Tesi Ice Slurry District Cooling PDF

ICE SLURRY STORAGE SYSTEM IN DISTRICT
COOLING APPLICATIONS FOR AIR-

CONDITIONING
By
MOHAMMAD KAMAL HOSSAIN

B.Sc. (Eng.) (BUET, Bangladesh)
A THESIS SUBMITTED
FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ENGINEERING
DEPERTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

2004
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to express his sincere appreciation, gratitude and heartiest
thanks to his supervisors Associate Professor M.N.A. Hawlader and Professor N.E.
Wijeysundera for their encouragement and invaluable guidance during the pursuit of
this research work. Their invaluable advice and constructive criticism have been
always enlightening and inspiring.
The author wishes to express his special thanks to the technical staffs of both Thermal
process Lab.1 and Energy Conversion Laboratories, specially Mr. Yeo Ho, Mr. Y.L
Chew, Mr. Tan and Mr. Anwar Sadat for their assistance during the fabrication of
experimental set-up.
The author expresses his special thanks to Dr Md. Raisul Islam, Jahangeer S/O K.
Abdul Halim and to all his friends who have helped in one way or another to make his
life most enjoyable and provided inspiration for the completion of the project.
The author is greatly indebted to The National University of Singapore for providing
financial support, which enabled him to carry out this study.
Finally, the author also extends his heartfelt and deepest gratitude and appreciation to
his family members for their invaluable inspiration, support, and encouragement
rendered towards his developments in education.
Above all, author expresses his deep thanks and profound gratitude to the Almighty,
for enabling him to achieve this end.
i
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ii
SUMMARY vi
NOMENCLATURE ix
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
LIST TO TABLES xix
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Conventional Ice Storage System 2
1.2 Advantages of Ice Slurry Storage System 3
1.3 Objectives of Research 4
1.4 The Scope 4
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Different Method of Ice Slurry production, Modeling 6
and Design Aspects
2.2 Ice Slurry Flow Heat Transfer and Characteristics 11
2.3 Advantages and Cost Savings Resulting from use of the 14
Ice Slurry System
CHAPTER 3 THE EXPERIMENTS 19

3.1 Description of the Setup 19
3.1.1 Water Tank/Glass Column 21
3.1.2 Coolant Path 21
3.1.3 Centrifugal Pump and Flow Meter 22
3.1.4 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 22
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning ii

Table of Contents
3.1.5 Progressive cavity pump 25
3.1.6 Cooling coil, secondary refrigerant, and the cold bath 26
3.2 Instrumentation 27
3.3 Direct Contact Heat Transfer Method 28
3.3.1 Mode of Operation 28
3.3.1.1 Nozzle at the top: Shower spray 29
3.3.1.2 Nozzle at the top: Fountain spray 30
3.3.1.3 Injection from bottom 32
3.3.1.4 Test procedure 33
3.3.2 Estimation of the drop size 34

3.3.3 Estimation of residence time 38
3.4 Freezing of Binary Solution 42
3.5 Accuracy of Measurments 44
CHAPTER 4 MATHEMATICAL MODEL FORMULAITON 45
4.1 Physical Arrangement of Direct Contact Method 45
4.1.1 Model for FC-84 system 46
4.1.1.1 Sensible cooling of water 48
4.1.1.2 Ice-Slurry formation 50
4.2 Physical Arrangement of Binary Solution Flow 52
4.2.1 Model for binary solution 52

4.2.1.1 Determination of freezing point temperature 53
4.2.1.2 Governing equation for slurry generation 54
using ethylene glycol
4.2.1.3 Solution procedure 58
4.3 Energy Extraction for Space Cooling Purpose 60
4.3.1 Energy withdrawal analysis 60
4.3.2 Ice slurry properties 63
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning iii
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 64

5.1 Direct Contact Heat Transfer Using for FC-84 64
5.1.1 Experimental Results 64
5.1.2 Comparison of experimental and predicted results 67
5.1.2.1 Nozzle operation at shower spray mode 67
5.1.2.2 Nozzle operation at fountain spray mode 72
5.1.2.3 Spray from bottom 76
5.1.3 Parametric Study 82
5.1.3.1 Effect of coolant flow rate 83
5.1.3.2 Influence of nozzle diameter 85
5.2 Method Using Freezing of Binary solutions 87
5.2.1 Effect of flow rate 88
5.2.2 Effect of mole fraction on freezing point depression 91
5.3 Energy Recovery from Ice Slurry 93
5.3.1 Effect of flow rate on OHTC and cooling duty 94
5.3.2 Comparison of experimental and predicted results 96
CHAPTER 6 CONCLULSIONS 101

RECOMMENDATIONS 103
REFFERENCES 104
APPENDIX A CALIBRATION OF GRAPH & INSTUMENTS 113

APPENDIX B TABULATED RESULTS 122
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning iv

Table of Contents
APPENDIX C ERROR ANALYSIS 126

APPENDIX D GENERAL SOLUTIONS 131
APPENDIX E DETERMINATION OF FREEZING POINT OF A 135
BINARY SOLUTION INTO A BEAKER
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning v

Summary
SUMMARY
In Singapore, more than 50 percent of typical buildings energy usage relates to the
Heating, Ventilating, and Air-conditioning (HVAC) and chiller plant. The reduction of
energy consumption is the key issue for overall energy conservation in Singapore. An
attempt was made in the present study to develop an ice slurry system by using the
lower tariff available at night to support peak load during the day. This leads to a
reduction in size of the system and obviously lower cost. In this study, an ice slurry
storage system was designed and its performance was evaluated under different
operating conditions. A successful development of an efficient ice slurry storage
system would be useful for applications in domestic and industrial air-conditioning
systems. In this project, the potential of using ice slurry storage system for domestic
and industrial applications was investigated.
The system tested was comprised of five major components assisted by some auxiliary
devices. The main components were cold bath, glass column that acts as an evaporator,
progressive displacement screw pump, a shell and tube heat exchanger, and injection
nozzle for coolant. Three different nozzles/arrangements were used for the production
of ice slurry depending on the mode of operation. Nozzles were located at the top and
bottom of the test section. The nozzle at the top was operated in both shower spray and
fountain spray modes. The nozzle at the bottom sprayed coolant vertically up. A data
acquisition system was used to record and monitor the parameters required for the
evaluation of the system performance. A series of experiments was performed to
evaluate the performance of the system with a new refrigerant, Fluorinert FC-84, for
the production of ice slurry using direct contact heat transfer and compared with the
ethylene glycol. Experiments were conducted using different nozzles to observe the
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning vi

Summary
influence on ice slurry production. It was found that, for the shower spray nozzle
assembly, clogging of nozzle and ice sinking down towards the bottom was more
severe than that for the fountain spray nozzle assembly. It was also found that, for the
fountain spray pattern, nozzle with diameter 6mm and flow rate 6 l/min gave the best
results. On the other hand, nozzle assembly located at the bottom of the glass column
minimized the nozzle clogging and ice sinking problem. Ice packing factor (IPF) was
up to 50% for the nozzle assembly at the bottom. Nozzle diameter used for injection
from bottom was 3 mm.
A mathematical model has been developed and presented for the system. Based on the
model, a simulation program was developed to predict the thermal performance of the
system using Compaq Visual Fortran. These results were compared with those
obtained from the experiments and good agreement was found. For shower and
fountain spray pattern nozzle assembly, the heat transfer coefficients between the
coolant droplet and water were found to be 4250 W/m2 K and 4875 W/m2 K for the
flow rate of 4 l/min and 6 l/min, respectively. The heat transfer coefficients for the
nozzle assembly at the bottom of the glass column were found to be 5310 W/m2 K and
5800 W/m2 K for the flow rate of 8 l/min and 10 l/min, respectively.
Ice slurry generation using the ethylene glycol was also carried out. The variation of
the binary solution temperature was found both experimentally and analytically. The
experimental results found from the freezing of binary solutions were compared with
the predicted results and a good agreement was found. The effects of the glycol mole
fraction on the ice formation were studied using the model developed for the
evaluation of freezing point depression. It was found that the mole fraction the glycol
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning vii
Summary
increased the increase of ice formation. It was also found that, as the ice formation
increased, mole fraction of glycol also increased, which affected the freezing point of
ice. A change in the freezing point temperature from -20 C to -50 C was found for a
change in the mole fraction from 0.025 to 0.045 of glycol.
To recover energy from the ice slurry, a shell and tube heat exchanger was used. A
progressive displacement screw pump was used for pumping the ice slurry through the
heat exchanger. A series of experiments was performed for the evaluation of the
thermal performance of the energy withdrawal process. The flow rate of the cooling
medium was varied in the range of 8-16 l/min, whereas the ice slurry flow rate changes
were 8-12 l/min. The performance of the heat exchanger was found to be strongly
dependent upon both the cooling medium flow rate and ice slurry flow rate. Overall
heat transfer coefficients for the extraction of energy from the ice slurry were found to
be 1.40 kW/m2 K, 1.2 kW/m2K and 1.10 kW/m2K for flow rates of 12 l/min, 10 l/min
and 8 l/min, respectively. The heat transfer capacity of the shell and tube heat
exchanger was found to increase more than (35-40%) when compared with the single-
phase fluid i.e. chill water only.
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning viii
Nomenclature
NOMENCLATURE
Symbol DESCRIPTION UNIT (SI)
ad Area of a drop m2
A Surface area of the tube m2
Ao Area of heat gain m2
As Bundle cross flow area m2
c Specific heat capacity Jkg −1 K −1
cc Specific heat of drop Jkg −1 K −1
cices Specific heat capacity of ice slurry Jkg −1 K −1
cw Specific heat capacity of cooling water Jkg −1 K −1
Cg Specific heat of glycol kJ/kg K
Cw Specific heat of water kJ/kg K
dd Mean diameter of drops m
do Outer meter of tube m
De Equivalent diameter m
ρw Density of water kg/m3
ρice Density of ice kg/m3
hd Heat transfer coefficient of drop Wm −2 K −1
hi Enthalpy of ice kJ/kgK
Hf Latent heat of fusion of ice Jkg −1
Hif Molar heat of enthalpy kJ/Kmol
ho Outside heat transfer coefficient W/m2K
k Thermal conductivity W/mK
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning ix

Nomenclature
kw Thermal conductivity of water W/mK
LMTD Log Mean Temperature difference
m& c Mass flow rate of coolant kgs −1 .
m& ices Mass flow rate of ice slurry kgs −1 .
m& w Mass flow rate of water kgs −1 .
M Mass kg
Mw Molecular weight of water kg/kmol
Mg Molecular weight of ethylene glycol, Mw kg/kmol
Nd Rate of generation of drops at nozzle s −1
NuD Nusselt number
Pr Prandtl number
PT Pitch m
qd Heat absorbed by drop J
Q Average heat transfer rate J/s
Qcw Heat transfer from cooling water to ice slurry J/s
Qices Heat transfer from ice slurry to cooling water J/s
R Molar (Universal) gas constant, 8.3145 kJ/kmol K
Re D Reynolds number
T Temperature K
Tcw. in Inlet cooling water temperature K
Tfo Freezing temperature of solution K
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning x

Nomenclature
Ts Solution temperature K
Tice.in Ice slurry water inlet temperature K
Tice.out Ice slurry water outlet temperature K
Tcw.in Cooling water inlet temperature K
Tcw.out Cooling water outlet temperature K
U Overall heat transfer coefficient of Wm −2 K −1
heat exchanger
Uo Overall heat transfer coefficient Wm −2 K −1
vd volume of drop m3
Vg Volume of ethylene glycol m3
Vw Volume of water m3
Xi Ice concentration
Xw Mole fraction of water
Greek symbols
ρc Density of coolant kgm −3
ρis Density of ice slurry kgm −3
ρi Density of ice kgm −3
τr Residence time s
λ Parameter
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning xi

Nomenclature
λi Thermal conductivity of ice W/mK
λis Thermal conductivity of ice slurry W/mK
ε Ice fraction
µb Viscosity of liquid N-s/m2
µis Viscosity of ice slurry N-s/m2
µw Viscosity of water N-s/m2
φi Fraction of ice slurry
Subscripts
b bulk
c coolant
d drop
g glass and glycol
i ice
is ice slurry
w water
i drop at inlet
o drop at outlet
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning xii
List of Figures
Figure Name of Figure Page
Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of a conventional ice storage system 3

Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of the set-up 20
Figure 3.2 A photograph of the experimental set-up 20
Figure 3.3A photograph of glass tank 21
Figure 3.4 A photograph of insulated glass tank 21
Figure 3.5 A photograph of centrifugal pump 22
Figure 3.6 Flow meter 22
Figure 3.7 A photograph of shell and tube heat exchanger 23

