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    Astm-E94pdf PDF

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    of 11
    of » ial ‘Standard Guide for Radiographic Testing’ ‘This sand is iss ander the Ged dovgation £8: he number inmates Gowieg the sai he cn ein te sero emer ramerin erent nce eo St app. A ‘Sercry peton itso am col cnage nye ati app Ths endo hs Gee ager fo wey ares Devan uf Dens ‘ut ie De Ines Seaton ae Sandor yor ar oe ch Bat sak i he Depa Dee 1, Scope 11 This guide® covers satisfactory X-ray and gammaeray radiographic examination as applied to industrial radio- raphic film recording. It includes statements about pre- ferred practice without discussing the technical background which justifies the preference. A bibliography of several textbooks and standard documents of other societies is included for additional information on the subject 1.2 This guide covers types oF materials to be inspected: radiographic testing techniques and production. methods: radiographic fim selection, processing, viewing, and storage: maintenance of inspection records: and a list of available relerence radiograpit documents. Note —Furthe infrmation is comine in Guide € 999, Pra 1028. Tew Method E1030, and Method E 1032 1.3 Trerreiation and Acceptance Standards—Interpreta- tion and accepiance standards are not covered by this guide, yond listing the available reference radiograph documents for castings and welds. Designation of accept - reject stan- dards is recognized to be ssthin the cognizance of product specitications and generally a matter of contractual agree- ment between producer and purchaser. 1.4 Sajery. Practices—Problems of personnel protection against X rays and gamma rays are not covered by this document. For information on this important aspect of radiography, reference should be made to the current docu: ‘ment of the National Committee on Radiation Protection ‘and Measurement, Faderal Register. U.S, Energy Research nd Development Administration. National Bureau of Stan ‘dards, and to state and local regulations. if such exist LS This swandard does not purport to address all of she safety problems, &f any, associated with its use, I is the responsibility ofthe user of this standard to establish anpro- Driaie safes andl health practices and determine the applica bility of regedatory limitations prior tose. (See |.4.) 1.5 If an NDT agency is used. the agency shall be ‘qualified in accordance with Practice E 543. 2, Referenced Documents 2 ASTM Standards This aude is ander the jarleton of ASTM Commitee E7 on ‘onder Tenng au iste dec pom of Sasa EO on Radtogs aad Gara) Matod, “Corent ation spresed Sept 15 1994 Publshed November 1993. Origa shat E94 = £2 Lan presoan ion E54 -92 E 142 Method for Controliing Quality of Raciographic Testing E 543 Practice for Evalusting Agencies that Perform Nondestructive Testing® E746 Test Method for Determining Relative Image Quality Response of Industrial Radiographic Film? E747 Practice for Design, Manufacture, and Material Grouping Ciassification of Wire Image Quality Indica tors (QN) Used for Radiology? E 801 Practice for Controlling Quality of Radiological Examination of Electronic Devices" E999 Guide for Controlling the Quality of Industrial Radiographic Filra Processing’ E 1025 Practice for Design, Manufacture, and Material Grouping Classtication of Hole-Type Image Quality Indicators (1Q1) Used for Radiology’ E 1030 Test Method for Radiographic Examination of ‘Metallic Castings? E 1032 Method for Radiographic Examination of Weld- ments? E1079 Practice for Densitomcters! E 1254 Guide for Storage of Radiographs and Unexposed Industrial Radiographic Films? E 1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations’ 2.2 ANST Standar PHI. Specifications for Photographic Film for Archival Records, Siiver-Gelatin Type, on Polyester Base* PH2.22 Methods for Determining Safety Times of Photo- ‘graphic Darkroom Ilumination* PHd.8 Methylene Blue Method for Measuring Thiosulfite land Silver Densitometric Method for Measuring Re- sidiual Chemicals in Films, Plates, and Papers! 19. [maging Media (Film)—Silver-Gelatin Type Specifi- cations for Stability* 19.2 Imaging Media—Photographic Processed Films, lates, and Papers-Filing Enclosures and Storage Con tainers* Calibration of Transmission 3. Terminology 3.1 Definitions—For definitions of terms used in this guide, refer to Terminolozy E 1316. 