AMITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, NOIDA

UTTAR PRADESH

PROJECT REPORT

On

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION AND LAN/WAN

NETWORKING TECHNIQUES.

PROGRAMME : B.TECH ECE (2007-2011)

SEMESTER : SEVENTH

Faculty Guide: Submitted by:

Mr. Devesh Kumar ayeshna mehra

A2305119228
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “SATELLITE

COMMUNICATION AND LAN/WAN NETWORKING TECHNIQUES” is
a bona fide record of the industrial training project under my supervision and
guidance, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Degree
of Bachelor of Technology in Electronic and Communication Engineering
from Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Noida, Sec-125 .

Mr. DEVESH
KUMAR (guide)
Dept. of
Electronics &

Communication Engineering
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Setting an endeavor may not always be an easy task; obstacles are bound to come in its
way and when this happens, help is welcome and needless to say without help of those
people whom I am mentioning here, this endeavor would not have been successful.
The completion of any project brings with it a sense of satisfaction, but it is never
complete without thanking those people who made it possible and whose constant
support has crowned our efforts with success. I would like to express my gratitude
to Ms Meena agarwal, DGM( IT) at NTPC for encouraging and inspiring me to carry out
the project in the Central Satellite Earth Station, NTPC. I would also like to thank all the
staff members of NTPC for providing me with the required facilities and support towards
the completion of the project .My sincere thanks to my faculty guide Mr. Devesh Kumar
for his constant support and guidance. Without his corporation the project would not have
been completed successfully. . I am extremely happy to acknowledge and express my
sincere gratitude to my parents for their constant support and encouragement.

ABSTRACT

The project basically deals with the study of satellite communication and how it works.
Organizations with many remote affiliates can create a private high-speed satellite intranet,
which links the main office reliably with all local sites. Within and amongst institutions
there is an ever-growing need to communicate and to enhance the existing networks. These
networks need high speed, reliable and cost-effective communications. This is especially
true when the locations are dispersed over remote regions , and barely connectable via a
terrestrial network infrastructure. In this case, satellite communications are an effective
way to provide private or secure data networks. Therefore for communication and
exchange of data between various sites a central satellite earth station has been installed at
NTPC Noida since it is the hub station for communication with its various other sites.
NTPC Satcom Network is working in STAR Configuration with this Hub Earth
Station .NTPC has been assigned transponder number 3 in the
recently launched satellite INSAT 3E.
The project covers detailed study of the ground segment of satellite communication. The
transmission and receive path which include various sub components like MODEM,
up/down Converters etc have been studied and how they are connected practically.
NTPC has a LAN for exchange of information within the building and a WAN for
communication with various other sites so the project also covers a brief study of LAN and
WAN networking techniques and basics of services like audio and video conferencing.

Figure (1) - VSAT Star-shaped Network

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS
Certificate
Acknowledgement
Abstract

Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2 : NTPC COMPANY PROFILE
2.1 Overview of organization
Chapter 3 : INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Networking topologies
3.3 Types of network
3.4 Local area network
3.5 Wide area network
Chapter 4 : SATELLITE COMMUNICATION OVERVIEW
4.1 How it works
4.2 Types of satellite
4.3 Types of orbits
4.4 Frequency bands
Chapter 5 : VERY SMALL APERTURE TERMINAL
5.1 VSAT system architecture
5.2 VSAT topologies
5.3 Hub station
Chapter 6 : CENTRAL SATELLITE EARTH STATION NTPC NOIDA
6.1 Specifications
6.2 CSES block diagram
6.3 Functioning of CSES
6.4 Various subsystems
6.5 Multiple access schemes
6.6 Implementing VSAT
Chapter 7 : NTPC NETWORK TODAY
Chapter 8 : CONCLUSION
Chapter 9 : FUTURE IMPLICATIONS
Chapter 10: REFERENCES
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
A satellite is an object that orbits or revolves around another object. Man-made satellites
placed around the earth for the purpose of communication are called as communication
satellites. They are highly specialized wireless receiver/transmitters that are launched by a
rocket and placed in orbit around the Earth. There are hundreds of satellites currently in
operation. Satellite communication is one particular example of wireless communication
systems. Similar and maybe more familiar examples of wireless systems are radio and
television broadcasting and mobile and cordless telephones. Satellite communication is
very simply the communication of the satellite in space with large number of earth stations
on the ground. Users are the ones who generate baseband signals, which is processed at the
earth station and then transmitted to the satellite through dish antennas. The satellite
receives the uplink frequency and the transponder present inside the satellite does the
processing function and frequency down conversion in order to transmit the downlink
signal at different frequency. The earth station then receives the signal from the satellite
through parabolic dish antenna and processes it to get back the baseband signal.

There are two basic elements of satellite communication:-

1) Space segment
2) Ground segment

The space segment is primarily the satellite that is used for communication. The satellites
used are exclusively in the Geo-stationary orbit, located on an arc 36,000 km above the
equator. This segment is available from organizations that have procured satellites,
arranged launch and who operate these satellites on a commercial basis. In addition to
international agencies, a number of private players have emerged who own or lease
satellites which are used to carry their own or their customer’s data-traffic.

The ground segment is primarily called the Earth terminal segment or the earth station.
Earth stations are located either on the surface of the earth, or within earth’s atmosphere. It
maintains communication link between earth and the satellite. . Major components of a
earth station are generally grouped in two categories, ODU (outdoor unit) and IDU (indoor
unit). The indoor unit interfaces with the end user equipment like stand alone PCs, LANs,
Telephones.

NTPC has a LAN for exchange of information within the building. A network is any
collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a shared
network medium. LANs are networks usually confined to a geographic area, such as a
single building or a college campus. LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers,
but often link hundreds of computers used by thousands of people. Communication to other
sites takes place by a WAN via satellite. A Wide area networking combines multiple LANs
that are geographically separate.

