Applied Clay Science 124–125 (2016) 143–149

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Applied Clay Science

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Research paper

Microstructural studies on eco-friendly and durable Self-compacting

concrete blended with metakaolin
O.R. Kavitha a,⁎, V.M. Shanthi b, G. Prince Arulraj a, V.R. Sivakumar c
a
Department of Civil Engineering, SNS College of Technology, Coimbatore 641 035, India
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore 641 013, India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, RVS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore 641 402, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The study focusses on to reduce the carbon dioxide (CO2) emission into atmosphere and energy consumption
Received 19 November 2015 through use of pozzolanic materials that improve the structural properties by using vibration free concrete. In
Received in revised form 10 February 2016 this concern, self-compacting concrete (SCC) was prepared with metakaolin (MK) as a partial replacement of
Accepted 11 February 2016
ordinary Portland cement (OPC). The positive environmental effect of MK has studied by calculating the CO2
Available online 18 February 2016
emission during the OPC and MK production. The durability properties of SCC were investigated through the
Keywords:
measurement of water absorption, sulphate attack and chloride permeation to study the environmental benefits
Self-compacting concrete indirectly. The effects of MK on internal characteristics of concrete samples were observed by scanning electron
Metakaolin microscope (SEM). To evaluate the intensity of the elements in paste compositions, X-ray diffraction analysis
Strength loss (XRD) and energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) were accomplished. The results indicated that a SCC specimen
Weight loss with 10% of MK by weight of cement has resistance to magnesium sulphate solution, chloride diffusion and water
Microstructural analysis absorption. In addition, microstructural analysis confirmed that SCC specimen with 10% MK has reduced intensity
Carbon dioxide emission of gypsum, ettringite and brucite which were responsible for expansion and cracking of concrete due to the
sulphate attack. Hence based on the durability parameters 10% replacement of MK was optimized. Further, MK
reduces the use of OPC with less thermal energy and CO2 emission.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The utilization of pozzolans is a trend getting much greater attention

The concepts of sustainable development and service life are increas-
ingly used in the construction industry. Cement is the most commonly
used construction material in the construction industry. This is an energy
exhaustive material and responsible for more CO2 emission. Hendriks
et al. (2004) reported that the amount of CO2 emission in cement manu-
facture depends on production technique, process and clinker/cement
ratio and fuel used. They concluded that use of alternative fossil fuel and
blended cements may reduce CO2 emissions by 20–40% and 20% respec-
tively. Hwang et al. (2015) estimated that the amount of limestone, fossil
fuel and use of electricity to produce 1 t of cement ranged from 1.19 to
1.47 t, 68.1 to 97.3 kg and 96.3–119.6 kWh respectively. Adopting the op-
timized energy sources, alternative raw materials and cements with
reduced clinkers will reduce the CO2 emission from cement industries
(Damtoft et al., 2008). Increasing the usage of pozzolanic materials
enhance the durability of concrete and reducing the CO2 emission,
because durable structures require less repair and maintenance in this
manner service life of structures is also increased (Guneyisi et al., 2008).
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: orkavitha@gmail.com (O.R. Kavitha).
and increase with increasing awareness of the environmental protection
and sustainable construction (Papadakis and Tsimas, 2002). Therefore
there are compelling reasons in the long - term, to extend the practice
of partially replacing cement in mortar and concrete with any by- product
or pozzolanic materials. It was generally accepted that pozzolans signifi-
cantly improve the resistance to chloride attack through chloride binding
and pore filling effects (Rafik et al., 2010). The incorporation of pozzolanic
materials in SCC can improve the strength, durability, reduce the cost and
also avoid the ill effects due to improper compaction (Eva et al., 2011).
The durability of concrete containing pozzolans is enhanced due to the
pozzolanic reaction of various compounds present in the cement during
the hydration process (Poon et al., 2001). The most commonly used
pozzolanic materials are Silica Fume (SF), fly ash, blast furnace slag, MK
and rice husk ash. During the hydration of cement calcium hydroxide
(CH) and calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) are formed. CH is the most sol-
uble hydration product, and this is a weak link in cement and concrete
from durability point of view. When the concrete is exposed to water,
the CH will dissolve, increasing the porosity and thus making the concrete
more vulnerable to further leaching and chemical attack. Pozzolanic
reaction of MK forms additional cementitious C–S–H gel, together with
crystalline products, which include calcium aluminate hydrates and
alumino-silicate hydrates (C2ASH8, C4AH13 and C3AH6). These pozzolanic