Figure 3.8 Photograph of the positive displacement screw pump 25
Figure 3.9 A photograph of the cooling coil and cold bath 26
Figure 3.10 Shower sray nozzle assembly 30
(a) Photograph of shower nozzle 29
(b) Shower flow pattern 30
(c) Drop generation 30
Figure 3.11 Fountain spray nozzle assembly 31
(a) Photograph of fountain nozzle 31
(b) Fountain nozzle design 31
(c) Fountain spray nozzle 31
(d) Fountain flow pattern 31
(e) Dropdistribution 31
Figure 3.12 Nozzle assembly at the botttom of the tank 32

(a) & (b) PVC Nozzle 49
(c) Copper tube nozzle at the bottom 49
(d) Droplet generation 50
Figure 3.13 Frequency distribution of drop diameter for flow rate of 35
4 l/min; (Fountain spray nozzle, diameter 6 mm
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning xiii
List of Figures

6 l/min; (Fountain spray nozzle, diameter 6 mm)
4 l/min; (Shower spray nozzle, diameter 6 mm)
Figure 3.17 Frequency distribution of drop diameter for flow rate of 8 l/min; 37
(Nozzle at bottom, diameter 3mm)
Figure 3.18 Frequency distribution of drop diameter for flow rate of 10 l/min; 38
Figure 3.19 Frequency distribution of droplet residence time for flow rate of 39
Figure 3.20 Frequency distribution of droplet residence time for flow 39
rate of 6 l/min;(Fountain spray nozzle, diameter 6 mm)
4 l/min;(Shower spray nozzle, diameter 6 mm)
6 l/min;(Shower spray nozzle, diameter 6 mm)
Figure 3.23 Frequency distribution of droplet residence time for flow 41
rate of 8 l/min; (Nozzle at bottom, diameter 3mm)
10 l/min; (Nozzle at bottom, diameter 3mm)
Figure 3.25 Flow circuit of the binary solution 43
Figure 4.1 Nozzle is located above water surface; shower type spray nozzle 47
Figure 3.2 Nozzle is located inside the water surface; fountain 47
type spray nozzle
Figure 4.3 Nozzle is located inside the coolant; coolant sprayed 47
vertically upward
Figure 3.4 Flow chart for of coolant and water temperature profile 51
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning xiv
List of Figures
Figure 4.5 A cold bath showing the 50% glycol water solution and 52
cooling coil
Figure 4.6 Diagram for the energy balance inside the tube during ice formation 54
Figure 4.7 Overall resistances for tube 55
Figure 4.8 Flow chart for calculation of the solution temperature, mole 59
fraction of water and ice formation rate
Figure 5.1 Variation of water temperature with time (Shower spray nozzle, 65
diameter 6 mm)
Figure 5.2 Variation of water temperature with time (Fountain spray nozzle, 66
Diameter 6 mm)
Figure 5.3 Variation of water temperature with time (Nozzle at bottom, 67
diameter 3mm)
Figure 5.4 Comparison between predicted and experimental temperature 68
with time (nozzle diameter: 4 mm; flow -rate 4 l/min)

with time (nozzle diameter: 4 mm; flow-rate 6 l/min)
Figure 5.6 (a) Ice Agglomeration wth Shower Spray Nozzle 69
Figure 5.6 (b) Agglomerated ice 68
with time (nozzle diameter: 6 mm; flow- rate 4 l/min)
with time (nozzle diameter: 6 mm, flow -rate 6l/min)
with time (nozzle diameter: 4 mm; flow- rate 4 l/min
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning xv

List of Figures
Figure 5.11 (a) Ice Slurry Formation with Fountain Spray Nozzle 74
Figure 5.11 (b) Ice Slurry 74

Figure 5.16 Variation of total ice formation time with flow rate 83
of coolant
Figure 5.17 Variation of total ice formation time with the flow rate of coolant 84
Figure 5.18 Variation of total ice formation time with the flow rate of coolant 84
Figure 5.19 Effect of nozzle diameter on ice formation for flow rate 86
6 l/min (shower spray)
Figure 5.20 Effect of nozzle diameter on ice formation for flow rate 86
6 l/min (Fountain spray)
Figure 5.21 Effect of nozzle diameter on ice formation for the flow 87
rate 8 l/min (Nozzle at bottom)
Figure 5.22 Variation of binary solution temperature through the cold bath 88
for the flow rate of 10 l/min, 15 l/min and 18 l/min.)
Figure 5.23 Comparison between predicted and experimental solution 89
temperature with distance (flow rate 10 l/min)
Figure 5.24 Comparison between predicted and experimental solution 90
Figure 5.25 Variation of ethylene glycol solution temperature with distance 90
(Flow rate 18 l/min)
Figure 5.26 Effect of mole fraction on freezing point depression of solution 92
Figure 5.27 Effect of mole fraction on ice formation rate 92
Figure 5.28 Effect of mole fraction of glycol on ice formation. 93
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning xvi
List of Figures
Figure 5.29 Effect of ice slurry flow rate on heat transfer coefficient 95
and cooling duty
Figure 5.30 Effect of cooling water flow rate on heat transfer coefficient 95
Figure 5.31 Comparison between experimental and predicted overall heat 97
transfer coefficient with the ice slurry flow rate
Figure 5.32 Comparison between experimental and predicted overall heat 98
transfer coefficient with the cooling medium flow rate
Figure 5.33 Effect of ice slurry concentration on overall heat transfer coefficient 99
Figure 5.34 Comparison of cooling duty between ice slurry and chilled water 99
Figure A1. Calibration graph for channel 1 115

Figure E.1. A beaker partially immersed into a heat exchanger 135
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning xvii
List of Tables
List of Tables
Number Title Page
Table 3.1 Components specification 24
Table-5.1 Heat transfer coefficient values under different 78
experimental conditions
Table-5.2 Ice formation rates under different experimental conditions 80
Table 5.3 Heat Transfer Coefficient values during ice formation part 81
Table B.1. Heat transfer coefficient values under different experimental 123
conditions given in chapter 5
Table B.2. Ice formation rates under different experimental conditions 123
given in chapter 5
Table B.3. Heat Transfer Coefficient values during ice formation part 124
given in chapter 5
Table B.4. Experimental results for the variation of cooing medium 124
flow rate graph plotted in section 5.6
Table B.5. Experimental results for the variation of Ice-slurry flow rate 124
graph plotted in section 5.6
Table B.6. Comparison between experimental and simulation results for 125
ice slurry flow rate variation graph plotted in section 5.6
Table B.7. Comparison between experimental and simulation results for 125
cooling medium flow rate variation graph plotted in section 5.6
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning xviii
Chapter-1 Introduction
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The use of ice-storage systems for air-conditioning applications has been increasing
due to a need to reduce peak power requirements resulting from air-conditioning. In
most cases involving domestic and industrial air-conditioning applications, these
conditions are largely fulfilled by conventional air-conditioning, where the chiller
operates during peak hours of the day. During the peak hours, the electricity rates are
different from off-peak operating hours, which impose additional expenses for air
conditioning. This cost can be reduced if the chiller operates at night to produce ice
slurry at the lower rates of the electricity and use it during the day by taking the
advantage of the latent heat of ice slurry. Furthermore, the low ambient temperature at
night affects the condenser cooling, which improves the chiller performance.
In the case of conventional ice storage systems, the efficiency of ice formation tends to
decrease with increasing ice layer [1], which acts as an insulator. Similarly, the cold
heat removal performance also decreases with increasing melt layer. Some of these
difficulties can be overcome when ice slurry is used for cooling purposes. Moreover,
the cooling capacity of ice slurries can be upto five times [2] higher than that of the
conventional chilled water. The increased cooling capacity of ice-slurry results in
lower system flow rates, smaller pipe diameter, less air transportation and lower
horsepower fan motors. In addition, ice slurry based air conditioning permits the
design of air-conditioning systems with very compact central ice storage facilities.
Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning 1

These advantages have created considerable interest in ice slurry based air-
conditioning systems. In ice slurry storage system, direct contact heat transfer is often
used for heat transfer purposes. In this process, coolant is directly injected into water.
Therefore, it is desired to develop cost-effective ice slurry storage system for the
improvement of heat transfer process and resultant increase in cooling capacity.
1.1 Conventional Ice Storage System
In a conventional harvest-type ice storage system, ice is normally generated either on
coils or plates located above an ice storage tank. A typical ice harvesting storage
system is shown in Figure 1.1. Generally it consists of the following major
components: storage tank, refrigeration unit, water spraying system, hot water system,
evaporator plate and pipes connecting these units. The heat exchanger is used to cold
down the brine solution, which flows through the coil inside the evaporator plate.
During ice making phase, cold water is sprayed over the evaporator plates and,
partially converted into ice and rest will flow into the storage tank. The water is
withdrawn from the bottom of the tank and recirculated. The spray system is
continued until a desired thickness of ice layer is formed over the plate. After ice is
produced on the evaporator surface, it is harvested by sending the hot brine solution
through the coil inside the plate. Then ice separates from the surface of the evaporator
plate, and floats due to the density difference at the upper part of the tank for later use.

Condenser
2 x PLATE Spray
EVAPORAT water
FLOW Cold Brine OR
Expansion
valve
FLOW
Flow meter
Refrigerant Line Storage tank
Pump
Pump
Plate heat
exchanger
Compressor
Heater Hot water line
Pump
Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of a conventional ice storage system
1.2 Advantages of Ice Slurry Storage System
Ice storage techniques can be divided into two main groups, namely dynamic and
static types. In the static type, ice can be built directly on the evaporator coil and in the
dynamic type an ice slurry is produced. Ice slurry refers to a mixture of small ice
crystals and liquid. Slurry-ice does not suffer the disadvantages of ice bridging and ice
insulation effects found in the static types. As it comprises microscopic ice crystals,
the total surface area for heat exchange is very large in comparison with the
conventional ice builder concept. Ice slurry has high energy storage density because of
the latent heat of fusion of ice crystals .It has also a fast cooling rate due to the large
heat transfer surface created numerous crystals. The slurry-ice system is a dynamic
type ice storage system, which offers the pumpable characteristic advantage over the
static type ice storage system. In addition, due to compact design and the pumpable

characteristics offer tremendous flexibility for the location of the storage tank. The
storage tank can be placed at a convenient location of a building and can be in any
shape and size to match the building and architectural requirements.
1.3 Objectives of Research
In the proposed design, the configuration in which the coolant is directly injected by a
nozzle into water to produce ice slurry is described. It is chosen because of the fact that
direct contact heat transfer of the working fluid is likely to lead to possible
improvement of the heat transfer of the evaporator compared to the evaporator
producing ice on coil or ice harvester. The main objectives of the research are as
follows:
• Design and fabrication of an ice slurry storage and extraction system.
• Conduct of experiments to evaluate the performance of the system.
• Formulation of the mathematical model of the system and compares with
experimental data.
1.4 The Scope
An introduction to ice slurry storage system is included in chanpter-1. In chapter 2 of
the thesis survey of the published literature that is directly related to the ice slurry
storage and melting system is presented. A mathematical model for the system has
been formulated and presented in chapter-3. The detail of the experimental
investigation covering the design of nozzle, nozzle position, construction of the test

rig, the instrumentation, description of the setup, mode of operation and details of the
test carried out are presented in chapter 4. The performance of the system with three
different geometrical configuration of the nozzle is experimentally investigated under
different operating conditions, as described in chapter 5. This chapter also presents an
analysis of the experimental and simulation results, and includes a discussion.
Conclusions drawn from this study have been presented in chapter 6.