CHAPTER 2

NATIONAL THERMAL POWER CORPORATION

 COMPANY PROFILE

2.1 Overview of Organization

India’s largest power company, NTPC was set up in 1975 to accelerate power development
in India. NTPC is emerging as a diversified power major with presence in the entire value
chain of the power generation business. Apart from power generation, which is the mainstay
of the company, NTPC has already ventured into consultancy, power trading, ash utilization
and coal mining. NTPC ranked 317th in the ‘2009, Forbes Global 2000’ ranking of the
World’s biggest companies.
The total installed capacity of the company is 31,704 MW (including JVs) with 15 coal
based and 7 gas based stations, located across the country. In addition under JVs, 3 stations
are coal based & another station uses naphtha/LNG as fuel. By 2017, the power generation
portfolio is expected to have a diversified fuel mix with coal based capacity of around
53000 MW, 10000 MW through gas, 9000 MW through Hydro generation, about 2000 MW
from nuclear sources and around 1000 MW from Renewable Energy Sources (RES). NTPC
has adopted a multi-pronged growth strategy which includes capacity addition through
green field projects, expansion of existing stations, joint ventures, subsidiaries and takeover
of stations.

NTPC has been operating its plants at high efficiency levels. Although the company has
18.10% of the total national capacity it contributes 28.60% of total power generation due to
its focus on high efficiency.

In October 2004, NTPC launched its Initial Public Offering (IPO) consisting of 5.25% as
fresh issue and 5.25% as offer for sale by Government of India. NTPC thus became a listed
company in November 2004 with the government holding 89.5% of the equity share capital.
The rest is held by Institutional Investors and the Public. The issue was a resounding
success. NTPC is among the largest five companies in India in terms of market
capitalization.

At NTPC, People before Plant Load Factor is the mantra that guides all HR related
policies. NTPC has been awarded No.1, Best Workplace in India among large organizations
and the best PSU for the year 2009, by the Great Places to Work Institute, India Chapter in
collaboration with The Economic Times.

NTPC has integrated Information Technology as a strategic tool in its management systems
and aligned Business & Process based on Enterprise Resource planning using SAP AG
Product.

Services covered include the following:

1) NTPC Ltd has mandated German business software major SAP selecting its entire
module and has pioneered as first organization in the country to implement all
modules. ERP software package that has helped NTPC in for better control over a
host of business activities such as production, sales, Material management,
Codification of Items, Plant & Operation Management, Customer Relation
Management , C-Folder for receiving drawings, Inspection management, e-
Procurement, Knowledge portal, etc. across the organizational structure.
2) Management Information Systems
3) Satellite Communication captive network of NTPC established since 1989 hiring
1/2 Transponders on INSAT series of Satellites.
4) Reviewed IT infrastructure for Network Strengthening in view of ERP, Video-
Conferencing, and other applications with retaining consultants from IIT-D .
5) Established Multi Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) Network with BSNL's
Backbone for Wide area Network connectivity. IP packets to travel through WAN
networks as well as to ease the routers' overhead by simplifying routing tables.

CHAPTER 3

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Networking is the concept of sharing resources and services. A network of
computers is a group of interconnected systems sharing resources and interacting using a
shared communications link. A network, therefore, is a set of interconnected systems with
something to share. The shared resource can be data, a printer, a fax modem, or a service
such as a database or an email system. The individual systems must be connected through a
pathway (called the transmission medium) that is used to transmit the resource or service
between the computers. All systems on the pathway must follow a set of common
communication rules for data to arrive at its intended destination and for the sending and
receiving systems to understand each other. The rules governing computer communication
are called protocols.
In summary, all networks must have the following:
1. A resource to share (resource)
2. A pathway to transfer data (transmission medium)
3. A set of rules governing how to communicate (protocols)

Figure(2) - Simplest form of a computer network

Having a transmission pathway does not always guarantee

communication. When two entities communicate, they do not merely exchange
information; rather, they must understand the information they receive from each other.
The goal of computer networking, therefore, is not simply to exchange data but to
understand and use data received from other entities on the network.
An analogy is people speaking, just because two people can speak, it does not mean they
automatically can understand each other. These two people might speak different languages
or interpret words differently. One person might use sign language, while the other uses
spoken language. As in human communication, even though you have two entities who
"speak," there is no guarantee they will be able to understand each other. Just because two
computers are sharing resources, it does not necessarily mean they can communicate.

Figure (3) - An analogy of a computer network

Because computers can be used in different ways and can be located at

different distances from each other, enabling computers to communicate often can be a
daunting task that draws on a wide variety of technologies.
The two main reasons for using computer networking are to provide
services and to reduce equipment costs. Networks enable computers to share their
resources by offering services to other computers and users on a network. The following
are specific reasons for networking PCs
1. Sharing files
2. Sharing printers and other devices
3. Enabling centralized administration and security of the resources within the
system.
4. Supporting network applications such as electronic mail and database services
5. Limited resources
6. Desire to share the resources
7. Cost Reduction
Today, that's a limiting view, because the most important resource is
information. Network lets us share information and Resource Sharing achieves the same.
Resource Sharing
The purpose of many computer networks is to permit a far-flung community of
users to share computer resources. Many such users now have their own microcomputers,
so the shared resources have to be interesting enough to warrant access via a network. The
facilities accessible by networks are in fact becoming more interesting at a rapid rate.
The remote computer may contain software that a user needs to employ. It may be
proprietary software kept at one location. It may require a larger machine than any at the
user's location. The distant computer may provide access to data that is stored and
maintained at its location. Sometimes the remote machine controls a large or special
printing facility. Sometimes the remote machine compiles programs that are used on
smaller peripheral machines.

Cost Reduction
There are various aspects of technology that are likely to force the price of
terminal usage drastically lower. This is important because almost all aspects of
telecommunications are characterized by high price elasticity. In other words, when the
price comes down, the usage goes up.

