EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

By Dr. Ponselvi
 Evaporation
 Evaporation: The process involves the transformation of
liquid water into a gaseous state at a temperature less than
the boiling point, through the process of transfer of heat
energy.
– Evaporation of water occurs when the water surface is
exposed, allowing molecules to escape and form water vapor.
– Evaporation from:
a) water surfaces (i.e., reservoirs, lakes, ponds, river channels, etc)
b) soil surface, appreciably when the ground water table is very
near the soil surface.
c) Canopy evaporation from tree canopy
– This vapor can then rise up and form clouds.
– Evaporation – essential part of water cycle. Almost 80% of the
rainfall water evaporates as water vapor into the air.
 Measurement of Evaporation
 Factors affecting evaporation: solar radiation; differences in
vapor pressure between the water surface and in the
atmosphere; relative humidity; air and water temperature;
wind velocity; surface area (exposed); atmospheric pressure;
 Exact measurement of evaporation - for large bodies of
water difficult.
 From open water surfaces – evaporation measured by:
Atmometers, evaporimeters or open pans.
 Evaporation pans: finding reservoir evaporation using water
filled containers - observe how much water is lost over time.
 Measurement of Evaporation
 Different types of pans:
US class A pan
Pan Coefficient: (Ratio of lake to pan evaporation)
ISI standard pan
Colorado sunken pan
Russian GGI pan

Class A evaporation pan

Atmometer
 Evaporation Estimation
 Water Budget Method: from ponded water -
lakes/reservoirs: Water budget method – accounting all
inflows and outflows.

R + Vis + Vig = Vos + Vog + EL + ds + TL

Where, R = daily rainfall; Vis = daily surface inflow into the lake; Vig = daily
groundwater flow ; Vos= daily surface outflow from the lake; Vog= daily seepage
outflow; EL= daily lake evaporation; ds= increase the lake storage in a day; TL=
daily transportation loss
 Evaporation Estimation
 Energy Budget Method: based on application of law of
conservation of energy – evaporation takes energy.
Net energy adverted into the lake by flows of water Qv =

where, Tin, Tout: temperature of inflow and outflow waters (ºC); ρ: density of
water (kg m-3); c: specific heat (J kg-1 ºC-1); Vin, Vout: flow volumes (m3) A: lake
area (m2)
 Mass Transfer (Aerodynamic) methods – evaporation (E) is
controlled by humidity and wind speed
E = f(u)(es – ea)
Where, the difference es – ea is called the vapor pressure deficit; f(u) is
the wind function; u is the wind speed (m s-1 or km d-1) measured at a
specified height.
 Evaporation Estimation
 Combination- mass transfer & energy budget Method.
 Use of Evaporation Pans
 Empirical Formulas: using available meteorological data: eg.
USGS & USBR Formula: E = 4.57T + 43.3
where, E - cm/yr; T - mean annual temperature in °C.

Mayer’s Formula: EL = Km (ew- ea) (1+ (u9/16))

where EL = Lake evaporation in mm/day; ew = saturated vapour pressure
at the water surface temperature; ea = actual vapour pressure of over
lying air at a specified height; u9 = monthly mean wind velocity in km/hr
at about 9 m above the ground; Km= coefficient, 0.36 for large deep
waters and 0.50 for small shallow waters.
 Evaporation Control
 Storing water in covered reservoirs
 Making increased use of underground storage
 Controlling aquatic growths
 Building storage reservoirs with minimal surface areas
 Conveying in closed conduits rather than open channels
 Applying a thin chemical (monocular) film
o Eg: Application of Cetyl alcohol is the effective and
feasible method
o Reduces evaporation (20-50%) by preventing the water
molecules to escape
o No water quality effect: Colorless, odorless and nontoxic
 Transpiration

 Transpiration: the process by which the water vapour

escapes from the living plant leaves and enters the
atmosphere.
 Crops predominately lose their water through stomata.
These are small openings or pores allow plants for the easy
passage of water vapor and gases (carbon dioxide and
oxygen)
 Transpiration
 Transpiration depends on the energy supply, vapor pressure
gradient and wind, soil water content and the ability of the
soil to conduct water to the roots, crop characteristics,
environmental aspects and cultivation practices.
 95% of daily transpiration occurs during daylight hours
 Phytometer – device for measuring transpiration
 Evaporation + Transpiration = Evapotranspiration (ET)
 Evapotranspiration
 Evapotranspiration (ET) or consumptive use of water is the
total water transpired by a cropped (or irrigated) land during
evaporation from the soil and transpiration by the plants or
used by the plants in building up of plant tissue.
• Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is the evapotranspiration
from wet soil and plant surface. It is expressed as the latent
heat transfer per unit area or its equivalent depth of water
per unit area. It is used for the water loss which would occur
if sufficient water is available.
 PET - measure of ability of atmosphere to remove water
from the surface through processes of E & T assuming no
control on water supply.
 Evapotranspiration
 Actual evapotranspiration (AET) - quantity of water actually
removed from a surface due to the processes of E & T
 Crop water need = PET – AET
 Crop coefficient = AET/PET
 Factors Affecting Evapotranspiration:
‒ Climatological factors like percentage sunshine hours, wind speed,
mean monthly temperature and humidity.
‒ Crop factors like the type of crop and the percentage growing
season.
‒ The moisture level in the soil.
 Estimation of PET
 Some of the methods:
 Field Methods: Lysimeter experiments (device in which a volume
of soil, with or without crop is located in a container to isolate it
hydrologically from surrounding); Field experimental plots; Soil
moisture depletion studies; Installation of sunken (colarado) tanks
etc.
 Analytical Methods: Energy or Water budget method.
 Theoretical and Empirical Methods: Evapotranspiration equations
as developed by Lowry-Johnson; Penman; Thornthwaite; Blaney-
Criddle; Evaporation index method, i.e., from pan evaporation data
as developed by Hargreaves and Christiansen; FAO’s Penman-
Montieth Method etc.
 Estimation of PET
Irrigated Lysimeter for soil evaporation