Chapter-2 Literature Review
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Ice slurry storage system can be used in industrial air-conditioning as well as domestic
cooling purposes, resulting in lower energy cost. Most of the building and industry is
running with the conventional air-conditioning systems. In the case of conventional ice
storage air-conditioning systems i.e. ice on coil or ice harvesting system, the efficiency
of ice formation tends to decrease with increasing ice layer, which acts as an insulator.
Recently, considerable attention has been devoted to application of pumpable ice
slurry for air-conditioning and district cooling purposes. Therefore, in order to find the
status of design, fabrication and development of an optimal system, review of previous
studies were undertaken, as the future course of study will depend on the current
status. The literature review on ice slurry production and storage system in conjunction
with air-conditioning applications is presented under three major areas.
1. Different method of ice slurry production, modeling and design aspects
2. Ice slurry flow heat transfer and characteristics
3. Advantages and cost savings resulting from use of the ice slurry system
2.1 Different method of ice slurry production, modeling and design
aspects
Wang and Kusumoto [3] discussed about ice slurry generation mechanism and
performance of ice slurry as well as operating principle of the ice slurry based thermal
energy storage system. The detail of the system design, control strategy and operating
performance has been carried out through a case study of Herbis Osaka building in
Japan. Kim et al. [4] examined the ice slurry production method by diffusion
controlled evaporation model. The prediction of the model was found to agree
relatively well with experiments in which they examined the conditions for a droplet of
initial temperature 200 C and size 50µm to change into an ice particle in a chamber of
height 1.33 m. From the experimental measurement of the shorter mean diameter
(SMD) of the spray, it becomes clear that the magnitude of the energy available for
cooling energy will increase in proportion to the number of spray nozzles. Based of the
result, they proposed an optimization chart to make transportable ice slurry using the
relation of the residence time of a droplet in the chamber, the injection pressure, the
spray droplets size and chamber pressure. Kiatsiriroat et al. [5] investigated the ice
formation around a jet of stream of refrigerant injected from the bottom of a water
column. Refrigerant jet stream was injected into water to produce ice and they
obtained the ice particles diameter in the range of 0.02-0.03 m. They used different
type of refrigerants, R-22, R-12, and R-134a and, among them, R-22 showed better
heat transfer resulting in quicker ice formation.
Kasza and Hayashi [6] addressed the development and experimental verification of a
newly developed instrumentation for measuring the presence and progression of ice
particle agglomeration in storage tank. They also described a method for reducing the
ice particle agglomeration. A sensor was used to measure the electrical resistance
associated with ice/water particle interactions caused by agglomeration. Sensor output
shows that the ice particles become agglomerated/frozen together in the outer regions
of the ice bed over a period of time during storage of slurry in tank. They also
explained that the agglomeration of the ice particle can be reduced by the ethylene

glycol that increase the surface smoothness of ice, hence, the contact pressure between
ice particles reduces, which reduces the tendency for particle contact points to melt
and refreeze. Kenneth and Kasza [7] developed a method to minimize and monitor
agglomeration and to improve the efficiency and controllability of extracting slurry
from tanks for distribution to cooling loads.
David and Knebel [8] examined the ice harvesting method for thermal energy storage
systems. He also discussed the operating characteristics of ice-harvesting equipment
using heat-initiated defrost cycles, the process of ice formation, a simplified model for
predicting ice-making performance, and defrost energy requirements. Babak et al. [9]
developed a numerical simulation model and determined the amount of time needed
for solidification of water around a circular cross-section coil. They analyzed the
transient phenomenon of water around a circular pipe. They found that the duration of
time for solidification of 10 mm of ice around 20 mm diameter pipe was 2609.4 sec.
Ismail et al. [10] developed a model to approximate the rate of ice crystal growth in
laminar developing falling film. Xu et al. [11] presented a paper dealing with the
generation of ice slurries by ultrasonic vibration. Experiments were conducted to study
the effect of bubble nuclei on the phase change from super cooled water to ice. They
summarized that ultrasonic vibration strongly promotes the phase change from
supercooled water to ice.
Kiatsiriroat et al. [12] studied an ice thermal storage having an injection of R-12
refrigerant into the water to exchange heat directly .They found that the performances
of the system depend on two factors, the compressor speed and the mass flow rate of
the refrigerant. The suitable conditions were 8-10 rps for the compressor speed and

0.04-0.06 kg/s for the mass flow rate. The coefficient of performance was about 3.4-
3.6 which is higher than that of the conventional system. Matsumoto et al. [13]
studied a new method of forming ice, which is one of the dynamic types of ice storage
system. In this method, a water-oil emulsion was cooled with stirring in a vessel and
changed into ice oil and water suspension. It was found that ice-oil and water
suspension (sluish ice), which has a good fluidity, is able to be formed without
adhering to the cooling surface. The suspension with the high IPF can be preserved for
a long time in the granular state.
Shin et al. [14] conducted experiments to produce ice particle by the process of
spraying water in a vacuum chamber. The theoretical aspect of the experiments was
investigated by the diffusion- controlled evaporation model. The cool energy storage
increased almost proportionally to the number of spray nozzles .From the experimental
result, they found the size of particles by spraying water droplets at ambient
temperature in the vacuum chamber, where pressure was maintained below the
freezing point of water. It was found that the spray flow rate influences the
performance of the system more than the position of spray nozzle. Choi et al. [15]
developed a new method for ice making by installing an evaporator plate inside within
a storage tank. The ice once formed on the surface will detach and move towards the
surface due to buoyancy effect. They found that new harvesting method showed better
heat transfer performance than the conventional method. They also investigated two
kinds of ice storage systems: (i) conventional and (ii) underwater ice harvesting
systems to study the thermal characteristic of ice storage tanks.

Stewart and Gute [16] developed a model to predict ice filling and ice melting
processes for a rectangular storage tank. The models described the geometry and
quantity of ice filling a rectangular storage tank and calculate the exit tank water
temperature as a function of time. Kiatsiriorat et al. [17] studied the heat transfer
characteristics of a direct contact evaporator using R12 and R22. A cold phase
refrigerant (R12 or R22) was injected into water in a storage tank to exchange heat
with the water directly. The lumped parameter model was used to predict the water
temperature. A correlation that relates the dimensionless parameters, such as Stanton
number, Stephan number, Prandtle number and pressure ratio, was also developed.
They found higher heat transfer coefficient with direct contact heat transfer technique.
Chen et al. [18] investigated the nucleation probability of super cooled water inside
cylindrical capsules.
Douglas et al. [19] presented mathematical model and numerical algorithms necessary
to simulate the ice manufacturing and ice-filling processes for thermal energy storage.
They implemented a computer program, entitled ICEPAC, that can be used by thermal
energy storage tank designers to (a) minimize the overall dimension of the tank needed
for a given cooling capacity, (b) control the location of the voids, (c) determined the
optimum location and dimension of the ice maker opening, and (d) ascertain the
minimum water level required to fill the tank with ice. Stewart et al. [20] also
presented a mathematical model and numerical simulation for melting of ice
particulates stored in a rectangular storage tank. The programs predicted the total time
for melting the ice in the stored tank. The programs were also used to simulate the
melting behavior and exit water temperature of a full-size, typical commercial thermal
storage tank.

Musgrove [21] described the optimum operation of an ice storage air conditioning
system under a time of use electricity tariff. It also described the control operation of
chiller set based on rated power and COP. Stewart et al. [22] studied the melting
behavior of a porous bed of ice in a rectangular storage tank. They reported that the
uniform inlet water distribution yields a nearly constant heat transfer and ice-melting
rate throughout the period of ice melt in the storage tank, with only a small increase in
the outlet water temperature. Inaba et al. [23] carried out an experiment to make
continuous ice formation inside a tube. They also examined the critical condition of ice
formation and stability of supercooled water flowing in cooling tubes under various
Reynolds numbers. It was established that two modes ice growth, an annular ice and a
dendritic ice appeared in the tube according to the degree of supercooling. They
derived the non-dimensional correlation equations for ice nucleation in laminar flow
and turbulent flow regions as a function of the thermal boundary layer thickness and
the characteristics length. Jekel et al. [24] presented a mathematical model of static ice
storage for both charging and discharging periods. The model presented the tank
operation during charging and discharging with the use of two parameters:
effectiveness and latent capacity fraction.
2.2 Ice slurry flow heat transfer and characteristics
Andrej and Poredos [25] reported that the viscosity of ice slurry depends on average
concentration, velocity, pipe diameter, and ice-particle size. The results of the analysis
revealed that ice slurry can be treated as Newtonian fluid at higher average velocities
and lower average concentrations. They also performed district cooling with the use of
ice slurry and encountered no operational difficulties. Tanino and Kozawa [26]
described the characteristics of ice-water two-phase flow created in a supercooling –

type ice storage system. Hayashi and Kasza [27] determined the influence of a freezing
point depressant on ice slurry characteristics in both the macro scale (ice slurry
fluidity) and micro scale (ice particle feature). They mentioned that slurry fluidity
(macro scale) greatly influenced by the surface roughness which was altered by
additives used for the freezing point depression. Phanikumar and Bhaskarwar [28]
analyzed the enhancement of heat transfer using ice slurry, which was based on three
models, namely, the thermal penetration model, the surface renewal model and the
film model. An analytical expression was presented from the average heat transfer
based on the theory of Brownian motion of particles. The study also found that the
enhancement in heat transfer was independent of the thermodynamic model developed.
Takahashi et al. [29] measured the pressure losses and pressure fluctuation for ice
slurry flowing through the horizontal pipe. The ice fraction range of the experiments
was up to 5%. The maximum amplitude of pressure fluctuation for ice slurry flow was
found to be approximately equal to that for clear water flow at lower velocities. On the
other hand, pressure fluctuations were smaller than those for clear water flows at
higher velocities.
Snoek et al. [30] discussed ice slurry transport for district cooling networks. Ice slurry
was made in 8% ethylene glycol brine; reproducible pressure drop measurements were
obtained for a range of flow velocities and ice fractions. The results indicated that
mixture fraction increased gradually with an increasing ice fraction. At an ice fraction
of 0.25, the minimum pressure gradient occurred at a mixture velocity of
approximately 0.9 m/s. Toth [31] analyzed the district cooling system, in which the
water or a glycol/water mixture was cooled by ammonia chillers, and distributed to
users for air conditioning. Bahnfleth and Joyce [32] presented a case study of energy

use in a large district cooling system at a U.S. university. The university’s chilled
water system served 65 buildings with more than 279,000 m 2 of air-conditioned space
and a peak cooling load in excess of 42,200 kW. Chilled water was produced at three
central plans by seven electric-motor-driven centrifugal chillers varying in capacity
from 4,220 kW to 14,068 kW. Nine variables-speed- pumps with total rating of 1,865
kW circulate chilled water through more than 16 kilometers of distribution piping.
Doron et al. [33] investigated the hydraulic transport of coarse particles of horizontal
tubes. A physical model for the prediction of the pressure drop and flow pattern was
presented. The proposed model compared favorably with other existing correlations.
Smith et al. [34] developed an analytical model for calculating volumetric heat transfer
coefficients for direct evaporation. Heat transfer was model using single droplet
correlations for the Nusselt number, while the fluid dynamics was described by a drift-
flux model. The analysis was divided into a preagglomerative and postagglomerative
stage on the basis of an assumed maximum value for the dispersed volume fraction.
Song et al. [35] presented a population-balance model to predict the volumetric heat
transfer coefficient for direct contact evaporation in a bubble column. The model was
based on the energy balance and the population balance. Growth and breakage of
droplets are taken into account in the model. Experimental data for the volumetric heat
transfer coefficient obtained in a column of 0.114 m diameter were used to validate the
model.
Song et al. [36] presented a simple model on direct contact heat transfer between two
immiscible liquids in a countercurrent spray column and obtained the numerical
solution with the variable step Runge-kutta method. Alex et al. [37] developed an ice-

on-coil thermal energy storage (TES) system for both charging and discharging modes.
They also analyzed the basic heat transfer characteristics of charging and discharging
modes from the model .The output of the cooling charge model was the volume of ice
in the TES tank and the cooling charge rate. The output results of the cooling
discharge model showed that the tank bulk water temperatures were within 5% of the
experimental values.
2.3 Advantages and cost savings resulting from use of the ice slurry
system
Tassiou and Leung [38] presented the results of an investigation to examine feasibility
study of the application of ice storage system for air-cooling of office building. Annual
total energy cost, capital cost and operating cost were compared among four different
strategies considered. Finally, they recommended the off peak storage system with
cold air distribution as the maximum energy saving strategy for both commercial and
office buildings. Inaba et al. [39] discussed about the continuous ice making system in
a cooling pipe and ice storage system using off-peak electricity during night time.
They highlighted that, the ice formation in the pipe is better than that of ice formation
on the wire mesh from super cooled water.
Chatchawan et al. [40] developed a computer model in order to compare energy use in
conventional air-cooling systems and ice thermal storage systems. They showed that
the full ice thermal storage can save up to 55% of the electricity cost required for
cooing per month when compared with conventional system. For the selected building,
5% reduction in energy consumption has been found. Pipette [41] analyzed the