4. Significance and Use 4.1 Withia the present state of the radiographic art this fuuide is eenerally applicable to available materials, processes, > aaa Bok ASTM Stars, Yok O03 Gb eos TABLE 2 Approximate Raciographic Equivalence Factors lor Several Metals (Relative to Steel) zm. Ere ure Mow sow aw WSC Nepean Doe Gos 08 umn Om ones 035035 ‘Amon aor om ass oa 3s Stara oe bee on oe os os oo Oo ory rob 10 10 1 10 te 40 to 10 1 30 ‘Corea 15 48 ‘4 Meta u " 12 mt ne : 13 3 crt bes u 3 3 w i 10 a 4D Insane uM a 13 a 13 "3 3 3 Mone 7 @ Brecun 2a 2a 26 45 0 19 19 2 ese HO oa 30 25 er 40 a8 Hare Wo 0a 30 onan 200 moot aes ae ‘material ofthe filter will vary depending upon the following: 9.4.1 The material radiographed. 9.4.2 ‘Thickness of the material radiographed 9.4.3 Variation of thickness of the material radiographes, 9.4.4 Energy spectrum of the radiation used, 9.4.5 The improvement desired (increasing or decreasing contrast). Filler thickness and material can be calculated or determined empirically 10. Masking 10.1 Masking or blocking (surrounding specimens or covering thin sections with an absorptive matenal) is helpful in reducing scattered radiation. Such a material can also be used to equalize the absorption of different sections, but the ‘oss of detail may be high in the thinner sections. II. Back-Seatter Protection 11.1. Effects of back-scattered radiation can be reduced by fining the radiation beam to the smallest practical cross section and by placing lead behind the film, In some cases sither or both the back lead sereen and the lead contained in the back of the cassette or film holder will furnish adequate orotection against back-scattered radiation. In other in- ances, this must be supplemented by additional lead shielding behind the cassette or film holder. 11.2 IF there is any question about the adequacy of protection from back-scattered radiation, 2 characteristic symbol (frequently 2 Yscin. (3.2mm) thick letter 8) should be attached to the back of the cassette or film holder. and a radiograph made in the normal manner. Ifthe image of this symbol appears on the radiograph as a lighter density than background, it is an indication that protection against back-scattered radiation is insufficient and that additional precautions rust be taken, 12, Sereens 12.1 Mate Feil Screens 12.1.1 Lead fol screens are commonly used in direct con- tact with the films, and, depending upon their thickness, and composition of the specimen material, will exhibit an inten- sifying action at as low a8 90 kV. In addition, any screen used 1 front of the film acts as a filter (Section 9) to preferentially absorb scattered radiation arising from the specimen, thus ‘nproving radiographic quality. The selection of lead screen ‘nickness, or for that matter. any metalli screen thickness is subject 10 the same considerations as outlined in 9.4, Lead sereens lessen the scaiter reaching the film regardless of Whether the sereens permit a decrease or necessitate an increase in the radiographic exposure. To avoid image unsharpness due to screens, there should be intimate contact ‘between the lead screen and the film during exposure. 12.1.2 Lead foil screens of appropriate thickness should be used whenever they improve radiographic quality or pene. rameter sensitivity oF both, The thickness of the front lead screens should be selacted with care 10 avoid excessive filtra- tion in the radiography of thin or light alloy materials, partic- ularly at the lower kilovoluages. In general. there is no eapo= sure advantage to the use of 0.005 in. in front and back lead screens below 125 kV in the radiography of Yasin. (6,35-mm) or lesser thickness steel. As the kilovoltage is increased 10 penetrate thicker sections of stcel, however, there is a signifi= ‘cant exposure advantage. In addition to intensifying action, the back lead screens are used as protection against back- scattered radiation (see Section I1) and their thickness is only important for this function, As exposure energy is increased to penetrate greater thicknesses of a given subject material, it is customary to increase lead screen thickness For radiography using radioactive sources, the minimum. thickness of the front lead soreen should be 0.005 in, (0.13 ‘mm) for iridium-192, and 0,010 in, (0.25 mm) for cobalt-60. 12.2 Other Metallic Screen Materials 12.2.1 Lead oxide screens perform in a similar manner to lead foil screens except that their equivalence in lead foil thickness approximates 0.0005 in. (0.013 mm). 12.2.2 Copper screens have somewhat less absorption and intensification than lead screens. but may provide somewhat better radiographic sensitivity with higher energy above | MY. 12.2.3 Gold, tantalum, or other heavy metal screens may be used in cases where lead cannot be used. 12.3 Fluorescent Screons—Fluorescent screens may be used as required providing the required image quality is achieved. Proper selection of the fluorescent sereen is re quired 10 minimize image unstarpness, Technical informa. tion about specific Muorescent screen products can be obtained from the manufacturers. Good film-sereen contact and screen cleanliness ate requized for successful use of fluorescent screens. 