washed her hair.
Before ..........................................................................................................................................

Key points
1. The past simple describes completed events in the past, such as the main events in a
narrative. It can also describe habits and routines in the past.
2. The past continuous is used for:
a) background description.
b) actions in progress, often contrasted with a sudden event.
The past continuous cannot be used to describe past routines and habits.
3. Participle clauses can introduce a clause giving the main event. The
subjects of both clauses must be the same.
4. The past perfect describes a past event which took place before another past event. If
before or after is used, the past perfect is optional.
The past perfect is not used for an event that happened a long time ago in the past.
5. Used to only refers to past time, and has no present form.
6. Would can be used to describe habitual actions in the past, usually in writing. It does not
make such a strong contrast with the present as used to. Compare:
Jim would always make his mother a cup of tea after lunch.
Jim used to drink tea, but now he prefers coffee.
Would cannot be used to describe states. Sally used to be a dancer.

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III. READING COMPREHENSION

When Bodies Need Voices

―The destination and map I had used to navigate before were no longer useful.‖ These words
were in a letter describing chronic fatigue syndrome. Judith Zaruches wrote of how, after an
illness that is never really finished, she ―needed... to think differently and construct new
perceptions of my relationship to the world.‖
Serious illness is a loss of the ―destination and map‖ that had previously guided the ill
person‘s life: ill people have to learn ―to think differently.‖ They learn by hearing themselves
tell their stories, absorbing others‘ reactions, and experiencing their stories being shared.
Judith‘s story not only stated her need for a new map and destination; her letter itself was an
experimental performance of the different thinking she called for. Through the story she was
telling me, her new map was already taking shape.
Even though we did not know each other, Judith needed to write to me – she had read
my own story of cancer and seen a video tape of a lecture I gave – for me to witness her story
and her personal change. As she told me her story, she discovered ―new perceptions of [her]
relationship to the world.‖ That my response would only come later, in another letter, perhaps
made it easier. Seeing herself write, like hearing herself speak, was the major threshold.
Judith‘s distinctiveness as a storyteller is her illness. Illness was not just the topic of
her story; it was the condition of her telling that story. Her story was not just about illness.
The story was told through a wounded body. The stories that ill people tell come out of their
bodies. The body sets in motion the need for new stories when its disease disrupts the old
stories. The body, whether diseased or recovered, is simultaneously cause, topic, and
instrument of whatever new stories are told. These embodied stories have two sides, one
personal and the other social.
The personal issue of telling stories about illness is to give voice to the body, so that
the changed body can become once again familiar. But as the language of the story seeks to
make the body familiar, the body eludes language. The ill body is certainly not mute – it
speaks eloquently in pains and symptoms – but it is inarticulate. We must speak for the body,
and such speech is quickly frustrated: speech presents itself as being about the body, rather
than of it. The body is often alienated, literally ‗made strange,‘ as it is told in stories that are
instigated by a need to make it familiar.
The alternative to this frustration is to reduce the body to being the mere topic of the
story and thus to deny the story‘s primary condition: the teller has or has had a disease. That
the teller‘s diseased body shapes the illness should be self-evident. Only a caricature
Cartesianism would imagine a head, compartmentalised away from the disease, talking about
the sick body beneath it. The head is tied to that body through pathways that science is only
beginning to comprehend, but the general principle is clear: the mind does not rest above the
body, but is diffused throughout it.
But actually hearing traces of the body in the story is not easy. Observing what stories
say about the body is a familiar sort of listening; describing stories as told through the body
require another level of attention.

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 The ill body‘s articulation in stories is a personal task, but the stories told by the ill are
also social. The obvious social aspect of stories is that they are told to someone, whether that
other person is immediately present or not. Even messages in a bottle imply a potential
reader. The less evident social aspect of stories is that people do not make up their stories by
themselves. The shape of the telling is moulded by all the rhetorical expectations that the
storyteller has been internalising ever since he first heard some relative describe an illness, or
she saw her first television commercial for a non-prescription remedy, or was instructed to
―tell the doctor what hurts‖ and had to figure out what counted as the story that the doctor
wanted to hear. From their families and friends, from the popular culture that surrounds them,
and from the stories of other ill people, storytellers have learned formal structures of
narrative, conventional metaphors and imagery, and standards of what is and is not
appropriate to tell. Whenever a new story is told, these rhetorical expectations are reinforced
in some ways, changed in others, and passed on to affect others‘ stories.

Arthur W. Frank, The Wounded Storyteller. Body, Illness, and Ethics

(Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1997), pp. 1-3.

Answer the following questions:

1. How does a serious illness lead to ―a loss of the destination and map‖ in the ill person?
2. In Frank‘s opinion, what is the relevance and usefulness of telling illness stories?
3. What does Frank mean by the following statement: ―The story was told through a wounded
body‖?
4. How does the changed (ill) body become ―familiar‖ again through telling its story?
5. How does the teller‘s diseased body shape the illness? What is the connection between the
two?
6. What are some of the difficulties involved in listening to illness stories?
7. What is the social dimension of telling illness stories?
8. Which are the ―rhetorical expectations‖ Frank mentions, which are internalised and
influence the way illness stories are told and perceived?
9. How do stories heard or TV commercial influence or shape the way illness stories are told?
10. Give examples of illness stories from your own experience, focusing on the main aspects
emphasised by Frank in the fragment above.

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