3.2 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

The term topology refers to the way a network is laid out, either physically or
logically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The
topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices (usually called nodes) to each other. There are five basic topologies
possible: mesh, star, tree, bus, and ring.
 Figure(4) - Multipoint Line Configuration

Figure (5) - Categories of Topologies

These five labels describe how the devices in a network are interconnected rather
than their physical arrangement. For example, having a star topology does not mean that all
of the computers in the network must be placed physically around a hub in a star shape. A
consideration when choosing a topology is the relative status of the devices be linked. Two
relationships are possible: peer-to-peer, where the devices share the link equally, and
primary-secondary, where one device controls traffic and the others must transmit through
it. Ring and mesh topologies are more convenient for peer-to-peer transmission, while star
and tree are more convenient for primary-secondary, bus topology is equally convenient for
either.

• Mesh
 In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices
it connects. A fully connected mesh network therefore has n*(n - l)/2 physical channels to
link n devices. To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have 7
input/output (I/O) ports.

Figure (6) - Fully Connected Mesh Topology

A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies. First, the use of
dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple
devices.
Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
Another advantage is privacy or security. When every message sent travels along
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users
from gaining access to messages.
Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the
network manager to discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause
and solution.
The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the
number of I/O ports required. First, because every device must be connected to ever other
device, installation and reconfiguration are difficult. Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring
can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
And, finally, the hardware required connecting each link (I/O ports and cable can be
prohibitively expensive). For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a
limited fashion—for example, as a backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid
network that can include several other topologies.

• Star
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to each other. Unlike a
mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller
acts as an exchange. If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.

Hub

Figure (7) - Star topology

A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs
only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others. This factor also makes
it easy to install and reconfigure. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves,
and deletions involve only one connection: between that device and the hub.
Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All
other links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault
isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and
bypass defective links.
However, although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be
linked to a central hub. For this reason more cabling is required in a star than in some other
topologies (such as tree, ring, or bus).
 • Tree
A tree topology is a variation of a star. As in a star, nodes in a tree are linked to a
central hub that controls the traffic to the network. However, not every device plugs
directly into the central hub. The majority of devices connect to a secondary hub that in
turn is connected to the central hub.
The central hub in the tree is an active hub. An active hub contains a repeater,
which is a hardware device that regenerates the received bit patterns before sending them
out. Repeating strengthens trans- missions and increases the distance a signal can travel.

Figure (8) - Tree Topology

The secondary hubs may be active or passive hubs. A passive hub provides a
simple physical connection between the attached devices.
The advantages and disadvantages of a tree topology are generally the same as
those of a star. The addition of secondary hubs, however, brings two further advantages.
First, it allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub and can therefore
increase the distance a signal can travel between devices. Second, it allows the network to
isolate and prioritize communications from different computers. For example, the
computers attached to one secondary hub can be given priority over computers attached to
another secondary hub. In this way, the network designers and operator can guarantee that
time-sensitive data will not have to wait for access to the network.
 A good example of tree topology can be seen in cable TV technology where the
main cable from the main office is divided into main branches and each branch is divided
into smaller branches and so on. The hubs are used when a cable is divided.

• Bus
The preceding examples all describe point-to-point configurations. A bus topology,
on the other hand, is multipoint. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and
taps. A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a
connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to
create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its
energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker the farther it has
to travel. For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the
distance between those taps.
Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be
laid along the most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various
lengths. In this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh, star, or tree topologies. In a star, for
example, four network devices in the same room require four lengths of cable reaching all
the way to the hub. In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable
stretches through the entire facility. Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest
point on the backbone.

Figure (9) - Bus Topology

 Disadvantages include difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation. A bus is usually
designed to be optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new
devices. As mentioned above, signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
This degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices
connected to a given length of cable. Adding new devices may therefore require
modification or replacement of the backbone.
In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices
on the same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of
origin, creating noise in both directions.

• Ring
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point line configuration
only with the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring
incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its
repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked only to its
immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires
moving only two connections. The only constraints are media and traffic considerations
(maximum ring length and number of devices). In addition, fault isolation is simplified.
Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a
signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network
operator to the problem and its location.
However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in
the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can be
solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.
 Figure (10) - Ring Topology

3.3 TYPES OF NETWORK- LAN, WAN AND MAN

Today when we speak of networks, we are generally referring to three primary

categories: local area networks, metropolitan area networks, and wide area networks. Into
which category a network its size, its ownership, the distance it covers, and its physical
architecture determine falls.

Figure(11) - Categories of networks

Local Area Network (LAN)

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a
single office, building, or campus. Depending on the needs of an organization and the type
of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone's home
office, or it can extend throughout a company and include voice, sound, and video
peripherals. Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.

Figure(12) - LAN
LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or
workstations. The resources to be shared can include hardware e.g., a printer, software e.g.,
an application program, or data. A common example of a LAN, found in many business
environments, links a work group of task-related computers, for example, engineering
workstations or accounting PCs. One of the computers may be given a large-capacity disk
drive and become a server to the other clients. Software can be stored on this central server
and used as needed by the whole group. In this example, the size of the LAN may be
determined by licensing restrictions on the number of users per copy of software, or by
restrictions on the number of users licensed to access the operating system.
In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their
transmission media and topology. In general, a given LAN will use only one type of
transmission medium. The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.
Traditionally, LANs have data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, however speeds are
increasing and can reach 100 Mbps with gigabit systems in development.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is designed to extend over an entire city. It
may be a single network such as a cable television network, or it may be a means of
connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so that resources may be shared LAN-
to-LAN as well as device-to-device. For example, a company can use a MAN to connect
the LANs in all of its offices throughout a city.
 Figure(13) - MAN
A MAN may be wholly owned and operated by a private company, or it may be a
service provided by a public company, such as a local telephone company. Many telephone
companies provide a popular MAN service called Switched Multi-megabit Data Services
(SMDS).