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2016.02.011
0169-1317/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
144 O.R. Kavitha et al. / Applied Clay Science 124–125 (2016) 143–149

Table 1 of pozzolanic materials was used (Eva et al., 2011). SCC is a highly fluid
Chemical and physical properties of OPC and MK. concrete mixture that can compact under its self-weight without segre-
Chemical constituent % OPC MK gation (Rahmat and Yasin, 2012). Bassuoni and Nehdi (2007)
SiO2 21.04 52.24
investigated the durability of different SCC mixes under sulphate attack.
Al2O3 5.02 43.18 The variables they considered were different types of binders, their
Fe2O3 3.12 0.6 combinations, air-entrainment, sand-to-total aggregates mass ratio
CaO 62.11 1.03 and hybrid fibre reinforcement. The study revealed that blended
MgO 2.44 0.61
binders and hybrid fibres showed more resistance to sulphate attack.
K2O 0.56 –
Na2O 0.28 – Khatib and Wild (1998) found that MK has a beneficial effect on resis-
tance to sodium sulphate attack of mortar at the replacement level of
Physical properties
15%.
Specific gravity 3.16 2.54
The best recognized chemical consequences of magnesium sulphate
attack on concrete components are the formation of ettringite (calcium
products contribute to a total pore refinement (Badogiannis and Tsivilis, aluminate trisulphate 32 hydrate, CaO·Al2O3·3CaSO4·32H2O), gypsum
2009). Wild et al. (1996) reported that the refined pore system results (calcium sulphate dihydrate, CaSO4·2H2O) and brucite. The formation
in more compact concrete, through which transportation of the water of ettringite can result in an increase in solid volume, leading to expan-
and other aggressive chemicals is significantly impeded and therefore a sion and cracking. The formation of gypsum can lead to softening and
decrease in the diffusion rate of harmful ions. loss of concrete strength. The presence of ettringite, gypsum and brucite
Hwang et al. (2015) estimated the CO2 emission during the cement are the evidences of sulphate attack and these were verified by petro-
manufacturing process of cement. Ordinary Portland cement results graphic and chemical analyses.
from calcination of limestone and silica in the following reaction (at In this study SCC mixes were prepared by partially replacing cement
1500 °C) produces CO2 with MK. To assess effect of MK on durability, water absorption,
sulphate attack and chloride penetration tests were performed on SCC
Δ
5CaCO3 þ 2 SiO2 → ð3CaO  SiO2 Þð2CaO  SiO2 Þ þ 5CO2 : ð1Þ specimens. The formation of ettringate, gypsum and brucite were also
studied by EDX, SEM and XRD analysis. Further environmental balance
One ton of cement produce 822 kg of CO2 during extraction and of MK in SCC based on energy and CO2 emissions were also studied.
burning process of limestone as well as calcination produces 495 kg
CO2 (Hwang et al., 2015). 2. Materials and methods
Franck et al. (2010) studied the effect of mineral admixtures
(limestone filler, siliceous filler, SF, MK) on the SCC for precast industry 2.1. Materials
in the economic and environmental aspects. They found that incorpora-
tion of MK produced positive effect such as economic and environmental Concrete specimens were prepared using 53 grade cement and MK.
concerns. They reported the environmental values concerning energy MK conforming to IS: 12269 (1987) procured from Indian English Clay
consumption and energy balance CO2 emission. MK is produced from Limited, Trivandrum, India was used. Table 1., shows the physical and
heating kaolin (dehydroxylation) to temperatures of 650–900 °C without chemical properties of OPC and MK. Locally available well graded coarse
CO2 emission (Sabir et al., 2001). The dehydroxylation of kaolin given in aggregate and fine aggregate (conforming to IS: 383 1987) were used.
following equation, To improve the workability of SCC, newly developed poly-carboxylic
ether based Super Plasticizer (SP) was used as a high range water reducer
Al2 O3  2SiO2  H2 O→Al2 O3  2SiO2 þ H2 O: ð2Þ (IS 9103: 1999).