PET = Rainfall + Irrigation - Drainage - Storage change

 Estimation of PET
Energy Balance Method: includes all major sources radiation
from sun and sky (Rn) and consumers (PET, heat to ground (G),
Heat to air (H)) of energy.
 In this method, the basic truth is that evaporation consumes
energy: PET = Rn – G - H

Rn H
PET

G
 Estimation of PET
Thornthwaite Method: proposed a method of monthly PET (cm
month-1), using min data on rainfall (mm), monthly average
temperature (°C), and geographic latitude.
𝑃𝐸𝑇 = 1.6(10 Tm / I ) a

Where, Tm is monthly average air temperature (℃) in month

m; and I is the temperature index, sum of the 12 values of
monthly indexes, that is:
12

I= 𝑖𝑗
𝑗=1

if Tj > 0 then ij = (Tj / 5)1.514

ij = 0 otherwise
 Estimation of PET
where, Tj is monthly average air temperature (℃).

 Thornthwaite and Mather (1955) calculates:

10 𝑇𝑚 𝑎
PET = 0.535𝑓
𝐼
f = k so

where, f is the correction factor, depending on the month length and

geographic latitude; and so is the maximum possible daily sunshine
duration, h; and k is the coefficient.
 Estimation of PET
Blaney-Criddle Method: is applied throughout the world for the
consumptive use of water by crops. It is related to mean
monthly temperature and daylight hours.
 Provide rough estimate
– For extreme climatic conditions - method is inaccurate
– Windy, dry, sunny areas -𝑃𝐸𝑇 is underestimated (up to 60 %)
– Calm, humid, clouded areas - 𝑃𝐸𝑇 is overestimated (up to 40%)

 Blaney-Criddle formula: 𝑃𝐸𝑇 = p (0.46 T + 8)

– 𝑃𝐸𝑇 = Reference crop evapotranspiration (mm/day) as an average
for a period of 1 month
– T = mean daily temperature (°C) over each month
– p = mean daily percentage (for the month) of total annual daytime
hours
 Estimation of PET
Evaporation Index Method: Analysis of data on consumptive
use indicate a high degree of correlation between pan
evaporation values and consumptive use.
 The relationship between the PET and pan evaporation (Ep)
is usually expressed as:
PET = kEp
where k is a coefficient (i.e., Et/Ep ratio) and is found to vary according
to the stage of growth of the crop. The values of k for different crops at
5% increments of the crop growing season are presented by G.H.
Hargreaves.
 Estimation of PET
FAO’s Penman-Montieth Method: The Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations recommends a
standardized method to compute PET from meteorological
data. It is used in a wide range of locations and climates.
 In 1948, Penman derived an equation to compute the
evaporation from an open water surface from standard
climatological records of sunshine, temperature, humidity
and wind speed.
 The Penman (1948) method was further developed by many
researchers and extended to cropped surfaces by
introducing resistance factors and under FAO, the Penman-
Montieth Method evolved.
 Estimation of PET

ac p
( Rn  G )  (es (Tz )  ez )
Penman Eqn.: ra
PET 
 

ac p
Penman-Monteith ( Rn  G )  (es (Tz )  ez )
ra
Eqn.: PET 
rs
   (1  )
ra

γ is the psychrometric constant (≈ 66 Pa/K)

 Estimation of PET
Where, Rn is the net solar radiation, G is the soil heat flux, (es - ez)
represents the vapour pressure (humidity) deficit of the air, ra is the
mean wind speed at constant pressure, cp is the specific heat of the air,
Tz represents air temperature, D represents the slope of the saturation
vapour pressure temperature relationship, g is the psychrometric
constant, and rs and ra are the bulk surface (canopy/stomata) and
aerodynamic resistances.

• Details of computing PET is given in FAO Irrigation and

Drainage Paper 56.
• A software CROPWAT is distributed by FAO for the estimation
of potential crop water requirement PET using the Penman-
Montieth method.