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, voice,
image, and video information over large geographical areas that may comprise a country, a
continent, or even the whole world.

Figure(14) - WAN

In contrast to LANs (which depend on their own hardware for transmission),

WANs may utilize public, leased, or private communication devices, usually in
combinations, and can therefore span an unlimited number of miles. A WAN that is wholly
owned and used by a single company is often referred to as an enterprise network.
 3.4 LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single
building or campus of up to a few kilometres in size. They are widely used to connect
personal computers and workstations in company offices and factories to share resources
(e.g., printers) and exchange information. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of
networks by three characteristics: (1) their size, (2) their transmission technology, and (3)
their topology.

LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded
and known in advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of
designs that would not otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management.
LANs transmission technology consisting of a cable to which all the Desktops/Nodes are
connected, similar to like telephones connected to an EPABX Exchange, however here the
data and voice both are transmitted.

Various topologies are possible and are implemented for LANs such as; Star, Bus, or Ring
topology.

3.5 WIDE AREA NETWORK

A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or
continent. It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application)
programs. These machines are called hosts. The hosts are connected by a communication
subnet. The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal computers), whereas
the communication subnet is typically owned and operated by a telephone company or
Internet service provider. The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just
as the telephone system carries words from speaker to listener. Separation of the pure
communication aspects of the network (the subnet) from the application aspects (the hosts),
greatly simplifies the complete network design.

In most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components:
 i. Transmission lines and
ii. Switching elements.

Transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be made of copper wire, optical
fibre, or even radio links whereas;

Switching elements are specialized computers that connect three or more transmission
lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an
outgoing line on which to forward them.

Figure(15)- WAN

CHAPTER 4

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION OVERVIEW

 4.1 HOW IT WORKS

The basic elements of satellite communication are the earth stations, terrestrial system and
the users. The earth stations on the ground linked with a satellite in the space. The user is
connected to the earth station through a terrestrial network and this terrestrial network may
be a telephone switch or a dedicated link to the earth station. The user generates a baseband
signal that is processed through a terrestrial network and transmitted to a satellite. The
satellite consists of a large number of repeaters in space, that receives the modulated RF
carrier in its uplink frequency spectrum from all the earth stations in the network, amplifies
these carriers and retransmits them back to the earth stations in the down link frequency
spectrum. To avoid interference the downlink frequency spectrum should be different from
the uplink frequency spectrum. The signal at the receiving earth station is processed to get
back the baseband signal, it is sent to the user through a terrestrial network. There are
various frequency bands utilized by satellites but the most recognized of them is the uplink
frequency of 6 Ghz and the downlink frequency of 4 Ghz. Actually the uplink frequency
band is 5.725 to 7.075 Ghz and the actual downlink frequency band is from 3.4 to 4.8 Ghz.

Satellite communication is one particular example of wireless communication systems.

Similar and maybe more familiar examples of wireless systems are radio and television
broadcasting and mobile and cordless telephones.

4.2 TYPES OF SATELLITE:-

The satellite can be classified into two categories:

• Active satellite

• Passive satellite

The major difference between these two is that weather the communication relay involves
passive reflection or active electronic system

An active satellite is one which has transmitting equipment abroad such as a transponder.
It is a device which receives a signal from earth, amplifies it and retransmits it back to
earth.
A passive satellite merely reflects or scatters the incident radiation from earth. Passive
satellite relays would require surface transmitters of greater power than would active relay ,
however the active satellite relays must carry abroad receiving and transmitting equipment
and the necessary power sources.

4.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ORBITS

Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO): 35,786 km above the earth

Figure(16) -GEO

• Orbiting at the height of 22,282 miles above the equator (35,786 km), the satellite
travels in the same direction and at the same speed as the Earth's rotation on its axis,
taking 24 hours to complete a full trip around the globe. Thus, as long as a satellite is
positioned over the equator in an assigned orbital location, it will appear to be
"stationary" with respect to a specific location on the Earth.
• A single geostationary satellite can view approximately one third of the Earth's surface.
If three satellites are placed at the proper longitude, the height of this orbit allows
almost all of the Earth's surface to be covered by the satellites.

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): 8,000-20,000 km above the earth

Figure(17) - MEO

• These orbits are primarily reserved for communications satellites that cover the
North and South Pole
• Unlike the circular orbit of the geostationary satellites, MEO's are placed in an
elliptical (oval-shaped) orbit

Low Earth Orbit (LEO): 500-2,000 km above the earth

Figure(18) -LEO

• These orbits are much closer to the Earth, requiring satellites to travel at a very high
speed in order to avoid being pulled out of orbit by Earth's gravity
• At LEO, a satellite can circle the Earth in approximately one and a half hours

GEO vs. MEO vs. LEO

Most communications satellites in use today for commercial purposes are placed in the
geostationary orbit, because of the following advantages:

• One satellite can cover almost 1/3 of Earth's surface, offering a reach far more
extensive than what any terrestrial network can achieve
• Communications require the use of fixed antennas. Since geosynchronous satellites
remain stationary over the same orbital location, users can point their satellite
dishes in the right direction, without costly tracking activities, making
communications reliable and secure
• GEO satellites are proven, reliable and secure - with a lifespan of 10-15 years

4.4 FREQUENCY BANDS FOR SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Satellite communications, like any other means of communication (radio, TV, telephone,
etc), use frequency bands that are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
electromagnetic radiation spectrum starts with the longest waves (including those in the
audible range) and extends through radio waves and the visible light, which is effectively a
very small part of the spectrum, all the way to the extremely short wavelengths such as
radioactive radiation. Within this broad range of frequencies, the International
Telecommunications Union (the United Nations institution that regulates worldwide use of
airwaves) has allocated parts of the spectrum that are suitable for and dedicated to
transmission via satellite. Some of these bands are exclusively dedicated to satellite
transmission.
 Figure (19) Spectrum

Band Downlink Uplink

L/S 1.610 to 1.625 GHz 2.483 to 2.50 GHz

C 3.7 to 4.2 GHz 5.924 to 6.425 GHz

Ext C band 4.5 to 4.8 GHz 6.725 to 7.025 GHz

Ku 11.7 to 12.2 GHz 14.0 to 14.5 GHz

Ka 17.7 to 21.7 GHz 27.5 to 30.5 GHz

Figure(20)- Various Bands

The satellite transmission bands that are of interest to us are the C-, Ku- and Ka-bands.