Al-Akhras (2006) investigated the resistance of MK on conventional 2.2. Mix proportion and preparation of the specimens
concrete subjected to sulphate attack. He found that sulphate resistance
of MK concrete increased with increasing the MK replacement level and Kavitha et al. (2015) carried out tests on the fresh concrete as per
he showed that concrete containing 10 and 15% MK replacements EFNARC (2005) guidelines and arrived at a SCC mix proportions incor-
showed excellent durability to sulphate attack. Bonda et al. (2014) porating of MK as a replacement material for OPC. They reported that
studied the changes in compressive, expansion and capillary water 10% MK replacement offered better micro (micro crack width, Ca: Si
absorption of geopolymer concrete subjected to sulphate attack. They ratio and C–S–H formation) and macro (mechanical) level properties.
also investigated the phases by means of XRD. Ramlochan and Thomas The mix proportions for the present study were taken from Kavitha
(2000) studied the effect of partial replacement of High-Reactivity MK et al. (2015) and presented in Table 2. The control SCC mix contained
(HRM) with cement on mortar. Their results indicated that HRM had 500 kg m−3 cement and in the other SCC mixes; cement was replaced
beneficial effects on resistance to sodium sulphate attack. Kiachehr and with 5, 10 and 15% MK by weight. To obtain the required SCC mix
Omid (2013) examined the effect of pozzolanic binders such as SF, MK tests were conducted on fresh concrete as per EFNARC (2005) guide-
and zeolite on SCC in magnesium sulphate environment. They reported lines. The water/binder ratio was taken as 0.38 and SP content was
that addition of MK and zeolite in concrete specimen exhibit positive varied between 3 and 5 kg m− 3 at every MK replacement level. The
effects when compared to SF. This negative effect was due to the forma- mixes that satisfied the requirements of passing ability, filling ability
tion of brucite (magnesium hydroxide) which is responsible for expan-
sion and cracking of concrete. The intensity of elements evaluated by
EDX analysis shows that SF had high intensity for brucite when compared
Table 2
to MK and zeolite. This positive effect occurred in these were due to the Mix proportion for SCC (kg/m3).
least volume expansion and least loss of mass.
Binder
The required service life, design requirements and anticipated expo- Constituents FA CA Water SP
sure environments of structures are not only achieved by appropriate Cement MK
materials but also by properly designed, prepared and well compacted MK0 500 – 900 650 190 3
concrete (Ahmed and Assem, 2015). The quality and durability of MK5 475 25 900 650 190 3
concrete may be affected by unsuitable materials and improper com- MK10 450 50 900 650 190 4
MK15 425 75 900 650 190 5
paction. To overcome such difficulties, vibration free SCC with inclusion
 O.R. Kavitha et al. / Applied Clay Science 124–125 (2016) 143–149
Table 3
Chloride ion penetrability based on charge passed (ASTM C 1202, 2009).
Charge passing (Coulomb) Chloride permeability
N4000 High
2000–4000 Moderate
1000–2000 Low
100–1000 Very low
b100 Negligible
and segregation resistance were placed in appropriate moulds. After
24 h specimens were removed and cured until testing.
2.3. Durability tests
2.3.1. Water absorption test
This test was carried on hardened concrete specimens (BS 1881: Part
122, 1983; Bonda et al., 2014). The 100 × 100 × 100 mm cube specimen
were prepared and cured for 28 days. The cured SCC specimens were
placed in an oven for 72 ± 2 h at a temperature of 105 ± 5 °C. Oven
dried specimens were cooled in a dry air tight vessel for 24 ± 0.5 h
and specimens were weighed (Wd). Cooled specimens were immersed
immediately completely in a tank containing potable water for 30 ±
0.5 min. Each specimen was removed from the tank, shaken well and
wiped with a cloth so as to remove the free water and weighed again
(WS) and water absorption was determined as follows.
 