measured performance on an existing ice storage system in a large office building. The
assessment was based upon the monitoring of the cooling load, compressor electricity
use, chilled water pump electricity use, and the whole building electricity use, each
measured in a particular time intervals. The electricity cost of the actual system,
compared with what they would have been with the conventional system without ice
storage, was evaluated. The study highlighted the need for greater attention to
integrated cooling load sizing method.
Matsuki et al. [42] analyzed electricity consumption in office building for air
conditioning. They investigated a model equipped with ice storage system and radiant
cooling system. They also compared radiant cooling system with three other systems
namely radiant without ice storage, convection with ice storage, and convection
without ice storage. They stressed on load leveling aspects, energy saving aspects,
operating costs, initial cost, and year to payback. Bhansali and Hittle [43] estimated
energy consumption and operating cost for ice storage systems with cold air
distribution. They discussed the use of cold air distribution systems in conjunction
with ice storage as a means to further reduce peak power and energy consumption. An
assessment was made whether energy or cost saving could be achieved when applying
these systems to prototype office building in six different climate regions. They found
that the use of ice storage systems with cold air distribution resulted in the lowest
operating cost.
Gregor et al. [44] described simulation-based results of an investigation of a
commercial cooling plant with an ice storage system. Various ice storage systems,
chiller compressors, and building types were analyzed under four different control

strategies. In order to determine the need of improvement and to enhance cost saving
potential of ice storage system, three conventional controls i.e. chiller-priority,
constant–proportion, and storage-priority control has been investigated. They reported
that all conventional controls improve their performance when slowly recharging
during off-peak periods to contain off-peak demand. Kirby et al. [45, 46] presented a
summery of an engineering and economic evaluation, which lead to the decision to
install the slurry system. During the summer/fall of 1998, a 380-ton ice slurry
generating system was installed to cool the Stuart C. Siegel center, a 57912 square-
meter basketball arena and athletic complex at Virginia Commonwealth University in
Richmond, Virginia. The arena has a seating capacity of 7,500 people and the total
complex peak design-cooling load is 1,290 tons. They produced ice slurry at night and
stored into a tank. The implementation of the ice system provided an annual operating
cost savings of approximately US$75,000 due to the savings in demand charges.
Mahmood et al. [47] presented an introductory overview of thermal energy storage
(TES) technologies with a conventional air conditioning system comparing phase
change (e.g. ice) and sensible heat (e.g. chilled water) storage technology. It was
anticipated that TES will reduce the peak cooling-load demand by approximately (30–
40%) and the peak electrical demand by approximately (10–20%). An economic study
has been presented to illustrate the feasibility of TES based air conditioning in Saudi
Arabia. Bakenhus [48] conducted a research and development study on issues related
to implementing ice thermal storage system to increase the turbine generating capacity
from approximately 53.1 MW at inlet air conditions of ( 37.70 C) to 67.1MW by
reducing the inlet air temperatures to the turbine to 4.90 C. The avoided cost on the
capacity gained was in excess of $100/kW as compared to new simple cycle. A

secondary benefit of the project was the improvement in heat transfer for the output of
the turbine.
Wayne [49] published a paper on ice storage cooling for a campus expansion in
Lawrenceville. Four primary HVAC systems were evaluated for their energy
conservation and utility cost reduction. The four systems were high efficiency electric
centrifugal chillers with ice storage, direct fired absorption chillers, high efficiency
electric centrifugal chillers, and electric rotary screw fired absorption chillers with ice
storage. It was determined that the use of ice storage for shifting HVAC loads from on
peak to off peak hours allowed the building management system to control the time of
energy use. This saved, the owner operating costs and, also, helped the utility company
to avoid expensive peaking cost both in generating capacity and in transmission
capacity. Ice storage also allowed periodic maintenance of the chiller in the cooling
season, while satisfying the building loads by melting ice.
Ross [50] presented a paper on the ice storage system for a school complex in the
Collier County Public School District in Naples, Fla. The ice storage system shifted
summer and winter power requirements to off peak hours. Ice storage also enabled the
use of cheaper off-peak electric rates over its life cycle. This paper concluded that
thermal energy ice storage systems are capable of saving energy cost when a utility
offers a lower rate for it’s off peak energy charge. Although the ice thermal storage
system uses more energy than its conventional chiller plant system, the energy is used
during off peak times, which results in overall lower costs. O’Neal [51] did study on
the state of Florida regional services center, which implemented an ice storage thermal
system. The plant saved the owner over $420,200 in electricity, water, sewer and
maintenance costs over a period of 3 years.

Ice thermal energy storage system is an effective and cost saving technology to reduce
the maximum daytime cooling load on the chillers and is known to be low temperature
energy storage system. In the case of conventional ice storage systems i.e. ice on coil
or ice harvesting system, the efficiency of ice formation tends to decrease with
increasing ice layer, which acts as an insulator. Similarly, energy removal performance
also decreases with increasing melt layer. In these systems, the ice is held captive and
melted in the storage tank to satisfy the cooling demand in the form of piped chilled
water. This is due to the difficulties in transporting the ice. Therefore, recently,
attention has been paid to ice slurry because of their usefulness for transportation in
air-conditioning systems. Moreover, the cooling capacity of ice slurries can be up to
five times higher than that of the conventional chilled water. The increased cooling
capacity of ice-slurry results in lower systems flow rates, smaller pipe diameter, less
air transportation and lower capacity fan motors. In addition, ice slurry based air
conditioning permits the design of air-conditioning systems with very compact central
ice storage facilities. These advantages have created considerable interest in ice slurry
based air-conditioning systems. In ice slurry storage system, direct contact heat
transfers are often used for heat transfer purposes. In this process, coolant is directly
injected into water. This project deals with the design of direct contact ice-slurry
storage and melting system for the improvement of the heat transfer process and
resultant increase in cooling capacity.

Chapter-3 The Experiments
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTS
In this experimental study, ice slurry production and storage system was designed,
fabricated and tested. The major components of the system were glass column/tank,
cold bath, progressive cavity pump, centrifugal pump, flow meter, a storage tank for
ice slurry and a shell and tube heat exchanger. In ice slurry production and storage
system, direct contact heat transfer and freezing of binary solution were used for heat
transfer purposes. In the direct contact process, coolant was directly injected into
water. This project deals with the generation of ice slurry through direct contact heat
transfer, freezing of binary solution and the circulation of this ice slurry for space
cooling application. The details of the system have been explained in the following
section.
3.1 Description of the Setup
A schematic diagram and a photograph of the experimental set-up are shown in
Figures 3.1 and 3.2, respectively. The system is located in the fifth floor of Thermal
Process Laboratory in the Mechanical Engineering department at the National
University of Singapore. The details of the systems are explained in the following
sections.

Screw Pump
Valve
Flow (i)
TC
Meter
(ii) TC
TC
Shell & Tube TC Cold Bath
Flow Heat Water
Meter Exchanger
(iii)
TC Coolant Flow
Pump
Meter
TC
Valve
Ice-Slurry Storage Tank Tap Water Tank Pump
Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of the set-up
Figure 3.2 A photograph of the experimental set-up

3.1.1 Water Tank/Glass Column
The water tank was a glass column of 1 meter in length and 152.4mm in diameter as
shown in Figure 3.3. The tank has an end section with two outlets, one for coolant inlet
and other for coolant outlet . Two ends of the glass cylinder were sealed with two brass
plates those were held in place by metal flanges. Gaskets sandwiched between the
glass surface and the brass plates helped to make the cylinder leak proof. Two brass
plate and cylinder of the glass column were carefully insulated to minimise heat losses
to the ambient, as shown in Figure 3.4. The end cover of the glass column was made of
borosilicate glass.
Insulated glass
tank/column
Figure 3.3A photograph of glass tank Figure 3.4 A photograph of insulated glass tank
3.1.2 Coolant Path
The coolant used for direct contact heat transfer with the water is Flourinert FC-84.
This fluid was not only insoluble in water but also much denser than water with a
density of 1730 kg/m3 and a low freezing point of - 950C. There was a bypass line
from the exit of the pump in the coolant suction line, which control the flow rate of
coolant. The suction and injection line of the coolant was insulated to prevent heat
losses from the coolant to ambient. A coldbath was used to cool the FC-84 circulating

through it. FC-84 is cooled as it passes through a cooling coil submergered in the cold
bath.
3.1.3 Centrifugal Pump and Flow Meter
Two centrifugal pumps were used, one was to circulate the FC-84 and other for the
heat exchanger shell side cooling water. Each pump had a capacity of 372.85 Watt
and a maximum pressure head of 40m. The pumps were provided with shock absorber
to reduce vibration. Two flowmeters were installed to measure the flow rate of the FC-
84 coolant and the flow rate of melted ice water slurry. The flow rate of the coolant
can then be controlled by a globe valve placed on the bypass across the pump. A
photograph of the pump and the flow metere is shown in Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.6,
respectively.
Figure 3.5 A photograph of centrifugal pump Figure 3.6 Flow meter
3.1.4 Shell and tube heat exchanger
In the present system, a shell and tube type two-phase flow heat exchanger has been
used. There were 72 tubes of the heat exchanger and each of 5 mm diameters. The
total length of the shell was 500 mm and diameter was 400 mm. Three baffle plates
have been placed inside the shell to get the better heat transfer performance. The

position of the baffle plate was at the middle of the shell length. Fluid inlet has been
fixed at the top of the shell and outlet at the other topside of the shell. In this
experimental set-up, tap water was supplied from the storage tank to the shell side and
ice slurry was supplied to the tube side. A progressive cavity positive displacement
pump was used to supply the ice slurry and a centrifugal pump was used to supply the
tap water as shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7 A photograph of shell and tube heat exchanger
Ice slurry flowing through the tubes releases the latent heat first and then the sensible
heat, thereby, reducing cooling water temperature supplied from the storage tank.
Further details of the components are included in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Components specification
1. Glass cylinder
a. Length (L) and Diameter: L=1m, OD=162.5 mm, ID=152.4
b. Tank Material Borosilicate glass
Mean thermal conductivity λ=1.3 W/m K
Mean specific heat capacity CP=910 J/kg K
Coefficient of mean thermal conductivity
α=(3.3±0.1) x10-6 K-1, Density=2230 kg/m3
c. Insulation Material, Rubberflex, Thickness 12 mm
Thermal conductivity of 0.03 W/mK.
2. Cold Bath
a. Overall Dimension : 38x46x74cm
b. Bath weight : 45 kg
c. Cooling capacity : 700W, 550W, 300W at 20oC, 0oC and –
20oC respectively
3. Pump
a. Power : 372.85 W
b. Maximum pressure head : 40m
c. Maximum flow rate :40 l/min
4. Shell and tube heat exchanger
a. Tube diameter : 5 mm
b. Total number of tube : 72
b. Material : Tube material was Aluminum
: Shell material was cast iron.
5. Ice Storage tank/melted slurry storage tank
a. Material : Acrylic Perspex
b. Dimension (LxWxH) : 500mmx300mmx400mm

3.1.5 Progressive cavity pump
For the present system, a positive displacement progressive cavity pump was used for
the extraction of ice slurry, as shown in Figure 3.8. It was a sigle single screw pump,
was used for highly viscous liquids with significant amounts of solids. Maximum flow
rate of the pump was 20 liter per minute. There was a by pass line at the pump inlet,
which control the flow rate of the ice slurry extraction from the glass tank. The ice
slurry enters into the pump through the suction pipe which was flexible hose. Flexible
pipe was used for the suction of ice slurry just to avoid the vibration of the pump into
the system and to minimise the heat loss because,
the rubber hose has lower thermal conductivity than the copper tube. The suction line
was insulated.
Figure 3.8 Photograph of the positive displacement screw pump

3.1.6 Cooling coil, secondary refrigerant, and the cold bath
A cold bath was used in the experimental sut-up to maintain the cooling process
between the coolant and water, as shown in Figure 3.9. Copper tubing of diameter 15
mm wound to make the spiral coil of the cold bath. The length of of the wounded coil
was 5m and it was coiled into 14 circular coils. The number of coils will ensure
sufficient heat exchange between the brine and the coolant flowing through the coils.
Copper was chosen because of its relatively high thermal conductivity, thus, improving
the heat exchange rate.
Cooling coil
Figure 3.9 A photograph of the cooling coil and cold bath

