A Comment on: Rowlands & Carson "Where Would Formal, Academic Mathematics Stand in a

Curriculum Informed by Ethnomathematics? A Critical Review"

Author(s): Shehenaz Adam, Wilfredo Alangui, Bill Barton
Source: Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 52, No. 3 (2003), pp. 327-335
Published by: Springer
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 SHEHENAZADAM, WILFREDOALANGUI and BILL BARTON

A COMMENT ON: ROWLANDS & CARSON "WHERE WOULD

FORMAL, ACADEMIC MATHEMATICS STAND IN A
CURRICULUM INFORMED BY ETHNOMATHEMATICS? A
CRITICAL REVIEW"1

ABSTRACT. The critiqueof ethnomathematicsby Rowlands and Carsonthat appeared

recently provides an opportunityto open debate on culturalissues in mathematics.This
response arguesthat such debatemust be based on contemporarywritingin the field, and
should not focus on extremeviews within the politicaljustificationfor ethnomathematics.
It addressessome of the philosophicalquestionsraised by Rowlands and Carson,and the
relationshipof the field with indigenousknowledge is raised.We also suggest thatthe role
of ethnomathematicsin mathematicseducationis now predominantlyan empiricalmatter,
and comment on some preliminaryresults from recent studies that indicate a positive role
for culturally-basedcurricula.

KEY WORDS:ethnomathematics,ethnomathematicalcurriculum,philosophy

As three active researchers in different areas of the field of ethnomathem-

atics, we wish to respond to Rowlands & Carson's article (2002) that is a
critique of ethnomathematics and its use in mathematics education. One
of us (Shehenaz Adam) is an Assistant Principal researching the imple-
mentation of an ethnomathematical curriculum in her home country of
The Maldives. The second (Wilfredo Alangui) is a mathematics lecturer at
the University of the Philippines at Baguio in the Cordillera region of his
home country, and is doing an ethnomathematical study into the practice of
rice-terracing. The third (Bill Barton) has written in the philosophical im-
plications of ethnomathematics and is now undertaking ethnomathematical
research on how mathematical ideas are expressed in different languages.
Between us we feel able to respond to most of the ideas expressed in the
article.
We appreciate the opportunity afforded by this article to engage in de-
bate about ethnomathematics and its possible importance, both as a field of
study in itself, and as a component of mathematics education. It is an op-
portunity, also, to make known to a wider audience the scope and depth of
current work on ethnomathematics. We find it unfortunate that this article
presents a picture of ethnomathematics that is over a decade old. It does
not acknowledge work from either of the two International Congresses on
Ethnomathematics, nor the relevant Topic Groups at recent ICME confer-

EducationalStudiesin Mathematics 52: 327-335, 2003.

PW ? 2003 KluwerAcademicPublishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
328 SHEHENAZ
ADAMETAL.

ences, nor the existence and debatesin the EthnomathematicsNewsletter.

Indeed,there is no referenceto any ethnomathematicalliteratureafterthe
publicationof Powell and Frankenstein'sbook (1997), which is itself a
collection of paperspublishedearlier.The Andersonpaperreferredto was
firstpublishedin 1990, and the Fashehpaperin 1980.
Debate in the ethnomathematicalworld has moved on considerably
from this time, and that book is recognised as only one perspectiveon
ethnomathematics(Barton, 1999). The proceedings of the First Interna-
tional Congress on Ethnomathematicsin Granada(Contreras,Morales &
Ramirez, 1999), and the second this year (Monteiro,2002) provide rich
debate on all the issues raisedin Rowlandsand Carson'sarticle.Not even
mentioned are earlier critiques of the field (e.g., Vital and Skovsmose,
1997). The political perspectiveon ethnomathematics,the earlierformu-
lations of which are critiquedin the article, is now more often related
to writing on indigenous knowledge, and is most notably advanced by
Knijnik (e.g. Knijnik, 2002) in her work with the Landless Peoples of
Brazil. Her success in those educationprogrammesspeak for themselves.

1. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

A currentperspectiveon this question is affordedby two of the writers

who are membersof indigenousgroups,althoughschooled and trainedas
mathematiciansin the westernway.
We sharethe desire of Rowlandsand Carsonto recognise the unique-
ness of traditionalcultures,but while we appreciatetheir warningsabout
"blurringthe distinctionbetween those localised ways of knowing... and
scientificculture"(p. 91), we do not see such a danger.Rather,we appreci-
ate thatethnomathematicsrecognisesthe uniquenessof traditionalcultures
by highlightingaspects of theircomplex knowledge systems and showing
them to be living and dynamic,and valuableand valid in their own terms
and context.
The (mathematical)ideas of (traditional)peoples are not static but de-
velop throughtime. Such knowledge may provide us with new concepts
andproblemsin mathematics.This is a statementof humaningenuity.Priv-
ileging some peoples' ideas in the discourseof mathematicswhile denying
others' is colonialism. Such views justify the need for indigenous math-
ematiciansto engage in ethnomathematicsbecause indigenousknowledge
and value systems are under attack.Decolonisation involves reclaiming,
protecting,andvaluingthe uniqueways of indigenousknowinganddoing.
Smith (1999, p. 39) clarifiesthatdecolonisation:
 A COMMENTON ROWLANDS& CARSON 329

does not meanandhas not meanta totalrejectionof all theoryor researchor

Westernknowledge...it is aboutcentringourconcernsandworldviewsandthen
comingto knowandunderstand theoryandresearchfromourownperspectives
andforourownpurposes.
This is certainlytrue in mathematics,and ethnomathematicshas provided
indigenousmathematiciansthe platformto understandthe role thatis played
by mathematicsin colonization, as well as understandinghow we can
engage with the discipline constructively.Ethnomathematicsis not out to
displace or replace mathematics.At best, ethnomathematicsforces us to
reflect on our practiceas mathematicseducators,to reflect on our discip-
line, and to be awareof how it has contributedto a cultureof "intolerance,
discrimination,inequity,bigotry,and hatred"(D'Ambrosio,2001).
But thereis more to ethnomathematicsthanrecognisingthe failings of
mathematicsas a discipline. Its philosophyalso implies thatwe recognise
its potentialto turnan unjustsituationaround.The point is not only thatwe
answerback, but that "mutualinterrogationis possible"(Mendoza,2001).
We wantto be criticalmathematiciansby makingourpeople awareof both
the dangersandpotentialsof the discipline.Indigenousmathematiciansen-
gage in ethnomathematicsbecausewe know thatourpeoples have complex
knowledge systems that are valuable, and could teach the outside world
alternativeways of knowing.
Alangui's (2002) work with the northernKankana-eypeople in the
Philippinestries to understandthe conceptionspeople have aboutquantity,
relationshipsand space in theirrice terracingpractice,andhow these relate
to theirunique world view as expressedin their stories,beliefs and rituals
among others.It is an attemptto look at systems of relationshipsand their
meanings, and to show how such alternativesystems are importantto the
growth of mathematicalknowledge. It is not that anotherworld is still
possible. For indigenouspeoples, it alreadyexists.

2. A NOTE ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF ETHNOMATHEMATICS

As stated earlier,the political perspectiveis just one of many in the eth-

nomathematicalfield. The philosophicalissues are also far-reachingand
widely debated.To namejust one example, the question of mathematical
relativityis implied by ethnomathematicsand needs justification(Barton,
1999b).
Ethnomathematicsis not a philosophy,much less a 'pedagogic philo-
sophy'. Ratherit is a lens throughwhich mathematicsitself can be viewed.
However,ethnomathematicsdoes have a transformingfunction on math-
ematics in that it widens the scope of what is included in that field. It
330 ADAMETAL.
SHEHENAZ

neitherdownplays,nor devalues,nor removes, any aspect of conventional

mathematics.
offersnotonly a broaderview of mathematics,
... ethnomathematics embracing
but also a
practicesand methodsrelatedto a varietyof culturalenvironments,
morecomprehensive, contextualisingperceptionof the processof generating,
anddisseminating
transmitting,
organizing, mathematics.
(D'Ambrosio,1994,pp.449-450)
Let us give an example of this 'more comprehensiveperception'. Row-
lands and Carsonclaim (pp. 87-91) thatethnomathematicsdownplaysthe
Greeks and rationality.On the contrary,ethnomathematicsrecognises the
pre-eminenceof Greek rationalityin modem mathematics- it seeks to
understandthis. One way to do so is to see that Greekrationalityis only
one form of rationality,and that the particularform of mathematicsthat
traces its trajectorythroughthe Greek tradition(and a few others) serves
particularfunctionsandhas particularconsequences.(These are,of course,
hugely influentialin modem technological society). However,to use this
particularform of mathematicsas the standardby which mathematicsis to
be judged misses the point. To evaluatewhetherancientIndianor Chinese
mathematicsreally 'proved' anythingis a strange thing to do when the
meaning of 'proof' was not developed until a few thousandyears later.
Those mathematicalexpressions can only be judged in their own terms.
So can extanttraditionalmathematicalsystems. Tryingto understandwhat
those terms are is exactly what ethnomathematicsseeks to do, and this is
what is meantby offeringa broaderview.

