Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Cullwick Relativi PDF

    Uploaded by

    Art Davis
    2 views19 pages

    Original Title

    cullwick_relativi.pdf

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    2 views19 pages

    Cullwick Relativi PDF

    Uploaded by

    Art Davis

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 19
    CHAPTER 17 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION Conservation of energy 1, When an electric charge and a current-circuit are in relative motion, an interesting problem arises, in connection with Newton's Third Law of Motion, concerning action and reaction of forees, which provides a simple illustration of fundamental aspects of electromagnetic forces and energy. ‘The general theory of energy and mechanical forces, when the interacting bodies include magnetized and polarized parts, with permanent magnets and electrets, is complex,* and it will bbe sufficient for the purpose of this chapter if we limit the dis- cussion to the case in which the charges and currents exist in a medium equivalent to free space, so that D= P = pE + (ourl H) xB- xB a7(17) and from 17(2) we have curl E + @B/at =0, hence B Dx curl E+Dx By adding this to 17(17) we obtain P = pE-BxcurlH-Dxcul E 5x8) . 17(18) Clearly the total force on the charges and conduction currents is equal to the volume integral of pE +-J xB throughout 228 RLECTROMA’ eTIC ENERGY, MOMENTUM [cHar, the volume of the material hodies, outside which both p and J are zero, But in 17(18) we have replaced J by two components, curl Hand ~ aD/2t, whose sum in the external space is zero but which may exist separately. If then we divide the total force into two components, one of which contains curl Har other —AaD/at, these components can be obtained, uly o integrating throughout the whole of the space occupied by the electromagnetic field. We now proceed to divide P into two such parts P=PGP,, where P, = pE-Bxcurl H-D xcurl E 17119) nd ao a P= -2DxB) . 1720) 4, First consider P, : its resultant over the complete system i x, = fffpee men where the integration has to be performed throughout the whole of space. Since p—div D and div B=0 wo can write F, in the form Pe Jfficooe div BE x curl E) + 9(Hdiv H -H curl H)} dr, 1722) By an identity of vector analysis we have for a vector field A, {Ifa div A-A x curl A)dr = affe smA~Atn}dS , , . 178) where n is the unit normal to the surface $ which bounds th volume. We therefore have the r ifjeo-me ED +2(B-n)H-HBn} dS 17(24) or, putting (2D + HB)}: , the field energy, F, = [)@-me+@-mH-vm dS. 1725) This represents, over the surface bounding any region, a system of stresses in the medium,* namely a uniform hydrostatic * J.C. Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, Ve wane ty and Magnetivm, Vol. 1, § 106, and 17) NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION pressure (ED +H B)/2 together with a tension ZD along the line of E and a tension 1B along the lines of H. ‘We now assume that all the energy of the system is confined within a definite region, so that no energy is lost through the surface of an enclosing volume which is made indefinitely large, ‘The simplest ease to assume is that the system is not radiating electromagnetic waves, which in the example of the charge and current-circuit in slow relative motion is true. All fields then decrease at least as rapidly as I/r*, where r is the distance from a source, so if the surface of integration is made larger and larger F; also decreases at least as rapidly as 1/r* and therefore approaches zero as r approaches an infinite value. ‘Thus the resultant force F, for the system is zero, so that Newton's Third Law holds and action and reaction must be equal and opposite. 8. ‘The second component of P, namel ant force on the whole system -jfl 2 DxB)dr , 17(26) P,, will give a result- the integration again being throughout all space. If F, is zero, then Newton's Third Law holds for the ponderomotive force in the system as a whole. In general, however, F, is not zero, fand the forces on the material bodies in an electromagnetic system may be unbalanced. ‘This unbalance shows that the inertia of the system is not confined to the material bodies, In order that, the force-element aF,=- Q (D «B)3+ should have an equal and opposite reaction, the element 8r of the electromagnetic field must contain a moving entity possessing inertia, and whose momentum is changingattherate 2 (D xB) 5r.* Now suppose thatthe energy 1 trating to nto tat th ant, =, of th Mas ames smn Se ee vay egal (DB). Fr BR gona ac ann leet fh iw er 20 H l/o. Since its mowentum i ce its momentum is mv = |DxB} we must have , m —|DxBI_|BxH| Uy vee 17(27) But this is exactly the law of th But this : law of the equivalence of mass energy, 5(14). We thus see that the reaction to the force HB, is borne by the electromagnetic energy-mass which is moving in the element. So if we include the en ial system, we see that Newton’s ‘on is completely pulid for the whole system. Tt should be noted that 7727) ie independent of the value of v, the velocity of the moving energy. Electromagnetic momentum 6. The term D « Bis known as th i is as the electromagnetic momenti This name is due to M. Abraham,* who pointed out its relation to Poynting’s energy flux. ‘That Fy need not be zero was realized by Lorentz, but at that time the mass of energy had not en established and Lorentz, retaining the eonoept of a fixed acthor, came to the conclusion that sinee his theory did not low (the froo nether to be the seat of mechanical forces Newton's Third Law might not be universally valid. Tf hhowover, we accept Newton's law and the concept of electro- magnetic energy as an entity which can move about in fi pace, we see that electromagnetic theory leads to the cis of mass-energy equivalence vienesto Me hypothesis . This concept of electromagneti romagnetic momentum also gives the correct radiation pressure when electromagnetic simpinge e lectromagnetie waves impinge * Gott, Nach. (1902) p. 20, ms 17) NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION 281 onan opaque absorbing surface. It was first shown by Maxwell* that this pressure, according to the electromagnetic theory of light, should be equal to the energy per unit volume of the incident wave. Let this energy-density be 1: then we attri- bute to it a mass m= Wc? and a momentum me= Wye. Since it travels with velocity c it