Wency B.

Español December 14, 2019

Bs Criminology II-B

1. ABO blood group system

The ABO blood group system is used to denote the presence of one, both, or neither of
the A and B antigens on erythrocytes. In human blood transfusions it is the most important of the
36 different blood type (or group) classification systems currently recognized. A very rare (in
modern medicine) mismatch in this, or any other serotype, can cause a serious, potentially fatal,
adverse reaction after a transfusion, or a contra-indicated immune response to an organ
transplant. The associated anti-A and anti-B antibodies are usually IgM antibodies, which are
produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances, such as food,
bacteria, and viruses.

The ABO blood types were discovered by Karl Landsteiner in 1901, for which he
received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930. ABO blood types are also present in
some other animals such as rodents and apes, including chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas.

2. The Importance of DNA Testing

DNA testing plays an important role in research. It forms a core basis of other fields such
as medicine, agriculture, genealogy, forensic science and more. The word 'DNA' stands for
deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is essential to the proper functioning of human cells. In fact, DNA
is actually referred to as the blueprint or the foundation which holds the information required for
encoding the proteins and other cell components. The importance of DNA testing can be
understood from research, medical and judicial perspectives. Below is some of the information
that will explain the importance of DNA testing.

A genealogical DNA test is a DNA-based test which looks at specific locations of a

person's genome, in order to find or verify ancestral genealogical relationships or (with lower
reliability) to estimate the ethnic mixture of an individual. Since different testing companies use
different ethnic reference groups and different matching algorithms, ethnicity estimates for an
individual will vary between tests, sometimes dramatically.

Three principal types of genealogical DNA tests are available, with each looking at a
different part of the genome and useful for different types of genealogical research: autosomal,
mitochondrial (mtDNA), and Y-DNA.

Autosomal tests may result in a large amount of DNA matches (other test persons that
the individual may be related to), along mixed male and female lines, each match with an
estimated distance in the family tree. However, due to the random nature of which and how
much DNA is inherited by each tested person from their common ancestors, precise conclusions
can only be made for close relations. Traditional genealogical research, and the sharing of family
trees, is typically required for interpretation of the results. Autosomal tests are also used in
estimating ethnic mix.

MtDNA and Y-DNA tests are much more objective. However, they give considerably
fewer DNA matches, if any, since they are limited to relationships along a strict female line and a
strict male line respectively. MtDNA and Y-DNA tests are utilized to identify archeological
cultures and migration paths of a person's ancestors along a strict mother's line or a strict father's
line. Based on MtDNA and Y-DNA, a person's haplogroup(s) can be identified. Only men can
take Y-DNA tests, since women lack a Y chromosome.

It has been argued that the discovery of DNA as well as our understanding of its structure
and functioning may well be the most important discovery of the last century. The effect of the
discovery of DNA on scientific and medical progress has been enormous, whether it involves the
identification of our genes that trigger major diseases or the creation and manufacture of drugs to
treat these devastating diseases. In fact, the identification of these genes and their subsequent
analysis in terms of therapeutic treatment has ultimately influenced science and will continue to
do so in the future.

3. The Rh blood group system

The Rh blood group system is one of forty-five citation needed] known human blood
group systems. It is the second most important blood group system, after the ABO blood group
system. The Rh blood group system consists of 49 defined blood group antigens, among which
the five antigens D, C, c, E, and e are the most important. There is no d antigen. Rh(D) status of
an individual is normally described with a positive or negative suffix after the ABO type (e.g.,
someone who is A Positive has the A antigen and the Rh(D) antigen, whereas someone who is A
Negative lacks the Rh(D) antigen). The terms Rh factor, Rh positive, and Rh negative refer to the
Rh(D) antigen only. Antibodies to Rh antigens can be involved in hemolytic transfusion reactions
and antibodies to the Rh(D) and Rh(c) antigens confer significant risk of hemolytic disease of the
fetus and newborn.

The term "Rh" was originally an abbreviation of "Rhesus factor." It was discovered in
1937 by Karl Landsteiner and Alexander S. Wiener, who, at the time, believed it to be a similar
antigen found in rhesus monkey red blood cells. It was subsequently learned the human factor is
not identical to the rhesus monkey factor, but by then, "Rhesus Group" and like terms were
already in widespread, worldwide use. Thus, notwithstanding it is a misnomer, the term survives
(e.g., rhesus blood group system and the obsolete terms rhesus factor, rhesus positive, and rhesus
negative – all three of which actually refer specifically and only to the Rh D factor and are thus
misleading when unmodified. Contemporary practice is to use "Rh" as a term of art instead of
"Rhesus" (e.g., "Rh Group," "Rh factors," "Rh D," etc.).