3. ETHNOMATHEMATICS AND EDUCATION

The Rowlandsand Carsonarticle,however,mainly addressesthe relation-

ship of ethnomathematicswith education.The idea that somethingcalled
ethnomathematicsshouldreplacemathematicsin formaleducationis very
mucha strawman- we arenot awareof this idea being seriouslydeveloped
in contemporaryliterature.That mathematicsmay be imbuedwith an eth-
nomathematicalperspective,however, is a common view. Exactly what
this means is widely debated within the ethnomathematicalcommunity.
Whethersuch a perspectivehelps fulfil the aims of conventionalmathem-
atics educationis no longer a questionthatis debatedon ideological lines.
For some time it has been regardedas an open empiricalquestionby most
of those workingin ethnomathematics.
Five differentpossibilitiesfor an ethnomathematicalcurriculumcan be
identified.All characterisationsare premisedon the belief thatthe cultural
 A COMMENTON ROWLANDS& CARSON 331

aspects of the students'milieu should be infused in the learningenviron-

ment in a holistic manner,includingthe epistemology of mathematics,its
content,the classroomculture,and the approachto mathematicslearning.
The first possibility for an ethnomathematicalcurriculumis as an ap-
proachto mathematics.This could be labelled as 'mathematicsin a mean-
ingful context'.This vision is epistemologicalin thatmathematicsis presen-
ted as a culturalresponse to human needs. Every culture is assumed to
have such mathematicalresponsesandthe responsesof learners'cultureis
valid contentfor a mathematicsclassroom.Such a curriculumwould affect
how studentsthink aboutmathematicsratherthanhow or what they learn
(Bishop, 1998; Zaslavsky,1991).
A second conception is of ethnomathematicsas a particularcontent
thatis distinctfromthe conventionalmathematicalconceptstaughtin most
schools. Examplesaredistinctivedesigns or decorativeforms such as those
exhibited in weaving, architectureor carving;establishedspatial systems
used in navigation;idiosyncraticpractices such as Lusona drawingsand
mathematicalconcepts such as measurementor design found in engineer-
ing practicessuch as boatbuilding(Ascher,1991;Gerdes,1991;Zaslavsky,
1996). This ethnomathematicalcontentcould make up any partof the cur-
riculum,from a small section to a majorproportionof the total. It has been
hypothesisedthat a curriculumof this type will have benefits for student
learningfor motivationalreasons(D'Ambrosio, 1991; Zaslavsky,1991).
Anothercurriculumcould be built on the idea that ethnomathematics
is a stage in the progressionof mathematicalthinking that a child goes
throughduring his/her mathematicseducation. In this approachit is as-
sumedthatmathematicslearningstartsfromthe mathematicalworldof the
child, progressingthroughthe mathematicalworld of the child's culture,
into the global mathematicalworld. The ethnomathematicalcurriculum
is that part of the curriculumthat focuses on the mathematicalworld of
the child's culture (Begg, 2001). It has been presumedthat this type of
a curriculumwill have benefits for studentlearningin terms of students
being awareof mathematicsas a living and growingdiscipline and also of
the mathematicsfound in theirown culture.
A fourthethnomathematicalcurriculumcould be the mathematicalpart
of the idea that all classroomsare situatedin a culturalcontext. This con-
text involves values and beliefs about learning,aims of education,cultur-
ally specific learning theories and practices, and the classroom environ-
ment. The component of this view specific to a mathematicsclassroom
includes whetherlearningmathematicsis predominantlyoral or written,
the type of mathematicalauthorityrequiredin a teacher,and the format
332 SHEHENAZADAM ET AL.

of the assessment.This type of an approachto curriculumis suggestedby

Bishop's (1988) work on 'mathematicalenculturation'.
The approachwe favour,however,is an integrationof the mathemat-
ical concepts and practicesoriginatingin the learners'culturewith those
of conventional,formal academicmathematics.The mathematicalexperi-
ences from the learner'scultureare used to understandhow mathematical
ideas are formulatedand applied. This general mathematicalknowledge
is then used to introduceconventionalmathematicsin such a way that it
is better understood,its power, beauty and utility are better appreciated,
and its relationshipto familiar practices and concepts made explicit. In
other words, a curriculumof this type allows learnersto become aware
of how people mathematiseand use this awarenessto learn abouta more
encompassingmathematics.The work of Lipka(2002) in Alaska is an ex-
ampleof this approach.It is hypothesisedthata curriculumof this type will
motivatestudentsto recognise mathematicsas partof their everydaylife,
enhance students' ability to make meaningfulmathematicalconnections
and deepen theirunderstandingof all forms of mathematics.
We state againthatmore studiesneed to be done to confirmor disprove
such hypotheses.Adam's study in two primaryschools in the Maldivesis
part of such research(Adam, 2002). It involves implementingan ethno-
mathematicalunit on measurementwith nine Grade 5 teachers and 270
students.The three-weekunit included:

* Exploring, within the Maldivian culture, some activities that have

mathematicalaspects.
* Participatingin activitiesaboutperimeter,areaand volume using ob-
jects familiarto students.
* Participatingin activities about perimeter,area and volume that are
outside students'experiencesor culture.
* Participatingin activitiesto learnaboutandlearnto use mathematical
systems of conventionalmathematicalnotationsand techniques.

Despite the very traditionaleducationof the Maldives,andthe requirement

to sit for the Britishexaminationswhen they finish grade 10 and grade 12,
the ethnomathematicalapproachwas understoodand welcomed by teach-
ers, students,parents,school administratorsandthe Ministryof Education.
Teachersare now willing to try this approachfor othermathematicsunits
in the syllabus and wonderinghow it might be adaptedfor other subjects.
Typicalof the teachers'commentsare:
 A COMMENTON ROWLANDS& CARSON 333

T9: I am very happy with the work that we did for the past two and a
half weeks. It was a very good learningexperience for both the stu-
dents and myself. The studentswere very motivated,interestedand
involved in learning mathematics.I feel that students have learnt a
lot with a much betterunderstandingof the concepts of area,volume
and perimeterand how it is related to real life. It would have been
good if we had more time to do more activities related to this topic
and do moreproblems.However,since studentshave been very much
involved the last two weeks, the time didn't seem to be much of a
problem.
T5: This methodof teachingis very effective. By the time we introduced
the formulae,studentshad an understandingof the concepts of area,
volume andperimeter.They were also able to relateit to the realworld
activities.
This study also confirms Lipka's (2002) finding that students who have
been taught using such an ethnomathematical curriculum perform bet-
ter on conventional mathematics tests. We therefore do not agree with
Rowlands and Carson's claim that mathematics should be taught in an
artificial setting without relating it to the real-world whatsoever. There is
ample empirical evidence that learning in context does make mathematics
more meaningful to learners. Furthermore, as D'Ambrosio (2002, pp. 3-5)
states:
It may be true that when looking for jobs, students will be requiredto know
traditionalschool mathematics.But thereis much more in educationalgoals than
merely to provide utilitarianinstruments.Educationmust enhance culturaldig-
nity. [.. .] Both to enhanceculturaldignity andto be preparedfor full participation
in society requiresmore than what is offered in the traditionalcurricula.Particu-
larly serious is the situationof mathematics,which is largely obsolete as present
in the classrooms. Classroommathematicshas nothing to do with the world the
childrenare experiencing. [...] We need more and bettermathematicalcontents
[that generates interest, which] cannot be interpretedas conceptual errorsor a
relaxationof the importanceof seriousmathematicalcontentsof a modem nature.

4. CONCLUSION

Ethnomathematical research has already led to new advanced research

mathematics in the conventional sense (Ascher, 2001). Educational re-
search is so far demonstrating the success in conventional terms of at least
one ethnomathematical approach to the curriculum. Any critique of this
field must address such results and evaluate them as research. It must enter
current debates. It cannot be ideologically directed, nor is it helpful to
address antiquated or extreme positions.
334 SHEHENAZ
ADAMETAL.

The Second InternationalCongresson Ethnomathematicsheld in Brazil

in August 2002 showed the breadthand depth of on-going researchwork
in ethnomathematics.A numberof these studies are relatedto how ethno-
mathematicsis used as a frameworkin the teaching of mathematics.We
continue to rethinkour usual conceptions about formal, academic math-
ematics, especially when dealing with disadvantagedgroups like street
children,adultlearnersand indigenouspeoples.
Rowlands and Carson are taking mathematicsin its present form as
a given, and asking merely that we be sensitive to culturaldifference as
mathematiciansand mathematicseducators.We, on the other hand, seek
to enhancemathematicsthroughculturallysensitive approaches.

NOTE

1. This paperis writtenfor the occasion of the Colloquiumin honourof UbiratanD'Ambro

sio's 70th Birthday.

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The Universityof Auckland,

Departmentof Mathematics,
PB. 92 019,
Auckland,New Zealand
Telephone++64 9 373 7599 Extn88779, Fax:++64 9 373 7457,
E-mail: b.barton@auckland.ac.nz