The cold bath was filled with a 50% ethylene glycol and 50% water solution to chill
the coolant flowing through the immersed cooling coil. Thus composition of brine
allows a freezing point of as low as –30oC. High concentration glycol solution was
chosen because it has proven to be a very efficient freezing point depressant and
incompustible, thus, safe for usage. The function of cold bath was to chill the 50%
glycol solution, which in turn chill the FC-84 flowing through the coil.
3.2 Instrumentation
Fourteen T-types (copper-constantan) thermocouples were used to measure the
temperature of the coolant and ice slurry at different locations of the experimental set-
up, as shown Figure 3.1. The measured temperatures in the experiment include inlet
and outlet coolant temperature, temperature of water, inlet and outlet temperature of
the fluid passing through the heat exchanger and flow rate of the coolant. The glass
column was also fitted with T-type thermocouples for the measurement of water
temperature. A thermocouple pen was introduced, instead of the thermocouple probe,
as the probe tends to serve as a nucleation site for ice formation. Pen was basically a
thermocouple wire fitted with a metal tube to serve as a weight near the measuring
end. The thermocouple pen can be manually shifted to different location along the
water column and can be easily removed when ice formation takes place. Four
thermocouples were used to measure the inlet and out let temperature of the coolant
from the evaporator and the cold bath. The temperature measurements for both heat
exchanger fluids were made at inlet and out let of the heat exchanger using T-type
thermocouples. A flow meter was mounted near the progressive cavity pump to
measure the flow rate of of the ice slurry. The coolant flow rate was measured by

means of a magnetic flow meter. For the acquisition of the data, an automatic data
logging system was used. All the temperatures were monitored continously and stored
at 5 mintues interval in the data logger for ice slurry production part and, for extraction
part, at the interval of 5 sec.
3.3 Direct Contact Heat Transfer Method
The test rig was designed and constructed in a manner that allowed the testing of ice
slurry gerneration with FC-84 and circulation of ice slurry through the shell and tube
heat exchanger. The experiments carried out with this method may be broadly grouped
into three categories. These were (i) Mode of Operation, (ii) Estimation of mean drop
size and (iii) Estimation of residence time
3.3.1 Mode of Operation
Experiments were conducted at three different modes of operation. It was observed
that one of the most important design considerations was the location of the coolant
nozzle. The system included nozzle location at three different positions: (i) at the top,
above water surface, (ii) at the top inside water surface and (iii) at the bottom, inside
coolant, as shown in Figure 3.1. For position (i), nozzle injects the coolant vertically
downward as a shower spray. In the arrangement (i), as shown in Figure 3.1, there
was no contact between the water and the nozzle and, therefore, the freezing of water
around the nozzle was eliminated. However, as the ice slurry formed, it tends to move
to the surface of water in the tank, some coolant drops get entrapped in the slurry. As a
result, some ice slurry move towards the bottom of the glass column, as coolant gets
entrapped in the ice slurry. In the second arrangement, position (ii), the nozzle

submerged in water and the spray was directed upward at an angle with the vertical of
the tank and nozzle operated is fountain spray mode. However, in this case, due to
direct contact between the coolant and water tends to cause ice agglomeration around
the nozzle, which blocks the coolant flow. Finally, in third arrangement, positions (iii),
where the nozzle was submerged in the coolant at the bottom of the tank and the
coolant was sprayed vertically upward. There was no contact between water and
coolant nozzle and this was the most important consideration made in this
arrangement. Therefore, clogging of nozzle and sinking down of ice slurry were
minimized. Moreover, in this arrangement, the slurry easily separated from the coolant
as they move in opposite directions. The different mode of nozzle assembly has been
described below.
3.3.1.1 Nozzle at the top: Shower spray
This spray nozzle was fabricated using a PVC pipe, external end cap and male
connector. The nozzle was 180 mm long with the end cap diameter of 30 mm. The
nozzle has 16 spray holes of 4 mm diameter, as shown in Figure 3.10 (a). For this
spray mode of operation, flow pattern of the coolant has been shown in Figure 3.10
(b). Figure 3.10(c) shows the droplet generation by shower spray nozzle. As shown in
Figure 3.10 (c), the droplets only follow the central section of the glass column.
(a) Photograph of shower nozzle

Nozzle
Water
Coolant
Droplets
Coolant
(b) Shower flow pattern (c) Drop generation
Figure 3.10 Shower spray nozzle assembly
3.3.1.2 Nozzle at the top: Fountain spray
Figure 3.11 illustrates the Fountain spray assembly. The nozzle was fabricated using a
13 mm PVC pipe, reducer, internal end cap and male connector. The nozzle length was
easily adjustable and 8 spray holes at an angle of 100 to the vertical were drilled
circumferencially. Figures 3.11(a) and 3.11 (b) show a photograp of the fountain
nozzle and holes distribution of the nozzle, respectively. Figure 3.11 (c) shows the
nozzle assembly with the glass column. In this spray mode of operation, flow pattern
of coolant has been shown in Figure 3.11 (d). Figure 3.11 (e) shows the droplet
generation by the fountain spray nozzle. As shown in Figure 3.11 (e), the droplets were
uniformly distributed in the glass column.
The coolant was sprayed upwards in a jet stream before falling into distributed droplets
under gravity towards the bottom of the water column. Due to the nature of the spray,

it allows the coolant to have a longer time of contact with the water than the previous
method. This is considered important for the process of direct contact heat transfer as a
substantial amount of time of direct contact of coolant with water was required for
efficient heat transfer.
Adjustable
Length
8 spray holes
(a) Photograph of fountain nozzle (b) Fountain nozzle design
(c) Fountain spray nozzle
(d) Fountain flow pattern (e) Dropdistribution
Figure 3.11 Fountain spray sozzle assembly

3.3.1.3 Injection from bottom
Experiment were carried out with three different nozzle placed at the bottom of the
tank. The nozzle was submerged into the coolant and just below the water-coolant
inerface. To avoid the contact between the nozzle and water, the nozzle was placed
inside the coolant in such a way that water can not come with contact with the nozzle,
when turbulence starts due to the injection of coolant into water. Among these three
nozzles, first nozzle was fabricated using a 20 mm external end cap PVC pipe, and
male connector. The nozzle has 3 spray holes of 1.5 mm diameter, as shown in Figure
3.12 (a). The second nozzle was made of 20 mm PVC pipe with end cap and male
connector. This nozzle has only one spray hole of 1.5 mm diameter, as shown in
Figure 3.12 (b) .The third nozzle was fabricated with the copper tube of 3 mm
diameter and 1 spray hole, as shown in Figure 3.12 (c). The coolant was sprayed
vertically upward with a stream of jet into water. Among these three nozzles, first and
second nozzle was incapable of producing sufficient amount of ice slurry. Thrid nozzle
enabled to inject the coolant into water to produce sufficient amount of ice slurry.
Figures 3.12 (d) shows the droplet generation of the present systems.
(c)
(b)
(a)
3 mm copper tube nozzle
1 hole nozzle
3 hole nozzle
(a) & (b) PVC nozzle (c) Copper tube nozzle at the bottom
Figure 3.12 Nozzle assembly at the botttom of the tank

Water
Coolant droplet
Nozzle
Coolant
(d) Droplet generation
Figure 3.12 Nozzle assembly at the botttom of the tank (Contd)
3.3.1.4 Test procedure
In order obtain the thermal performance under different operating conditions, a series
of experiments were conducted on the systems. The first two experiments were carried
out using a shower spray nozzle and fountain spray nozzle assembly . The second
experiment were carried with a nozzle at the position of the bottom of the glass
cylinder. The following test procedures for all cases were followed during the
experiment. At the beginning of the experiment, the glass column was first filled with
12 littres water and 10 littres FC-84. Then pump was activated for a minute to preset
the flow rate and also prevent the presence of water in the pipe before heat exchanger
was switched on. At the same time, one data logger was preset to register temperature
reading at a scan interval of 5 minutes and other data logger was preset to 5 sec
interval. Turned on all the sensors and checked all the sensors points whether

functioning properly. When the heat exchanger reached –150C, data logger was
switched on to begin the experiment. At the same time, the centrifugal pump for
coolant injection was also switched on to inject the coolatnt into water. The process is
continued and untill ice formation takes place. After ice formation took place upto a
desire concentration, the pump of coolant injection was switched off and positive
displacement pump for ice slurry extraction was switched on. For extraction purpose,
preset the flow of the progressive cavity displacement and then switch on the pump for
circulation of ice slurry through the heat exchanger. If the flow rate of the progressive
cavity pump exceed the preset flow, then adjusted with the by pass pump manually. At
the end of each run, the water in the shell and tube heat exchanger was flushed out
before starting of the next run.
3.3.2 Estimation of the mean drop size
The drop size of the coolant was measured by using a video recorder. It was not
possible to measure the drop size under experimental condition because of moisture
condensation on the glass cylinder, the presence of ice particles in the water and
intense mixing in cylinder. During the drop size measurement, the glass column was
zoomed to the same width of television screen for better visualization of the droplets
size. After recording the drop movement, the video was reviewed to evaluate the
average size of the drop diameter. The recorded experiment was analyzed frame by
frame to allow the measurement of each individual coolant droplet on the television
screen. A sample size of 50 was taken to compute the average diameter of the coolant
droplets. The mean drop diameter is used for computational purposes due to a
considerable spread in diameter.

0.50
0.45 Nozzle at Top
Flow Rate = 4l/min
0.40
Mean = 0.33cm
0.35 Std Deviation = 0.03cm
0.30
Frequency
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
Drop Diameter,cm
Figure 3.13 Frequency distribution of drop diameter for flow rate of

0.30
Nozzle at Top
0.25
Flow Rate = 6l/min
Mean = 0.47cm
Frequency
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
Drop Diameter,cm

Figures 3.13 and 3.14 show the frequency distribution of drop diameter with the
fountain spray nozzle assembly located at top of the cylinder for the flow rate of 4
l/min and 6 l/min, respectively. Figures 3.15 and 3.16 show the frequency distribution
of drop diameter with the shower spray nozzle assembly at the top of the cylinder for
the flow rate of 4 l/min and 6 l/min, respectively. The bulk distribution of the coolant
drop size was in the region of 0.3 cm to 0.4 cm for a flow rate of 4 l/min and 0.45 cm
to 0.6 cm for a flow rate of 6 l/min. Figures 3.17 and 3.18 show the frequency
distribution of drop diameter with the nozzle assembly at the bottom of the cylinder for
the flow rate of 8 l/min and 10 l/min, respectively. The bulk distribution of the coolant
drop size was in the region of 0.12 cm to 0.2 cm for a flow rate of 8 l/min and 0.15cm
to 0.25 cm for a flow rate of 10 l/min. Due to considerable spread in the drop diameter
the mean drop size is used for the computational purpose.
0.6
Nozzle at Top
0.5 Flow Rate = 4 l /min
Mean = 0.35 cm
Frequency
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Drop diameter,cm

0.4
0.35 Nozzle at Top

Flow Rate = 6 l /min
0.3 Mean = 0.45 cm
Frequency
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Drop Diameter, cm
0.45
Nozzle at Bottom
0.40
Flow Rate = 8l/min
0.35 Mean = 0.18cm
Std Deviation = 0.03cm
0.30
Frequency
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.000 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200 0.250 0.300
Drop Diameter,cm
Figure 3.17 Frequency distribution of drop diameter for flow rate of 8 l/min;

0.35
Nozzle at Bottom
0.30
Flow Rate = 10l/min
Mean = 0.22cm
0.25
Std Deviation = 0.04cm
Frequency
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.000 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200 0.250 0.300 0.350
Drop Diameter,cm
Figure 3.18 Frequency distribution of drop diameter for flow rate of 10 l/min;
The mean drop size is 0.33 cm for nozzle diameter of 0.4 cm, 0.47 cm for nozzle
diameter of 0.6 cm, 0.18cm for nozzle diameter 0.3 cm and 0.22 cm for fountain spray
nozzle diameter of 0.3 cm for the flow rates of 4 l/min, 6 l/min, 8 l/min and 10 l/min,
respectively. However, the present experimental data could not be compared with
other investigations as this coolant was used for the first time.
3.3.3 Estimation of residence time
The residence time of the coolant droplets was measured by using a stopwatch. The
time taken for the coolant drops to travel up and, subsequently, down to the bottom of
the glass column was recorded for individual droplet. A total of 50 reading were taken
and average computed to obtain a mean value of the residence time of the coolant
droplets. It should be noted, due to intense mixing and moisture condensation on the
glass cylinder, the residence time was calculated under same conditions but with out
cooling. To observe clearly the path of droplets, it was necessary to avoid the

0.45
Nozzle at Top
0.40
Flow Rate = 4 l/min
0.35 Mean = 4.2sec
Frequency
0.30 Std Deviation = 0.470s
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Residence Time,sec
Figure 3.19 Frequency distribution of droplet residence time for flow rate
of 4 l/min; (Fountain spray nozzle, diameter 6 mm)
0.45
0.40 Nozzle at Top
0.35 Flow Rate = 6 l/min
Mean = 3.9sec
Frequency
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50
Residence Time,sec
Figure 3.20 Frequency distribution of droplet residence time for flow
rate of 6 l/min;(Fountain spray nozzle, diameter 6 mm)
condensation and turbulent mixing in the cylinder. For these reason, the residence time
was measured by switching on the pump manually with a certain interval. The

frequency distribution of residence time is shown in Figures 3.17 to 3.22. The
residence time also shows a spread. This is because the drops take different trajectories
through the water before reaching the coolant liquid pool at the bottom. A total of 10
recordings were taken and the average was computed to obtain a mean value of the
residence time of the coolant droplets. Figures 3.19 and 3.20 illustrate the frequency
distribution of residence time with the fountain spray nozzle assembly at top for the
flow rate of 4 l/min and 6 l/min, respectively. Figures 3.21 and 3.22 illustrate the
frequency distribution of residence time with the shower spray nozzle assembly at the
top of the cylinder for the flow rate of 4 l/min and 6 l/min, respectively. Figures 3.23
and 3.24 show the frequency distribution of residence time with the nozzle assembly at
bottom for the flow rate of 8 l/min and 10 l/min, respectively. The mean
0.45
0.4 Nozzle at Top
Flow Rate = 4 l /min
0.35
Mean = 3.8sec
0.3 Std Deviation = 0.410sec
Frequency
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Residence time, sec

rate of 4 l/min;(Shower spray nozzle, diameter 6 mm)