C-band is the oldest allocation and operates in the frequency range around 6 GHz for
transmission (uplink) and between 3.7 and 4.2 GHz for reception (downlink).
Ku-band is the most common transmission format in Europe for satellite TV and uses
around 14 GHz for uplink and between 10.9 and 12.75 GHz for downlink.
Ka-band uses around 30 GHz up- and between 18 and 20 GHz downlink frequency.

C-band and Ku-band are becoming congested by an increasing amount of users, so satellite
service operators are more and more turning to the use of Ka-band.

The selection of the band is not something that individual service providers decide, but is
rather chosen by large satellite operators based on different factors:

• Availability: C-band is still the most widely available worldwide. Ku-band is

becoming more available recently in regions which were less covered in the past
(South America, Asia, Africa)
• C-band is more prone to interference from other transmission services that share the
same frequencies (adjacent satellites or terrestrial transmissions) than the higher
bands
• While the C-band technology is cheaper in itself, it requires larger dishes (1 to 3 m)
than Ku- and Ka-band (0.6 to 1.8 m) and therefore imposes relatively higher
(installation) costs on the end-user
• Ku- and especially Ka-band make better use of satellite capacity
 • Higher frequency bands (Ku- and especially Ka-) suffer significantly more from
signal deterioration caused by rainfall: to ensure availability in bad weather
conditions, the signal has to be much stronger. 0.1% of unavailability means in fact
that the service will be interrupted for almost 9 hours over a 1-year period. 1%
unavailability represents 90 hours or almost 4 full days

CHAPTER 5

VERY SMALL APERTURE TERMINAL NETWORKS

(VSAT)

Satellite Communication using VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) since the science
fiction on radio transmission through space using geo-synchronous earth satellite, provider
has progressed significantly in the field of satellite communications. VSAT is a satellite-
based communications service that offers businesses and government agencies flexible and
reliable communications solutions, both nationally and internationally, on land and at sea.
VSAT is a term widely used in the satellite industry to describe an earth station that is
installed on the ground to receive communications from a satellite or to communicate with
other ground stations by transmitting to and receiving from satellite spacecraft. The
antenna size being restricted to 3.8m.. Terminals installed at distant sites are connected to a
central hub via satellite using small diameter antenna dishes. It is an earth station connected
to the geo-synchronous satellite suitable for supporting a variety of two – way
telecommunication and information, services like voice, data and video.

5.1 VSAT SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

A VSAT system consists of a satellite transponder, central hub or a master earth station,
and remote VSATs. The VSAT terminal has the capability to receive as well as transmit
signals via the satellite to other VSATs in the network. Depending on the access
technology used the signals are either sent via satellite to a central hub, which is also a
monitoring centre, or the signals are sent directly to VSATs with the hub being used for
monitoring and control. In addition, the star topology allows VSATs to use smaller
antennas and lower power transmitters, since they’re communicating only with the large
hub antenna.

National thermal power corporation limited has a VSAT network or a SATCOM

network for communication and exchange of data and information amongst various
sites. NTPC Noida is the central hub and also the monitoring centre.

5.2 VSAT TOPOLOGIES

• Star

The hub station controls and monitors can communicate with a large number of dispersed
VSATs. Generally, the Data Terminal Equipment and 3 hub antenna is in the range of 6-
11m in diameter. Since all VSATs communicate with the central hub station only, this
network is more suitable for centralized data applications.

• Mesh

A group of VSATs communicate directly with any other VSAT in the network without
going through a central hub. A hub station in a mesh network performs only the monitoring
and control functions. These networks are more suitable for telephony applications.

• Hybrid Network

In practice usually using hybrid networks, where a part of the network operates on a star
topology while some sites operate on a mesh topology, thereby accruing benefits of both
topologies.

The satellite communication network of NTPC is operating in star topology with

NTPC Noida being the Hub station. So a central satellite earth station (CSES) is
installed at NTPC Noida (The study of which is the core aim of the project). One major
advantage of this configuration is that there is virtually no limit on the number of remote
VSATs that can be connected to the hub.
5.3 HUB STATION

The hub station is usually a relatively large, high performance earth station with an antenna
diameter of anything between 6 and 9m or 11. The hub consists of a control centre

which manages the network, including an outdoor antenna, for the transmission and
reception of signals. Hub stations are quite expensive and consist of several main
subsystems; except for the antenna these are usually fully redundant with automatic
switchover in the event of failure.
Hub stations can be shared between several networks, resulting in a sharing of costs. Two
principal options for network implementation can be adopted. Firstly, some very large
users will wish to purchase their own dedicated VSAT networks including a hub. Other
users will choose to buy or lease the user terminals and to lease access to a hub which will
be owned by the system operator. In contrast to the hub station, the remote terminals are
much simpler. To minimise total system costs, VSAT networks are designed to have a
single expensive hub and a large number of much smaller remote terminals.
The actual communication between remote sites is through hub and happens in two steps
because, of which there is a time delay of approximately 0.5 seconds and makes the
technology highly synchronized.
 CHAPTER 6

Central satellite earth station- NTPC Noida

6.1 SPECIFICATIONS

1) NTPC has been assigned transponder number 3 in ISRO's communication satellite

INSAT 3E.
2) INSAT-3E, was successfully launched on September 28, 2003 by the Ariane-5
launch vehicle of Arianespace.
3) INSAT-3E is positioned at 55 deg East longitude in the geosynchronous orbit.
4) INSAT-3E is being tracked, monitored and controlled from the Master Control
Facility (MCF) at Hassan in Karnataka
5) The INSAT series of satellites have typically 12/18 transponders in various
frequency bands; the bandwidth of each transponder is typically 40 MHz but
the usable bandwidth is only 36 MHz. Out of this 36 MHz bandwidth NTPC is
allotted only 27 MHz bandwidth. The Ku-Band is internationally popular
frequency band. This Ku-Band because of its higher frequency can support traffic
with smaller antenna sizes in comparison to C/Ext – C band. However it can be
affected by rain which makes it unsuitable for use in Southern regions.