follows that if this unit volume of energy impinges on a unit area of an absorbing surface, the momentum Wc is destroyed in 1J¢ second so that the foree per unit area must be equal to W. Further, since the energy- density in an electromagnetic wave is ED or HB, and B=Ele, E and B being mutually perpendicular and transverse to the direction of propagation, we have W =_EHJe and the momentum We=|D.B |, Thus in an electromagnetic wave all the field energy may be taken as moving with velocity ¢. In general, if the field energy is changing at a point, the change can be con- sidered as being effected by the motion of energy with the velocity of an electromagnetic wave. But we are not justified in accepting D xB as a true energy momentum in all circum stances, since only its time-rate of change appears in the ‘expression for the ponderomotive force and it is possible, for example if a permanent magnet is electrically charged, to find cases in which the concept is extremely artificial. Even with the above reservation, we must not regard the Poynting vector, ExH, or the electromagnetic momentum, DxB, as representing a true microscopic description of the energy flow and its momentum at a point in the field. Just as the field vectors within a material meditun are averaged quan- tities, so E x Hand D xB must be regarded, even in free space, as macroscopic averages. Wo know, in fact, that however radiated energy may be distributed as it travels, it is emitted and received in quantized “ photons” whose energy content is precisely hf, where h is Planck's constant and fis the frequency. Further, the detailed account of the electromagnetic momen tum, and its change, will be different for different observers, and only the resultant value of the force has physical significance. 8, When the electromagnetic momentum is included, we see that the total momentum of the system + Treatise, Vol. LI, §§ 792-3. 232 «ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY, MomENTUM — [cHAP, pose for example that a radar pulse is radiated in a narrow directional beam. At the instant of radiation the antenna is subjected to a very small reactive mechanical impulse which will, theoretically, cause a change in the mechanical momentum of the equipment. ‘This is balanced by the electromagnetic momentum of the radiated pulse of energy. In the ease of a complete electromagnetic system, in which all radiated energy is received by matter within the system, the resultant force F, is zero because all the radiation fields are zero outside the sys- tem, but the resultant force F,, and hence the total mechanical forec on the material parts of the system, may at a particular instant be finite. The mechanical momentum arising from this, is balanced by the electromagnetic momentum of the radiated energy which is in transit between the sources and the receivers, ‘An example * 9, As an example of a non-radiating electromagnetic system in which the ponderumotive forces are unbalanced, consider an electric charge q moving with constant velocity v along the axis of a toroidal coil of N turns which carries a steady current J (Fig. 17.1). There will bo a small e.m.f. induced in the toroid by the moving charge, but we may consider Ons T to be maintained constant by means of some automatic control. Then, since 7 is constant, there is no induced electric field. ‘The toroid, if wound with a single layer of turns, causes a small external magnetic field equivalent to that of a single current-loop coincident with the circular axis of the turns, and in addition a strong magnetic field within the turns, whose flux is concentric with the axis of the ring. If wound with two layers of turns, progressing around the ring in opposite directions, there is no external magnetic field at all, and in either ease, since there is no component of magnetic * Foranotherillustration, sce, Slopian, Electrical Bay's for Recreation", Flectrical Engineering, 68 (1940) pp. 145 and 245, 6.17.1. Moving charge and stationary’ toroid, seniiimaaaiaitbaateaes 17) NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION 233, field perpendicular to », there is no magnetic force on the moving charge. ‘The current in the toroid therefore exerts no force on the moving charge. There will, of course, be a force on the change q due to charges induced on the wires of the toroid by the electric field of q. If vec this force may be assumed to be purely electrostatic so that the toroid will experience an equal and opposite reactive force. If the velocity of y is high, as may be the case if the charge is an electron moving in a vacuum, then the forces arising from these induced charges will not be purely electrostatic, Their caleula- tion would be difficult and their balanee would not be exact It will, however, be sufficient for our purpose to confine the investigation to the forces arising from the mutual action of qand I alone, 10. Although the toroid exerts no electromagnetic force on 4, the converse is not true. ‘The moving charge has a magnetic field which is circular about its path and which therefore links the turns of the toroid, Its value within the toroid, along the axis of turns, is, Be aes . 17(28) In order to simplify the problem, assume that the diameter of the turns is small compared with the radius R of the ring. We may then take B’ to be approximately uniform over the area a of the turns, so that the linking flux of B’ is @ = a8. 1729) Since ©" supports the intemal field due to the current J, the toroid will experience a resultant mechanical foree tending to move it towards the charge (ie., in a direction which will result in an increase in the total linking flux). ‘This force is therefore in the direction of v when the charge is receding from the toroid as in Fig. 17.1, but is opposed to ¥ when q is approaching the toroid from the left. If a coil carrying a current J has JV turns all of which are linked by a magneti¢ flux @' from an external source, then the total magnetic field-energy of the system is LY®" more, or less, than the total energy when the two sources are independent, depending on whether ' strengthens or 234 ELECTROMA NETIC ENERGY, MOMENTUM [cHAP. weakens the field of J. The force on the toroid in the present case is given by ao’ F.= -INS ior TNaR ¢ in the direction of v, whereas the force on q due to the current I is zero. 11. This force, F, should be exactly balanced by aff[Ze

    You might also like