0.45
0.4 Nozzle at Top
Flow Rate = 6 l/min
0.35
Mean = 3.6sec
Frequency 0.3 Std Deviation = 0.312sec
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Residence time, sec

rate of 6 l/min;(Shower spray nozzle, diameter 6 mm)
0.6
Nozzle at Bottom
0.5 Flow Rate = 8 l/min
Mean = 3.8sec
Frequency
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Residence Time,sec


0.50
0.45 Nozzle at Bottom
0.40 Flow Rate = 10 l /min
0.35 Mean = 3.70sec
Std Deviation = 0.478s
Frequency 0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Residence Time,sec
residence time was 4.2 sec for the flow rate 4 l/min, 3.9 sec for the flow rate 6 l/min,
with the nozzle assembly at fountain spray mode operation. The mean residence time
for the nozzle at the bottom was 3.8 sec for nozzle diameter of 0.3 cm and 3.7 sec for
nozzle diameter of 0.3 cm for the flow rates of 8 l/min and 10 l/min, respectively. It is
seen that the residence time decreases with the increase in flow rate. This is due to the
higher velocity of the coolant drop resulting from the nozzle tip.
3.4 Freezing of Binary Solution
This experiment aimed to test the quality and efficiency of the method of ice slurry
production by freezing a binary solution. At the beginning of the experiment, the glass
column was filled with the binary solution and the cold bath was set to – 15o C. The
binary solutions were prepared by mixing 10 liters of water with 7% of ethylene
glycol. The solutions were circulated as the cold bath cools to a preset

Binary solution
flow line
Figure 3.25 Flow circuit of the binary solution
temperature of –15oC. This was done to avoid the freezing in the piping (which causes
clogging) as the cooling process continued. The circulation process continued until ice
formation took place without any spray nozzle. Ice slurry was therefore, expected to
form, when the temperature of the solution reached approximately, -2.6οC, for the
known concentration of binary solution. The flow circuit of ethylene glycol solution
for ice slurry generation is in Figure 3.25. In this method two suction ports were used
for the binary solution circulation placed at the bottom of the glass cylinder. The
solution were circulated through the cooling coil submerged into the cold bath unit ice
formation took place. The flow rate of the binary solution can be controlled with the
bypass line placed at the pump inlet. The temperature of the binary solution at different
position of the test rig were recorded at 5-minute intervals.

3.5 Accuracy of Measurments and Uncertainty Analysis
To evaluate the thermal performance of the system a series of measurements were
made to evaluate temperature and flow rate. The accuracy of measurement and
uncertainty are discussed in Appendix C and results are shown in below. The
uncertainity analysis was been done according to Moffat’s [69] procedure. The detail
procedure of the uncertainity analyswas has been given in Appendix C.
Sensors Uncertainity
T-type thermocouples ±0.1%
Coolant flow meter (6-10%)
Ice slurry and cooling medium flow meter ±1.5%
Heat flux (W/m2) ±2.25%
Ovarall heat trasfer coefficients (W/m2 K) ±10.13%

Chapter-4 Theoretical Developments
CHAPTER 4
MATHEMATICAL MODEL FORMULATION
In the present study, two different mathematical models have been developed for ice
slurry production using direct contact heat transfer. First method has been developed to
determine the variation of water temperature and ice formation rate in the glass column
by using Fluorinert liquid, FC-84. The second method has been developed for direct
contact heat transfer process using ethylene glycol and water mixture through the cold
bath. This method predicts the water temperature variation along the tube length and
ice formation rate. The validity of these methods has been proven by comparing the
analytical results with those experimental values. In the last section of this chapter, few
correlations have been used to investigate the ice slurry heat transfer characteristics
through the heat exchanger for the applications of district cooling or space cooling
purposes.
4.1 Physical Arrangement of Direct Contact Method
A brief description of the system would be helpful for a better understanding for the
mathematical model included here. Basically, the system comprised of a cold bath,
glass column, cooling water tank, a positive displacement screw pump, centrifugal
pump, and a shell and tube heat exchanger. Three different nozzle locations were used
for the set-up, as shown in Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.4. First, the glass column was filled
with water and the coolant, FC-84. The volumes of water and coolant were around 12
littres and 10 littres, respectively. The coolant was immiscible and heavier than water
and settled down at the bottom of the tank. The coolant was pre-cooled in a heat

exchanger to a temperature of about -150 C. Upon reaching the preset temperature of
the cold bath, the pump is switched on to start the injection of coolant. Heat transfer
occurred between the droplet of coolant and water. The coolant was circulated back
by the centrifugal pump into heat exchanger where it was cooled for the next round of
injection to take place. The process was continued until ice formation took place.
After ice formation took place upto a desired concentration, the centrifugal pump for
the coolant circulation was switched off and positive displacement pumps was
switched on for ice slurry extraction. Ice slurry was supplied to the tube side of the
heat exchanger and cooling water was supplied to the shell side of the heat exchanger.
As the cooling load supply from the heat exchanger was greatly dependent on the heat
transfer coefficient, from the economic point, it was necessary to investigate the heat
transfer characteristics of ice slurry though the heat exchanger. For ice slurry heat
transfer characteristic an attempt was made to find out the heat transfer coefficient for
different operating conditions which would be helpful to design the ice slurry storage
system for district cooling purposes. The model for main components has been
discussed briefly in this section.
4.1.1 Model for FC-84 system
A simplified model is developed to simulate the main energy interactions in the ice
slurry generator. The actual slurry formation process is complicated by a number of
factors. These include the transient nature of the heat transfer between the fluid drops
and water, the uneven size and distribution of the drops in the water, the turbulent
mixing caused by the passage of the drops through the water, and the lack of

Nozzle
Water
Coolant
Droplets
Coolant Coolant
Figure 4.1 Nozzle is located above water Figure 4.2 Nozzle is located inside the water
surface; shower type spray nozzle surface; fountain type spray nozzle
Coolant
Nozzle
Figure 4.3 Nozzle is located inside the coolant; coolant sprayed
vertically upward

knowledge of the heat transfer coefficient between the drops and the water. Several
assumptions were, therefore, made to obtain a simplified model that could predict the
water and the coolant temperature variations in the tank. By matching these
temperature distributions with the measured values, it was possible to estimate the
mean heat transfer coefficient between the drops and the water. Three different
conditions of ice slurry generator are shown in Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.
4.1.1.1 Sensible cooling of water
With reference to the figures stated above and assuming the water temperature to
remain constant and uniform during the relatively short residence time of a fluid drop
in the tank, the following energy balance may be written for a fluid drop.
dTd
vd ρ c cc = a d hd (Tw − Td ) (4.1)
dt
where term on the left hand side is the rate of change of internal energy of the drop
while the right hand side is the heat transfer from the water to the drop. Since the water
temperature is assumed constant during the passage of the drop through the tank,
equation (4.1) may be integrated to obtain the following expression for the temperature
rise, where the initial condition of the drop is t=0, Td=Tdi. .
Tdo − Tw
= e −λ (4.2)
Tdi − Tw
a d hd τ r
and λ = where τ r is the mean residence time of the drop in the tank.
v d ρ c cc
The total heat gain by the drop is given by
q d = v d ρ c cc (Tdo − Tdi ) (4.3)
Substituting Tdo from equation (4.2), equation (4.3) becomes

q d = v d ρ c cc (1 − e − λ )(Tw − Tdi ) (4.4)
Due to intense mixing of water in the cylinder caused by the rapid movement of the
drops, the water temperature may be assumed uniform. Furthermore, the glass cylinder
may be assumed to be at the temperature of the water. The energy balance for the
water and cylinder can be written as:
dTw
(M g c g + M w cw ) = − N d q d + U o Ao (Ta − Tw ) (4.5)
dt
where N d is the rate of production of drops by the nozzle. The left hand side of
equation (4.5) is the rate internal energy change of water and the cylinder. The first
term on the right hand side is the total rate of heat transfer from the water to the
coolant drops and the second term is the heat flow from the ambient to the water. On
substitution for q d from equation (4.4) in equation (4.5), the following equation is
obtained.
dTw
(M g c g + M w cw ) = −[v d ρ c cc N d (1 − e −λ ) + U o ]Tw + v d ρ c cc N d (1 − e −λ )Tdi (t ) + U o Ao Ta
dt
(4.6)
It is seen that the term, v d ρ c N d = m& c the coolant mass flow rate through the nozzle.
The exponent λ , can be expressed in the form,
( a d N d τ r ) hd
λ= (4.7)
m& c cc
where ( a d N d τ r ) can be interpreted as the total heat transfer area between the drops
and the water at any instant. For spherical drops,
6τ r hd
λ= (4.8)
d d ρ c cc
where d d is the mean diameter of a coolant drop.

Expressed in terms the directly measured quantities, equation (4.6) takes the form
dTw
(M g c g + M w cw ) = −[m& c c c (1 − e −λ ) + U o ]Tw + m& c c c (1 − e −λ )Tdi (t ) + U o Ao Ta (4.9)
dt
If the measured fluid temperature variation at the nozzle inlet, Tdi (t ) , drop diameter
and residence time are known, equation (4.9) can be solved numerically to predict the
water temperature variation with time until ice formation occurs. Estimation of drop
diameter and residence time are discussed in chapter 4.
4.1.1.2 Ice-slurry formation
During the ice slurry formation process, the temperature of the water and the cylinder
is constant at approximately the freezing point. The governing energy equation (4.9)
expressed in terms of the measured quantities becomes:
dM i
Hf = −[m& c cc (1 − e −λ ) + U o ]Tw + m& c cc (1 − e −λ )Tdi (t ) + U o AoTa (4.10)
dt
where the left hand sides indicates a rate of change of ice formation. The λ term in
equation (4.10) requires information on hd, the heat transfer coefficient between
coolant drop and water can be calculated using the correlation proposed by Whitaker
[52] for flow past a sphere in the form:
1/ 2
Nu D = 2 + (0.4 Re D + 0.06 Re 2 / 3 ) Pr 0.4 where 3.5 ≤ Re D ≤ 7.6 x10 4 (4.11)
Solution procedure of the governing equation
A FORTRAN computer code was written to solve the equation 4.6 to 4.11. The flow
chart, shown in Figure 4.4, describes the sequence of the various steps of the
calculation. The calculation is started with the known coolant inlet and water initial
temperature. The radius of the droplets and the residence time of droplets were

START
Input parameters, Coolant flow rate,

coolant inlet temperature, Residence
time and droplets diameter.
Calculate residence time and droplets

diameter
Calculate heat transfer coefficient
Calculate lamda term
Calculate water temperature, Tw
If No
 Tw - Twnew≤ ε
Yes
Calculate ice formation rate, overall

heat transfer coefficient and Heat flux
STOP
Figure 4.4 Flow chart for coolant and water temperature profile calculation
calculated. The heat transfer coefficient was determined using the equation (4.11). In
the equation (4.8) the lamda term was calculated by using the measured residence
time, drop diameter and heat transfer coefficient. Then the calculation is started to find
out the water temperature from the equation (4.9), this procedure is repeated until the
ice formation i.e. water temperature near to zero. Finally, ice formation rate is
calculated using equation (4.10).

4.2 Physical Arrangement of Binary Solution Flow
In order to develop a mathematical model it is essential to understand the flow
arrangement of the system. This system included a cold bath, cooling coil, glass
column, binary solution of water and glycol, water tank and a centrifugal pump as
shown in Figure 3.25. The binary solution was circulated back by the centrifugal pump
through the glass column into copper coil where it was cooled for the next round of
circulation. Heat rejected from the binary solution was absorbed by 50% glycol-water
solution into the cold bath as shown in Figure 4.5. The function of cold bath was to
chill the 50% glycol solution, which in turn chill the binary solution flowing through
the coil immersed into the cold bath. The process was continued until ice formation
took place.
50% glycol-water
solution outside the
copper cooling coil
Cold bath coil
Copper coil
Figure 4.5 A cold bath showing the 50% glycol water solution and
cooling coil
4.2.1 Model for binary solution
This model describes the variation of ethylene glycol solution temperature and ice
formation rate relating to the mole fraction of glycol. This model is based on the
freezing point depression of the binary solution.