6) Presently, Indian service providers hire a space segment only on the INSAT series
and operate in C band only.

CSES NOIDA is the hub station for NTPC Satcom network providing
facilities to:-

• 28 power stations.
 • 5 regional offices & NCPS, DADRI.

• Two corporate centre’s at New Delhi.

Using transponder no. 3 of satellite INSAT 3E with allotted bandwidth of 27 MHz.

Services provided by CSES

• Telephone & fax services among all sites & with CC.
• Connecting about 1000 users through transit switch at SCN.
• Generation data from power projects to CC control room on high speed data
(WAN)
• Online packages of stores, finance, contracts & generation through WAN
connectivity (256 -512 kbps) provided by multiport router at SCN, Noida .
• Internet services to all sites through multiport router
• Round the clock technical support to sites.
6.2 CSES NTPC BLOCK DIAGRAM

6.2.1 Transmission path

 Figure(21) -transmission path block diagram.

6.2.2 Receive path

 Figure (22)- receive path block diagram

The hub station consists of several main subsystems:-

6.2.3 TRANSMISSION PATH SUBSYSTEMS:-
 • Modem

• Up converters

• High power amplifier (HPA)

• Antenna

6.2.4 RECEIVE PATH SUBSYSTEMS:-

• Low noise amplifier (LNA)

• Down converters

• Modem

The modem interfaces with various end user equipment, ranging from stand alone
computers, LAN's, routers, multiplexes, telephone instruments as per the requirement.

6.3 FUNCTIONING OF CSES NTPC

• NTPC has a local area network (LAN) for exchange of data and information. So all
the computers are connected by a switch. But in order to communicate with various
other sites (stations) i.e. a wide area network (WAN) a router is required. Therefore
the switch is connected to the router in order to establish a Wide area network. At
NTPC along with data communication, voice communication is also taking place.
for voice communication, earlier they were using a multiplexer in which
multiplexing of data and voice was done. But now they are using another
technology called VOIP for voice communication. VOIP is basically voice over
internet protocol. It is a technology in which the telephone is connected to VOIP
which converts voice signal into a digital signal. The output of VOIP is given to the
switch to which all the PC’s are connected. This forms the complete LAN at NTPC.
The switch is connected to the router for WAN.
• Now the modem interfaces with the end user equipment which is the router here.
Since NTPC is the hub station working in star topology. There are around 28 sites
located in various regions of the country. So for every site there is a modem. Now
for the transmission of voice/data to a remote site the router output is given to every
modem. The modulator part of the modem modulates an analog carrier signal to
encode digital information. The modem has IF( intermediate frequency) output that
is 70 ± 18 MHz

• The output of modem is given to the up converter which translates or converts this
IF frequency to RF (radio frequency) – 6GHz.

Finally the up converter output is given to HPA for amplification the output of
which is transmitted to the antenna which transmits the data out to the satellite and
eventually to other ground stations.

• The receive subsystem consisting of a Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) which removes
the noise present in the signal. The frequency of the signal received is 4 GHz.

• The LNA output is given to the down converter which converts this RF frequency
to IF frequency i.e. 70 MHz

• The output of down converter is given to the modem for the demodulation process
in order to extract the baseband signal. And finally the modem interfaces with the
router and the information or data reaches the user.

Now each subcomponent of the centralized earth station NTPC will be discussed in
a little more detail. The router and the LAN part will be discussed in the networking
part to follow.
6.4 THE VARIOUS SUBSYSTEMS:-

6.4.1 MODEM

A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to

encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the
transmitted information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and
decoded to reproduce the original digital data. A satellite modem or sat modem is a
modem used to establish data transfers using a communications satellite as a relay. Data to
be transmitted are transferred to a modem from Data terminal equipment (e.g. a computer).
The modem usually has Intermediate frequency (IF) output (that is, 50-200 MHz). At
NTPC the modems has an output of IF that ranges from 70±18 MHz .This frequency has to
be converted using an up .converter before amplification and transmission. Similarly, a
signal received from a satellite is firstly down converted then demodulated by a modem,
and at last handled by data terminal equipment.

Popular modulation types being used for satellite communications:

a) Binary phase shift keying (BPSK);

b) Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK);
c) Orthogonal quadrature phase shift keying (OQPSK);
d) 8PSK;
e) Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), especially 16QAM.

The modulation techniques used at NTPC are mainly QPSK and 16QAM.

MODEMS USED AT NTPC:-

NTPC is currently using four types of modems:-

a) UMOD
 b) SSE
c) Datum
d) DMD 20

DMD 20 is the latest modem used here. The main features of this modem are:-

• Frequency- 50-90 MHz

At NTPC 70±18 MHz

• Data rate- 2.4 Kbps-20Mbps

At NTPC 6Mbps

• Modulation
At NTPC QPSK, 16QAM

The various options available in it are:-

• Monitor
• Modulation
• Demodulation
• Test
• Interface etc

The various configurations done in the DMD 20 are:-

• Frequency
• Modulation
• Data rate
• FEC rate etc
16QAM is the latest modulation technique used at NTPC. The main advantage of this
technique is that it saves the bandwidth. Since there are around 28 sites to which service is
provided so the bandwidth is allocated to each site according to the site traffic and the
requirement. So the
27 Hz bandwidth is allocated accordingly.