W S −W d
Water absorptionð%Þ ¼  100:
Wd
2.3.2. Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT)
The test was performed on cylindrical specimens of diameter
100 mm and height 200 mm to determine the rate of permeability as
per ASTM C 1202 (2009). After curing, the cylinder was cut into three
pieces of 50 mm thick specimens and coated with epoxy (Hossain
et al., 2013). After, the epoxy was dried and the specimen was placed
in a vacuum chamber for 3 h. The prepared specimen was then placed
between two cells filled with 0.3 N NaOH and 3.0% NaCl solutions.
Then the total charge passing through 50 mm thick specimens in 6 h
was measured, indicating the degree of resistance of the specimen
to chloride ion penetration. Table 3 shows the rating of chloride ion
penetration as per ASTM C 1202 (2009).
Fig. 1. Water absorption results of SCC specimens.
145
Fig. 2. Charge passed through SCC specimen.
2.3.3. Resistance to sulphate attack
This test was carried out in order to study the effect of MK
replacement on the resistance against magnesium sulphate attack.
The 100 × 100 × 100 mm concrete cube specimens were cast and
cured in water for 28 days. Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) solutions
with initial concentrations of 5% by volume were prepared in acid
resistant tanks. After curing, specimens were taken out from the curing
tank and cleaned to remove the loose materials before testing. The initial
weight (W1) was determined and then the specimens were immersed
into sulphate solution for 12 weeks (American Society for Testing and
ð3Þ Materials, 1997; Kannan and Ganesan, 2014). During the course of
(12 weeks) immersion the specimens were removed every week from
solution, rinsed with tap water, dried for 30 min and weight (W2)
noted. The solution was renewed weekly to maintain constant concen-
tration. The parameters investigated from the acid attack test were
time and weight loss of fully-immersed SCC specimens in the solution.
The cumulative weight loss at each week was calculated by the formula
recommended by Said-Mansour et al. (2011):
 
W 1 −W 2
Weight lossð%Þ ¼  100: ð4Þ
W1
After 12 weeks of immersion the residual compressive strengths of
SCC specimen was found and percentage change in the strength was
calculated. Subsequently the mix which exhibits less weight and less
strength loss after sulphate (Bonda et al., 2014) attack was identified
and it was considered as optimum mix. Further micro-structural studies
Fig. 3. Weight loss of SCC specimens exposed to 5% magnesium sulphate solution.
146 O.R. Kavitha et al. / Applied Clay Science 124–125 (2016) 143–149
 
C i −C 0
CO2 emissionð%Þ ¼  100 ð6Þ
C0

where,

C0 CO2 emission for control mix (MK0)

Ci CO2 emission for MK blended SCC mixes (i = MK5, MK10 &
MK15).

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Water absorption test

Fig. 1 shows that incorporation of MK has resulted in reduction of

the water absorption of SCC specimens. Similar results were also made
by Siddique and Klaus (2009). MK modifies the pore structure and signif-
Fig. 4. Strength loss of SCC specimens exposed to 5% magnesium sulphate solution. icantly reduces the permeability resulting in resistance of transportation
of water and diffusion of harmful ions which led to the deterioration
of the matrix (Siddique and Klaus, 2009; Sabir et al., 2001). The reasons
behind the lower absorption of water by MK blended SCC is due to the
were performed on this optimum mix to know the internal structure of pozzolanic reaction and filling effect of MK (Guneyisi et al., 2008).
the SCC.
3.2. Chloride penetration test
2.3.4. Micro-structural investigations
To investigate the degradation mechanism on the surface of speci- The presence of chloride ions is a main factor that decides the life
mens, microanalysis (SEM, XRD and EDX) were conducted on selected of steel in concrete structures. When reinforced concrete structures
optimized mix after exposure to magnesium sulphate solution to iden- are exposed to chloride ions the service life of structures particularly
tify the composition of these materials and their morphology. in marine environment gets reduced. To evaluate the resistance of
concrete to chloride ions ingress, the charges passed through concrete
2.4. CO2 emission and energy calculation specimens in coulombs were measured as per ASTM C 1202 (2009) in
the RCPT setup. Fig. 2 shows that the increase in MK content results in
CO2 emission with reference to energy consumption and chemical a remarkable reduction in the chloride ion penetration. In general,
reaction to produce 1 t cement and MK without considering transporta- chloride penetration resistance increased with the addition of MK.
tion of raw materials was calculated as reported by Franck et al. (2010). For MK0 and MK5 SCC mixes charge passed fall in the range of 1000–
Energy saved and CO2 emission was calculated as follows, (Franck 2000 C and can be classified as “low” as per ASTM C 1202 (2009).
et al., 2010) Other SCC mixes (MK10 and MK15) with charges that ranged between
  100 and 1000 C, can be classified as “very low”. The significant reduction
Ei −E0 in chloride ion penetration may be due to the formation of secondary
Energy savedð%Þ ¼  100 ð5Þ
E0 C–S–H gel formed during the pozzolanic reaction of MK with cement
hydration product (Al-Akhras, 2006) and high amount of alumina
where, content in MK. The formation of C–S–H gel improved the homogeneity
of the microstructure, making large capillary pores into small pores and
E0 energy consumption for control mix (MK0) refined its pore network, thus resulting in reduction of total permeability
Ei energy consumption for MK blended SCC mixes (i = MK5, of concrete. Further, the addition of MK increased the system's capacity to
MK10 & MK15). bind chloride ions, thereby lowering the free ion content and corrosion of