4.2.1.1 Determination of freezing point temperature
The change in the freezing point temperature, when a small amount of non-volatile
liquid is added to the water solution can be related to the results reported by Wark [53]
in term of mole fraction of water, X w.
dX w H if
=− dT (4.12)
Xw RT 2
Integrating equation (4.12) with the initial condition of water Xw=1.0, Ts= Tfo
 H if  T f 0 
X w = Exp  1 −  (4.13)
 T f 0 R  Ts 
After rearrange the equation (4.13), it yields
 − H if 
X w = G.Exp   (4.14)
 RTs 
 H if 
where, G = Exp  
 RTs 
On further re-rearrangement of equation (4.14), we get,
 
 
 Tf 0 
Ts =   (4.15)
  T f 0 RLnX w 
 1 −  

  H if 
Equation (4.15) represents the new freezing point temperature of the solution in the
presence of ethylene glycol. Here, (Ts-Tf,0) is the freezing point depression. The
freezing point temperature depends on the change in mole fraction of the water that
can be obtained from equation (4.15) corresponding to the temperature of Ts.
Now, differentiating equation (4.14), it yields,
 H if   - H if 
dX w = G.  2
Exp
  RT dTs (4.16)
 RTs   s 

4.2.1.2 Governing equation for slurry generation using ethylene glycol

In this section, mathematical model for freezing of a binary solution is developed. As
stated in the section 3.4, the binary solution was made from the mixture of 7%
ethylene glycol solution and 93% water. The solution was circulated through the
copper coil by a centrifugal pump until ice formation took place. The copper coil was
immersed into the cold bath, which contained 50% concentrated glycol water solution.
For the simplicity of the modeling, the copper coil considered as a straight long tube
submerged into a cold bath. To observe the binary solution temperature variation and
Cold bath fluid at Tb

Cold bath fluid at Tb
z
Ethylene glycol
and water, at Ts
Ts + dTs , m& i + dm& i ,
Ts, m& g , m& w m& w + dm& w , hi + dhi
m& i , hi
Cold bath fluid at Tb Cold bath fluid at Tb

dQ
Figure 4.6 Diagram for the energy balance inside the tube during ice formation
ice formation rate along the tube, energy balance has been done on a small element of
the tube inside and outside. The governing equations are obtained by considering heat
transfer between ethylene glycol solution, ice slurry to the fluid of heat exchanger at a
distance z from the solution inlet, and for time t.
The energy conservation equation for the control volume at steady state can be
expressed as

[m& c T + m& c T +m& h] =

g g s w w s i
[m& c (T + dT ) + (m& + dm& )c (T

g g s s w w w s ] (
+ dTs ) + (m& i + dm& i )(hi + dhi ) + πDoUdz Ts − Tb )
(4.17)
On re-arrangement, equation (4.17) yields,
(m& c
g g + m& w c w )dTs + dm& w c wTs + hi dm& i + m& i dhi = −πDoUdz Ts − Tb ( ) (4.18)
The heat transfer from the bulk solution at Tb to the wall at Twall can be expressed as
dQi=πDhi(Ts-Twall)dz (4.19)
where hi is the convective heat transfer coefficient from the bulk solution to the wall.
The heat transfer from the wall to the heat exchanger fluid can be expressed as
dQo=πDho(Twall-Tb)dz (4.20)
The heat transfer from the bulk solution at Ts to the heat exchanger cooling fluid at Tb
can be expressed in term of overall heat transfer coefficient U
dQ= πDU(Ts-Tb)dz (4.21)
Slurry-Ice with
Ethylene Glycol
Solution out
Out side Out side

Coldbath Coldbath
Fluid Fluid
Ethylene Glycol water

solution in
1/ho t/k 1/hi
Thermal Thermal Thermal resistance

resistance for resistance for for the inside Glycol
coldbath fluid tube wall Solution
Figure 4.7 Overall resistances for tube
where the overall heat transfer coefficient from the solution to the heat exchanger
cooling fluid can be expressed

1 1 1 δ wall
= + + (4.22)
U hi ho k wall
During sensible heat cooling the governing equation can be written as,
(m& c
g g (
+ m& w c w )dTs = −πDoUdz Ts − Tb ) (4.23)
After re-arrangement equation (4.23), we get,
dTs πD Udz Ts − Tb
=− o
( ) (4.24)
dz (m& g c g + m& w cw )
Equation (4.24) represents the temperature distribution along the length of the tube
before ice formation. During ice formation total mass flow rate of the water in the
solution can be written as, m& wo = m& i + m& w after m& i amount ice formation, where m& w is
the remaining amount of water in the solution.
So, d m& i = − d m& w . The change in enthalpy of ice can be written as, dhi=cidTs
On substitution equation (4.18) can be written as,
(m& c
g g (
+ m& w c w )dTs + dm& w c wTs − hi dm& w + m& i ci dTs = −πDoUdL Ts − Tb ) (4.25)
Re-arranging the equation (4.25), it yields,

(m& c
g g (
+ m& w c w + m& i ci )dTs + dm& w H if = −πDoUdL Ts − Tb ) (4.26)
Expressing the change in mass flow rate of water in terms of change in mole fraction
of water, Xw
Moles of water
Xw =
Total Moles of Solution
 Mass of water 
 Molecular weight of water 
Xw =  
 Mass of water Mass of ethylene glycol 
+
 Molecualr weight of water Molecular weight of ethylene glycol 

 m& w 
 
 Mw 
=  (4.27)
m&
 m& w + g 
M 
 w Mg 
After differentiation of equation (4.27), we get,
1  m& g dm& w  Mw
− 2
dX = − 2

M
Xw  m& w  g
After re-arrangement, we get,
M g m& 2 w
dm& w = 2
dX w (4.28)
X w M W m& g
Equating equations (4.16), (4.26) and (4.28), we get,
 H if  M g m& w   − H if 
(m& c
g+ m& w c w + m& i ci )dTs + G
g

2  2
 Exp
  RT dTs
(4.29)
 s  M w X w m& g
RT   s 
= −πDoU (Ts − Tb )dz
On-further re-arrangement, we get,
dTs − πDoU (Ts − Tb )

= (4.30)
dz  CC   − CC 
AA + BB 2  Exp 
 Ts   Ts 
Equation (4.30) represents the temperature distribution after ice formation.
where,
AA = (m& g c g + m& w c w + m& i ci )
 M g m& 2 w 
BB = G  
 M X 2 w m& 
 w g 
H if
CC =
R
For inside heat transfer coefficient (hi) a well know correlation proposed by Dittus
Boelter [54] for flow through in smooth tubes has been used. The heat transfer

coefficient outside the tube has been determined from the experimental value of
overall heat transfer coefficient. Because the flow pattern outside the tube (i.e. inside
the cold bath) difficult to define which is neither natural nor forced convection heat
transfer. The overall heat transfer coefficient has been determined based on the
constant inside heat transfer coefficient. Correlation for the inside heat transfer is given
by the equation below.
Nu d = 0.023 Re 0.8 d Pr 0.3 (4.31)
Equation (4.31) has been used for inside heat transfer coefficient and based on
experimental overall heat transfer coefficient, outside heat transfer coefficient can be
found from equation (4.22).
4.2.1.3 Solution procedure
The governing equations were solved simultaneously with the appropriate boundary
conditions using a 4th order Runge-Kutta scheme. A FORTRAN computer code was written
to solve the governing equations. The following diagram, shown in Figure 4.8, describes the
sequence of the various steps of the calculation. Initially, the necessary parameters and fluid
properties were introduced. The solultion inlet temperature and the mole fraction was taken
as a known input. The calculation starts with a known freezing point temperature of the
solution. The non linear first order differential equation (4.30) were then solved using 4th
order Runge-Kutta scheme for the first control volume to determine the temperature, mole
fraction and temperature of the solution at the second control volume. Water mole fraction
remains constant until the ice formation.The calculation was continued until the properties
of the

START
Setting of fluid properties and parameters
Calculate the total mole of the solution,

mole fraction of water, mole fraction of
glycol
Calculate Ts,(i+1) using 4th order

R.K scheme
No
i= Last control element
i=i+1
Yes
No
Ts,(i+1)-Ts,freezing temperature≤ε
Yes
Calculate new mole fraction of
water and and ice formation rate
Out put
STOP
Figure 4.8 Flow chart for calculation of the solution temperature,
mole fraction of water and ice formation rate

solution in the last control volume are obtained. If the calculated solution temperature at the
last control is not within the ±0.0010 C of the known freezing point temperature then the
entire calculation is repeated. The process is continued until the ice formation with a
convergence criteria are satisfied. The the mole fraction of the solution is calculated from
the frezzing point temperature. With this new mole fraction of water, the ice formation rate
is calculated from the equation (4.28).
4.3 Energy Extraction for Space Cooling Purpose
For the ice slurry storage assisted cooling system, a shell and tube heat excahanger is
used along with a positive displacement screw pump and a centrifugal pump. The
positive displacement pump is used for ice slurry pumping through the heat exchanger
tube and the centrifugal pump is used for supplying the cooling water to be cooled for
space cooling purpose to the shell side of the heat exchanger.
4.3.1 Energy withdrawal analysis
For energy extraction system, the flow through the heat exchanger tubes was
considered homogeneous. Two-phase liquid region occurred at the entrance of the
liquid and homogeneous single-phase region at the exit of the tubes. Homogeneous
flow theory provides the simplest technique for analyzing two-phase or multiphase
flows. The usual way of calculating overall heat transfer coefficient by the Log Mean
temperature approach for any type of heat exchanger. The same procedure can be
applied to two-phase flows heat transfer analysis.

To derive the tube side heat transfer coefficient, the heat duty of the heat exchanger
and the annulus/shell side heat transfer coefficient are needed. With the temperature
and flow rate measurements, the heat duty can be found from energy balance.
.
Qcw = m c cc ,cw (Tcw,in − Tcw,out ) (4.32)
.
Qices = m ices cices (Tices ,out − Tices ,in ) (4.33)
Q = (Qcold + Qhot ) / 2 = UA ⋅ LMTD (4.34)
The logarithmic temperature difference between the cooling medium fluid and ice
slurry can be found for a given inlet and outlet temperature of the cooling medium and
ice slurry flow [55].
(Tcw.i − Tices ,out ) − (Tcw,o − Tices.in )

LMTD = (4.35)
ln[(Tcw.i − Tices ,out ) /(Tcw,o − Tices.in )]
The average heat transfer coefficient can be found from the following equation
1 1 ln( Do / Di ) 1
= + + (4.36)
UA ho Ao 2πkL hi Ai
where, Di and Do are the inner and outer diameter of the tube and L is the length of
the tube.
In order to validate the experimental results of energy withdrawal process, a set of
correlations have been used that describes the mechanism two-phase flow heat transfer
characteristics. In the present study, the following correlations are used for the
evaluation of heat transfer coefficient. (a) A correlation by Haid [56], which was used
for solid/liquid fluidized bed and described as follows:
Nu = C. Re a . Pr b .(1 − ε ) .ε −1
1− a
(4.37)

where C=0.0734, a=0.75, b=0.64.
(b). The correlation by Soo [57] developed for two-phase bubble flow, as given by the
following equation used to find out the heat transfer coefficient of ice slurry flowing
through the heat exchanger and given by
 Nu = 2 + 0.70 Re 0.5 pr 13  (4.38)

 
(c) Dobran [58] used a correlation for bubble flow regime, where the expression for
Nu is given by
h( 2 R ) 
=  2 + 0.6 Re 0.5 Pr 3 
1
Nu = (4.39)
kl  
Equations (4.37), (4.38) & (4.39) were used for inside heat transfer coefficient and, for
outside heat transfer coefficient, Kern [59] suggested the following correlation:
0.55 1/ 3 0.14
h D D G   CP µ   µb 
Nu = o e = 0.36 e s      (4.40)
kW  µ   kW   µW 
G S De
for 2×103 < Re S = < 1×106
µ
Where equivalent diameter De is given as
4 × free flow area

De =
Wetted Perimeter
For triangular pitch geometry of the tube bundle
 PT 2 3 πd o 2 
4 − 
 4 8 
 