6.4.2 UP/DOWN CONVERTER

An up converter works in the transmitting side whereas the down converter functions in the
receive path. The main function of the up converter is that it converts or translates the
intermediate frequency (which is the output of the modem) to the radio frequency (RF)
which is 6GHz. The up converter used at NTPC is a block up converter which converts a
band (or "block") of frequencies from a lower frequency to a higher frequency. Just the
opposite work is done by the down converter that is it takes the radio frequency and
converts it to an intermediate frequency before giving to the modem.

6.4.3 HIGH POWER AMPLIFIER (HPA)

The high power amplifier (HPA) is an earth station facility that provides the RF carrier
power to the input terminals of the antenna. The output power typically may few watts for
a single data channel, around a hundred watts or less for a low capacity system, or several
kilowatts for high capacity traffic. An RF power amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier
used to convert a low power radio frequency signal into a larger signal of significant
power, typically for driving the antenna of a transmitter. It is usually optimized to have
high efficiency, high output power compression, good return loss on the input and output,
good gain, and optimum heat dissipation.
 C-band high power amplifiers offer output powers of 50, 100, 150 or 200 watts
Built for reliable, trouble-free service, the amplifiers incorporate microprocessor-
based monitor and control systems.

6.4.4 LOW NOISE AMPLIFIER

The low-noise amplifier (LNA) is a special type of electronic amplifier or amplifier used
in communication systems to amplify very weak signals captured by an antenna. It is often
located very close to the antenna, so that losses in the feed line become less critical. Using
an LNA, the noise of all the subsequent stages is reduced by the gain of the LNA, while the
noise of the LNA itself is injected directly into the received signal.

6.4.5 ANTENNA SUBSYSTEM

The antenna subsystem consisting of a large antenna (6 to 9 m or 11m in diameter) on a

mount with a tracking system which allows the antenna to follow the satellite as it moves
very slightly in the sky. A feed horn is fitted at the focus of the dish to collect the received
signals from the antenna and to feed the transmit signals to it.

Software configuration (in NTPC):

 IF frequency: 70+-18 MHz

 Threshold level (at the Rx side): -70 dB

 Power range (at the Tx side): -25 dB to 0dB

 Signal to noise ratio (at the Rx side): 9dB

 Type of modulation: BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM

 Data rate: 512 Kbps

6.5 MULTIPLE ACCESS SCHEMES

The primary objective of the VSAT networks is to maximize the use of common satellite
and other resources amongst all VSAT sites. The methods by which these networks
optimize the use of satellite capacity, and spectrum utilization in a flexible and cost-
effective manner are referred to as satellite access schemes. . Good network efficiency
depends very much on the multiple accessing schemes. There are many different access
techniques tailored to match customer applications.

The VSAT services are primarily based on one of two technologies:

i.Single-carrier per channel (SCPC) and

ii. Time-division multiple access (TDMA).

6.5.1 SCPC (Single-Carrier Per Channel)

SCPC-based design provides a point-to-point technology, making it the VSAT equivalent

to conventional leased lines.
6.5.2 TDMA (Time-division multiple access)

In a TDMA network, all VSATs share satellite resource on a time-slot basis. Remote
VSATs use TDMA channels or inroutes for communicating with the hub. There could be
several inroutes associated with one outroute. Several VSATs share one inroute hence
sharing the bandwidth. Typical inroutes operate at 64 or 128 Kbit/s.

6.5.3 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

It is the oldest and still one of the most common methods for channel allocation. In this
scheme, the available satellite channel bandwidth is broken into frequency bands for
different earth stations. This means that guard bands are needed to provide separation
between the bands.

i. PAMA (Pre-Assigned Multiple Acceess)

It implies that the VSATs are pre-allocated a designated frequency. Equivalent of the
terrestrial leased line solutions, PAMA solutions use the satellite resources constantly.
Consequently, there is no call-up delay what makes them most suited for interactive data
applications or high traffic volumes. As such, PAMA connects high data traffic sites within
an organization.

SCPC (Single Channel Per Carrier) refers to the usage of a single satellite carrier for
carrying a single channel of user traffic. The frequency is allocated on a pre-assigned basis
in case of SCPC VSAT which is also synonymously known as PAMA VSAT.
ii. DAMA (Demand Assigned Multiple Access)

The network uses a pool of satellite channels, which are available for use by any station in
that network. On demand, a pair of available channels is assigned so that a call can be
established. Once the call is completed, the channels are returned to the pool for an
assignment to another call. . DAMA systems allow the number of channels at any time be
less than the number of potential users. Satellite connections are established and dropped
only when traffic demands them.

iii. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

Under this, a central network monitoring system allocates a unique code to each of the
VSATs enabling multiple VSATs to transmit simultaneously and share a common
frequency band. Although this is best applicable for very large networks with low data
requirements, there are practical restrictions in the use of spread spectrum. It is
employed mainly for interference rejection or for security reasons in military systems.
 TDMA
TDMA

Time-
Time-
division
division

Multiple
Multiple
Access
Access
VSAT
VSAT

TECHNOL-
TECHNOL-
SCPC 0GY FDMA
SCPC 0GY FDMA

Single- Frequency
Single- Frequency PAMA
carrier Division
carrier Division

per Multiple
per Multiple
Channel Access
Channel Access

FDMA

DAMA CDMA

VSAT Accessing Schemes

6.6 IMPLEMENTING VSAT

The Pros:

• Provides an integrated solution for Voice, data and video communication.