Fig. 5. EDX analysis of (a) unblended SCC (MK0), (b) 10% MK blended SCC(MK10).
 O.R. Kavitha et al. / Applied Clay Science 124–125 (2016) 143–149
Fig. 6. SEM images of (a) unblended SCC (MK0), (b) 10% MK blended SCC (MK10).
steel reinforcement (Rafik et al., 2010). Pozzolanic materials have a signif-
icant impact on improving ability of concrete to resist the penetration of
chloride ions due to chlorides binding capacity of these materials. The
reduction in the charge passing through MK blended SCC specimen,
is due to the improvement of pore structure (finer-pore) that reduces
permeability of hardened concrete.
3.3. Sulphate resistance of SCC mixes
The degree of deterioration in concrete due to sulphate attack was
measured in terms of weight loss and strength loss. Figs. 3 and 4 show
the results of weight and strength loss due to magnesium sulphate
attack of SCC specimens with and without MK. The weight and strength
loss of unblended SCC was higher than those of MK blended SCC. From
the Figs. 3 and 4, it can be seen that increase in MK content upto 10%
increases the sulphate resistance of MK blended SCC. This result is in
agreement with the findings of Al-Akhras (2006). He reported that the
increase in resistance is attributed to two mechanisms. The first mech-
anism is that replacement of OPC with MK reduces the total amount
of tricalcium aluminate hydrate in the cement paste. The other is CH
released during hydration of cement is partially consumed by pozzola-
nic reaction between CH and MK, thus quantity of gypsum formed by
reaction of CH will be less in MK blended concrete than unblended con-
crete. The higher pozzolanic activity of MK resulted in an increased rate
of strength development and pore structure refinement (Poon et al.,
2006) for the cement pastes, mortar and concrete. Likewise, the pore
refinement property of MK in concrete greatly improves the resistance
to the transportation of water and diffusion of harmful ions, which
Fig. 7. XRD of (a) unblended SCC (MK0), (b) 10% MK blended SCC (MK10).
147
leads to disintegration of matrix (Sabir et al., 2001). Furthermore, they
have confirmed that the formation CH content in hardened concrete
plays an important role in the sulphate resistance of concrete. Equally,
MK is more effective in reducing the CH content in OPC concrete
compared to silica fume and fly ash (Al-Akhras, 2006). Thus reduced
content of CH in MK concrete reduces the quantity of expansive gypsum
(Al-Akhras, 2006). The inclusion of MK reduces the CH content due to
high SiO2 presents in MK (Kavitha et al., 2015; Papadakis and Tsimas,
2002). The results were confirmed by the EDX spectra analysis (Fig.
5(a) & (b)), the higher silica (Si) content indicates that a good pozzo-
lanic reaction and synergic effect has occurred in SCC blended with
10% MK (Kannan and Ganesan, 2014). Hence, the SCC blended with
10% MK showed better resistance to sulphate and chloride attack
for this reason.
3.4. Micro-structural investigations
3.4.1. EDX and SEM analysis
To investigate the degradation mechanism of the SCC specimens
subjected to sulphate attack, microstructural analysis was conducted
on optimum (MK10) and control mix (MK0). EDX analysis was carried
out to determine the elemental compostion. The peak intensity of Al, S
and Ca were related to the formation of ettringite and Si, S and Ca
denotes the formation of thaumasite (Kiachehr and Omid 2013). The
less intensity of Al, S, Si and Ca of MK bleneded SCC can be associated
to the reduction in formation of ettringite and thaumasite. Additionally
existence of gypsum and brucite were also less in MK blended SCC which
was conformed by the lower intensity of Ca, S and Mg (Kiachehr and
148 O.R. Kavitha et al. / Applied Clay Science 124–125 (2016) 143–149
Table 4
Environmental balance of SCC mixes based on energy and CO2 emission for 1m3of SCC.
CO2 emission (kg)
Energy (GJ)
Mix Extraction & Kiln
Cement MK Total Cement MK
MK0 2.34 0 2.34 239.3 0 260.8
MK5 2.22 0.74 2.29 227.3 4.35