124 Screen Care—All screens should be handled care- fully to avoid dents and scratches, dir, or grease on active Gh E94 “Tisteess Dilforences Specimen Large Tor Torord High Carat “Setr=Tene Tomord Hh Carrot ord Tand Tverd Low Contrast a) Seater Rodin ‘Sma Proprrn Tend Towers High Coon Large Proper Tend Tovar Low Cotaet | ign Beare Grosint Tet Towtr High Controt | ss Toward Lom Carros fe Teware high Cantaet ene conte Note—Tho rnin usable erty on Cast 7, 2, an 3m parce onto Humor emiabe FIG. 7 toste surfaces. Grease and lint may be removed from lead screens ‘sith a solvent. Fluorescent screens should be cleaned in ‘accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturer. Screens showing evidence of physical damage should be discarded, 13. Radiographic Contrast 13.1 The various radiation intensities that penetrate an ject are rendered as different photographic densities in a radiograph, Using transmitted or reflected light to view a radiograph. an observed change in film density over a background is defined as contrast. Radiographic contrast depends mostly upon subject contrast and the film gradient. 13.2 Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensities transmitted by two selected portions of a specimen. 13.3 The film gradient is the value of the slope of the tangent line drawn to a particular density point on the characteristic curve to the abseissa. Film manufacturers can furnish characteristic curves of their products. 13.4 The quality of radiography is influenced by many \ariables: the effects of changes in some of these variables are illustrated in Fig. | 14, Geometry 4.1 The focussilm distance necessary to reduce geo- ‘metric unsharpness to a nepligible amount depends upon the film or film-sereen combinations. focal-spot size, and object film distance. Geometric unsharpness is given (see Fig. (a) by the equation: ‘Changer in Vanabiee on Qually ot Radiography Uys Fld, where: U, = geometric unsharpness, F* = Size of the radiation source. 1 = specimen thickness, when in contact with the film and d, = source-object distance [Nore 3, and / must bein the same units of measure: she units oF wl be i the sare unis a8 F ‘Nore A nomowan forthe detrmination of ive in Fig. 3 Uinchepound units) Fig 4 represents a nomogram in metic unis Bampe Given Souree-abjet distance (d,) = 40 in Source site (F) = 300 mui. and Source side of specimen to Fm distance (= | 5 in ‘Dex a sight line (cashed in Fi, 3) between $00 mils on the F sale and 15 in. on the scale. Note tke poirt on intersection (P) ofthis line ‘ith the piv line, Draw svaight ine aud in Fg 3) tem a0 no” the d, scale through point P and entend to the U; sale, Intersection of foie line withthe Seale gies geometia!unhypnes Sa ms which inthe example is 15 mils Inasmuch as the source size, F. is usuall radiation source, the value of U, is essen the simple df ratio. 14.2 Because X and gamma radiation is divergent. the radiographic image of an object, or of a structure within an object. will be larger than the object or the structure itself. The degree of enlargement will increase with decreasing fixed for a given ly controlled by hh B94 Legend for) 2988) 12 ect tr aster Ls orerean ol Soper 1 Sgransen 3 mie |e) sora Enargeent (e)adegragne Oetoten oaend {area oe Phreertaga ctlerion = (ab (L)* 100 toa ak 2etanas SLA 100 = percentage energerert FIG. 2 Effects of ObjoctFilm Geometry source-object (structure) distance and with increasing object (structure)film distance (Fig, 2(0)). 14.3 If the film is not parallel to the object. the radio- s-aphie image will be distorned because different parts of the radiographic image will be enlarged by different amounts. A rmieasure of the degree of distortion is given by’the ratio ofthe ‘cvange in image size caused by distortion to the size of the undistorted image (Fi. 2(¢)) 144 Final acceptance of radiographs should be based on the ability to see the prescribed penetrameter image and the specified hole. The unsharpness formula is included for information and guidance, and will operate within practical iis. bu is of less consequence as dj ratios increase, 15, Exposure Calculations or Charts 15.1 Development or procurement of an exposure chart ‘or calculator is the responsibility of the individual labora- very 18.2 The essential elements of an exposure chart or

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