• Better Reach- Installable in difficult terrain, remote areas.
• Reliability – uptime of up to 99.5 % is achievable in VSAT network compared to
lease line (in Indian conditions).
• Maintenance - A single point contact with the service provider – lesser elements
involved and hence easy fault finding.
• Better Network Management.
• Quick establishment of new sites.
• Wide geographic coverage.
The Cons:

• Very high Initial Cost of Implementation.

• High Propagation delay

CHAPTER 7

NTPC NETWORK TODAY

NTPC Communication Network connects all its Projects, Regional HQ’s, and Regional
Inspection Offices & Commercial Offices to Corporate Centers at SCOPE and at EOC
NOIDA for Voice and Data Communication via Satellite, MPLS & Leased Lines. The data
network supports all applications like Internet, Email, etc.

NTPC Satcom Network working in STAR Configuration with the Hub Earth Station
located at EOC Noida (U.P.). These are working in C Band on leased capacity on the
INSAT satellite. Data Links are working at the data rate of 1024/512kbps on PAMA to
form WAN connectivity using Multiport Router at hub earth station. Internet, Mail &
GDAMS are working on Satcom Network. Telephony is through DAMA/VOIP in most
location.NTPC has implemented MPLS Network hired from supplier for ERP and other
online applications at the data rate of 34 Mbps for Data Center Noida,2 Mbps for power
plants & RHQ’s and 256 Kbps lines for RIO’s & Commercial offices. For running ERP 24
*7 a Back up router in case of failure of main router at Data Centre NOIDA, is to be
installed which shall be exact replica of Main Data Centre router but work in 1+1 with
mail router.

Satellite Communication Network

Network Features

SATELLITE C-BAND LEASED TRANSPONDER (3/4th) CAPACITY ON INSAT 3E.

HUB: INSAT TYPE ‘A’ WITH 11m Ø ANTENNA

SATELLITE EARTH STATION

Phase I: 5 NOS. INSAT TYPE ‘B’ WITH 7.5 m Ø ANTENNA WITH MCPC 512 Kbps
DATA RATE

Phase II: 6 NOS. 3.8 m Ø ANTENNA WITH MCPC 512 Kbps DATA RATE.

Phase III: 8 NOS. 3.8 m Ø ANTENNA WITH 256 Kbps DATA RATE

Phase IV: 3 NOS. 3.8 m Ø ANTENNA WITH 256 Kbps DATA RATE

MICROWAVE LINKS: 2 GHz 2/8 MBPS DIGITAL RADIO SYSTEM.

NODES CONNECTED: 29 (22 POWER PROJECTS, 5 RHQS TO CC & EOC NOIDA)

NTPC – Business Reach

COAL BASED SITES - 15 No’s

SINGRAULI, RIHAND, DADRI, UNCHAHAR, BADARPUR

TANDA NR / NCR

FARAKKA, KAHALGAON, TALCHER,TTPS ER

KORBA, VINDHYACHAL, SIPAT WR

RAMAGUNDAM, SIMHADRI SR

COMBINED CYCLE - 7 No’s (6+1)

DADRI**, AURIYA, ANTA, FARIDABAD NCR

KAWAS, GANDHAR WR

KAYAMKULAM SR

HYDRO

KOLDAM

CC HEAD QUARTER / REGIONAL HQ. 8 No’s (3 + 5 No s)

SCOPE, EOC, PMI, NOIDA

LUCKNOW, PATNA, MUMBAI, HYDERABAD

** CO - LOCATED WITH DADRI THERMAL

NTPC VSAT NETWORK

 NTPC N ETW ORK REACH
C en tra l N etw o rk H u b /
K o ld a m D a t a c e n t e r L o c a t io n a t N O I D A

NEW DELHI
N o id a
F a r id a b a d D a d r i
B adarp u r LUCKNOW
T and a
A u r a iy aU n c hBa ah rahPr A T N A
S in g r a u li K a h a lg a o n
A n ta R ih a n d
V in d h y a c h a l F a r a k k a
K o rba
G and har S ip a t T a lc h Se ru p e r
K aw as T a lc h Te rh e r m a l

M UM BAI
R am agu ndam

H y d e r a b a dS im h a d r i

K a y a m k u la m

CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION
Hence we have seen the NTPC’s communication network and learnt about the satellite link,
satellite bandwidth what we are using, and about the main equipments and their technical
specifications. I have also learnt the basics of networking and the LAN/WAN networking
techniques. Since the central satellite earth station that has been installed at NTPC Noida is
the hub station for various other sites therefore it needs a continuous supervision so that the
requests and the traffic from various other sites is efficiently handled and managed. I have
learnt how satellite communication practically works and the functioning of a VSAT hub
station. Latest technologies keep coming in the market and NTPC also tries to update itself
so that it is able to manage the increasing traffic and utilize the bandwidth allotted to it
efficiently.
 CHAPTER 9

FUTURE IMPLICATIONS

In future if I get an opportunity to work on the same project then I would like to learn more
about the networking in NTPC. Now in the new era of ERP the communication facilities
have to very rugged and they should provide communication with zero down time. NTPC
has introduced new services like ERP. Due to time limitation our main focus was on the
satellite communication but in future I would like to research and study further about how
the video conferencing works in NTPC and the latest services that are being introduced in
its IT department. I would also like to understand how link budget calculations are done.
 CHAPTER 10

REFERENCES

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite

• http://www.tutorialsweb.com/satcom/fundamentals-of-satellite-
communications.htm

• http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/524891/satellite-
communication

• http://www.gatewayforindia.com/technology/satellite.htm

• http://www.wtec.org/loyola/satcom/toc.htm

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_station

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_small_aperture_terminal

• http://www.angelfire.com/electronic/vikram/tech/vsattut.html

• http://hubpages.com/hub/How-the-VSAT-Technology-Works

• http://www.crystalcommunications.net/satellite/vsat/about_vsat.htm

• http://www.gilat.com/Content.aspx?
Page=how_to_communicate_across_satellite_networks