MK10 2.11 1.48 2.26 215.3 8.75
MK15 1.99 2.21 2.21 203.4 13.13
a
Negative sign indicates that increase the replacement level of cement with MK reduces the energy consumption (−2.14% to −5.56%) related to CO2 emission (−4.15% to −11.21%).
Omid, 2013). The SEM and EDX analysis as shown in Figs. 5 and 6 was
concludes the decrease in formation of ettringite, thaumasite, gypsum
and brucite was due to the densified pore structure. It is due to the pozzo-
lanic action of MK and packing of the particles within the microstructure.
This results in good resistance to sulphate attack.
3.4.2. XRD analysis
XRD results identify the main phases of reaction product due to
sulphate attack. The pattern (Fig. 7) indicates the presence of ettringite
(E), thaumsite (T), gypsum (G) and brucite (B) which are expected
products formed during magnesium sulphate attack on concrete speci-
men. Fig. 7(a) shows that control SCC exhibits high intensity peaks for E,
T, G and B than MK blended SCC specimen (Fig. 7(b)). Thus the incorpo-
ration of MK reduces the width of interfacial transition zone which
increases the durability of concrete by creation of calcium aluminate
hydrates. The pozzolanic products produced during cement hydration
refine the pore structure of concrete that changes the system more com-
pact. It decreases the diffusion rate of harmful ions and other aggressive
chemicals impeded into the concrete (Al-Akhras, 2006). The results
confirmed that the 10% replacement of MK in SCC was less susceptible
to sulphate attack.
3.5. Environmental benefit of MK blended SCC
Table 4 shows CO2 emission with reference to energy consumption
and chemical reaction. The MK production releases less amount of CO2
into the atmosphere than the cement production. The CO2 emission
from MK production (1 t of MK produced = 175 kg of CO2, Franck
et al., 2010) comes from the extraction of raw materials and kiln not
from the chemical reaction (dehydroxilation). However, for the cement
production emits CO2 during decarboxylation of calcium carbonate (1 t
of cement produced = 521.5 kg of CO2) and the extraction process (1 t
of cement produced = 478.5 kg of CO2, Franck et al., 2010). Further
during production of MK less thermal energy is required (1 t of MK
produced = 2.95 GJ, Franck et al., 2010) than the cement (1 t of cement
produced = 4.65 GJ, Franck et al., 2010). The result shows (Table 4) that
increase the replacement level of cement with MK reduces the energy
consumption (− 2.14% to − 5.56%) and CO2 emission (− 4.15% to
−11.21%).
4. Conclusions
In this paper the various durability studies were conducted and
based on the results it was concluded that MK consumes more amount
of CH during cement hydration through pozzolanic reaction and made
the concrete more durable. The incorporation of MK reduces the forma-
tion of gypsum, ettringite and brucite thereby improving the resistance
to sulphate attack. In addition, the refined pore structure of MK blended
SCC shows reduced permeability and slows down ingress of harmful
chloride ions. MK alters the pore structure of concrete greatly and
thus improves the resistance to the transportation of water and
Environmental benefit regardinga
Chemical reaction
Total Energy consumption (%) CO2 emission (%)
Cement MK
0 500.1 – –
247.7 0 479.35 −2.14 −4.15
234.7 0 458.75 −3.42 −8.27
227.5 0 444.02 −5.56 −11.21
diffusion of chloride ions, which leads to degradation of the matrix.
SCC containing 10% MK exhibited excellent durability to sulphate attack,
chloride penetration and water permeability. MK exhibited positive
environment effect due to the less CO2 emission with reference to less
thermal energy consumption and chemical reaction. Increased durability
of MK blended SCC showed indirect contribution to CO2 reduction,
because durable structures require less repair and maintenance. The
improved durability of the MK blended SCC will increase the service life
of structure.
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