De =
πd o
2
The bundle cross-flow area, As, at the center of the shell is

D S CB
AS =
PT
Then the shell side mass flux is found from
m
GS =
AS
4.3.2 Ice slurry properties
For energy extraction system, it is very important to know the heat transfer
characteristics. In order to determine the exact heat transfer characteristics it is
necessary to compute the various properties of ice slurry. Many researchers [60, 61]
have applied the following set of thermo physical property models for the calculation
of the heat transfer characteristics. The density of ice slurry was calculated by weight
addition of the density of pure ice and the density of solution.
1
ρ is = (4.41)
xi / ρ i + (1 − xi ) / ρ l
A correlation [62] for the ice slurry thermal conductivity proposed by Tareef [63] has
been used for the ice slurry melting purposes. This correlation, described as follows,
yields satisfactory results for ice slurry melting purposes.
 2.λl + λ − 2.φ i .(λl − λi ) 

λis = λl .  (4.42)
 2.λl + λi + φ i .(λl − λi ) 
An empirical correlation developed by Thomas [64] for the prediction of dynamic
viscosity, as represented in equations (4.37-4.39), is described as follows:
(
µ is = µ l . 1 + 2.5.φ i + 10.05.φ i 2 + 0.00273.(e16.6.φ i
)) (4.43)

Chapter-5 Results and discussion
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The thermal performance of the system has been evaluated by both experiment and
simulation. Different parameters were varied during the operation of the system.
Concentration of the ice slurry, flow rate of ice slurry, flow rate of coolant and flow
rate of the cooling water were the main operating variables for the experiments. In
order to determine the performance of the system, it was necessary to calculate several
parameters. The ice slurry production rate, overall heat transfer coefficient, heat flux
were considered the most important parameters for the evaluation of thermal
performance of the system. Results obtained from the direct contact heat transfer and
freezing of binary solution have been discussed in this chapter.
5.1 Direct Contact Heat Transfer Using FC-84
A series of experiments was performed on the system. Results obtained from the direct
contact heat transfer are presented in this section. Influence of different parameters on
the thermal performance of the system has been observed and described in this section.
5.1.1 Experimental Results
The experiments were carried out with three types of spray nozzles: a shower spray
type, a fountain spray type, both located at the upper section of storage tank; one
located above the water and the other inside the water surface. Another nozzle was
mounted at the bottom inside the coolant and sprayed vertically upward. The results
obtained from the different spray pattern have been presented and discussed in this
section.
Figures 5.1 and 5.2 show the effect of flow rate on shower spray and fountain spray
nozzle assembly with the nozzle diameter 6 mm. It can be shown from the Figures that
ice formation start after 100 min for the flow rates of 8 l/min and 6 l/min and after 120
minutes for 4 l/min for shower and fountain spray type of nozzles. From Figures 5.1
and 5.2, it is also apparent that for the coolant flow rate of 4 l/min, it was possible to
continue injection of coolant upto 180 minutes and 160 minutes for shower and
fountain type flow pattern, respectively. From these curves, it can also be seen that the
latent heat cooling period is about 60 minutes, which is the flat portion of the cooling
curve. On the other hand, for both shower and fountain spray pattern the latent cooling
period
30
25 Nozzle diameter 6mm, Flow rate 8 l/min

Nozzle diameter 6mm, Flow rate 6 l/min
Water Temperature, C
20
0
Nozzle diameter 6mm, Flow rate 4 l/min
15
10
-5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time,min
Figure 5.1 Variation of water temperature with time (Shower
spray nozzle, diameter 6 mm)

for the flow rates of 8 l/min and 6 l/min is about 20 minutes. It reveals that both spray
patterns show poor results at higher flow rate. This is due to the fact that as the coolant
flow rate increases, pressure near the nozzle tips decreases. As a result, ice
agglomeration starts near the nozzle tips for fountain spray pattern assembly, which in
turn stops coolant injection into water.
30
25
20 Nozzle diameter 6 mm and flow rate 8 lmin

Temperature, C
0
Nozzle diameter 6 mm and flow rate 6 lmin

15
Nozzle diameter 6 mm and flow rate 4 lmin
10
-5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time, min
Figure 5.2 Variation of water temperature with time (Fountain

spray nozzle, Diameter 6 mm)
Figure 5.3 shows the effect of flow rate on ice formation for the nozzle assembly
located at the bottom of the glass column. From the figure, it can be shown that ice
formation is faster for the case of high flow rate 12 l/min. As expected, heat transfer
will be higher for the high flow rate as more droplets are generated.

30
25
0 20
Flow rate 8 l/min
15 Flow rate 10 l/min
Flow rate 12 l/min
10
-5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Time,min
Figure 5.3 Variation of water temperature with time (Nozzle at bottom,

diameter 3mm)
5.1.2 Comparison of experimental and predicted results
The comparisons of the experimental and simulation results were performed for
different spray pattern and nozzle assembly. Results obtained from experiments and
simulation for different conditions are discussed in this section.
5.1.2.1 Nozzle operation at shower spray mode
Figures 5.4 and 5.5 show the comparison between experimental and predicted water
and coolant temperature with time. Figure 5.4 shows the results for a 4 mm nozzle
diameter with a flow rate of 4 l/min. Figure 5.5 illustrates the results for a nozzle of
same diameter with a flow rate of 6 l/min. It is seen that water temperature plot
consists of two sections: a gentle decline in temperature curve and a flat portion. The
decline in temperature represents the sensible cooling part while the flat portion

25
Experimental Water Temperature (A)

20
Predicted Water Temperature (B)
15
Temperature, C
Experimental Inlet Coolant Temperature (C)
0
10
-5
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135
Time,min
Figure 5.4 Comparison between predicted and experimental water temperature

with time (nozzle diameter: 4 mm; flow -rate 4 l/min)
25
20 Experimental Water Temperature (A)

15
Temperature, C
o

10
-5
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135
Time,min
with time (nozzle diameter: 4 mm; flow-rate 6 l/min)

indicates the latent heat cooling. In the sensible heat cooling part, there is a sharp drop
in water temperature for about 10-15 minutes for a sharp drop in coolant temperature.
It occurred at the exit of the cold bath once the coolant passed through it. This
phenomenon could be attributed to the fact that there is already coolant being cooled in
the heat exchanger before the data logger starts recording the temperature. When the
pump is started, this cooled coolant would travel to the exit of the heat exchanger and a
sudden drop in the temperature is recorded by the data logger. It is observed that, the
(a) (b)
Figure 5.6 (a) Ice agglomeration wth shower spray nozzle (b) Agglomerated ice
decline in water temperature for 4 l/min and 6 l/min is continued for about 120 minutes
and 105 minutes, respectively. In both Figures 5.4 and 5.5 the flat portion represents
the ice formation part. The predicted water temperature, represented as B, was found
from a correlation [52], which gave a heat transfer coefficient of 4825 W/m2K and
4250 W/m2 K for the sensible heat cooling part for the flow rate of 6 l/min and 4 l/min,
respectively. As expected and seen from Figures 5.4 and 5.5, the water temperature
decreased as the coolant temperature decreased with time. The temperature profile C

represents the inlet coolant temperature profile which was used to calculate the water
temperature. Figure 5.6 shows a photograph of ice agglomeration around the nozzle.
From Figures 5.4 and 5.5, it can be also seen that, the latent cooling is about only 10-
15 minutes which is after 105 minutes sensible cooling period. From these Figures, it
is seen that for both flow rates, the nozzle was incapable to produce optimum amount
of ice slurry and it caused ice sinking down towards the bottom of the tank. It may be
explained that, as the nozzle diameter decreases, the velocity of the coolant drop
increases. As a results, ice slurry moves with the coolant towards the bottom of the
glass column which encourage the ice particle to accumulate and agglomerate as a big
chunk. It can also be suggested that ice sinking towards the bottom happen due to
coolant drop trapped into the ice slurry, which pushes the ice slurry to move down
ward of the glass cylinder.
25
Experimental water Temperature (A)

20
Predicted Water Temperature Fit(B)
Temperature, C
15 Experimental Inlet Coolant Temperature (C)

0
10
-5
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195
Time,min

25
20
15
Temperature, C
o
10
-5
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165
Time,min
Figure 5.8 Comparison between predicted and experimental temperature

with time (nozzle diameter: 6 mm, flow -rate 6 l/min)
Figures 5.7 to 5.8 show the comparison between the experimental and predicted water
temperature variation with time, as the cooling progresses. From Figures 5.7 and 5.8, it
can be seen that the decline in water temperature for the flow rate of 4 l/min and 6
l/min is 120 minutes and 105 minutes, respectively. It reveals that total time of ice
formation is less for the 6 l/min than that of 4 l/min. This may be attributed to the fact
that as the flow rate increases the droplet generation also increases which in turn
increases the heat transfer between water and coolant drops. The predicted water
temperature represented by B, in both Figures 5.7 and 5.8 was found by making use of
a correlation for convection heat transfer coefficient presented by Whitaker [52],
which shows a good fit with the experimental water temperature profile. The heat
transfer coefficient found by the correlation was 4875 W/m2 K and 4250 W/m2 K for
the sensible cooling part for the flow rate of 6 l/min and 4 l/min, respectively. The
temperature profile C represents the inlet coolant temperature profile which was used

to determine the predicted water temperature. From Figures 5.7 and 5.8, it is seen that
the latent cooling is about 40-50 minutes, whereas, the latent cooling was only 10-15
minutes for 4 mm diameter nozzle, as shown in Figures 5.4 and 5.5. This can be
explained that as the nozzle diameter decreases, the velocity of the coolant drop
increases which pushes more ice slurry towards the bottom of the glass column. As a
result accumulation of ice slurry at the bottom of the glass column would be more,
which eventually form a big chunk of ice particle. Due to accumulation of ice slurry at
the bottom of the glass column, the suction of the coolant decreases which would
eventually decease the injection period of coolant. It should be noted that higher the
injection period of coolant higher the latent cooling. However, the ice slurry
accumulation, agglomeration and sinking down towards the bottom of the glass
cylinder prevailed for both nozzles. The ice sinking down may also occur due to higher
density of the coolant entrapped into ice slurry. The coolant is 1.74 times heavier than
the ice slurry. To get a better understanding the nozzle design was changed to fountain
spray pattern and has been discussed on the following section.
5.1.2.2 Nozzle operation in fountain spray mode
In this spray pattern, two different nozzle diameter of 4mm and 6mm and flow rate of
4 l/min, 6 l/min, and 8 l/min were used. In the Figures 5.9 and 5.10, the curve A
represents the experimental water temperature, curve B represents predicted water
temperature and curve C represents the inlet coolant temperature. The inlet coolant
temperature was used to find out the predicted water temperature. From Figures 5.9
and 5.10, it is seen that the latent cooling is about 5 to 10 minutes which was after 100
minutes sensible cooling period.

30
25
Experimental Water Temperature [A]
20 Predicted Water Temperature [B]
Temperature, C
o
Experimental Inlet Coolant Temperature [D]
15
10
-5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time,min
30
25
20 Predicted Water Temperature(B)
Temperature, C

o
15
10
-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Time,min
Figure 5.10 Comparison between predicted and experimental water

temperature with time (nozzle diameter: 4 mm; flow- rate 6 l/min)

(a) (b)
Figure 5.11 (a) Ice slurry formation with fountain spray nozzle (b) Ice slurry
25

15
Temperature, C

0
10
-5
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
Time,min
Figures 5.11 (a) and (b) show the experimental ice formation by the fountain spray
pattern nozzle assembly and ice slurry that is being formed by this spray pattern,
respectively. From Figure 5.11 (a), it can be shown that nozzle clogging is less
affected for the fountain spray pattern as the produced ice is in slurry form around the
nozzle holes.

25

20
15
Temperature, C
o
10
-5
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165
Time,min
Figure 5.13 Comparison between predicted and experimental temperature with

time (nozzle diameter: 6 mm; flow- rate 6 l/min)
Figures 5.12 and 5.13 show the water and coolant temperature distribution with time
for the nozzle diameter 6 mm and flow rate of 4 l/min and 6 l/min, respectively. In
both Figures 5.12 and 5.13, curve A represents the experimental water temperature,
curve B represents predicted water temperature and curve C represents the inlet
coolant temperature. The inlet coolant temperature was used to determine the predicted
water temperature. From Figure 5.12, it is seen that the latent cooling period is about
45 minutes, after 115 minutes sensible cooling for 6 mm diameter nozzle and flow rate
4 l/min. It should be noted a lower percent of latent cooling would lead to a higher ice
formation. The fountain spray pattern shows good results as the latent cooling period
is longer compared to the shower spray pattern. The heat transfer coefficient between
the coolant drop and water was found 4253 W/m2K and 4875 W/m2K for the flow rate
of 4 l/min and 6 l/min, respectively. From Figures 5.12 and 5.13, it is observed that the

predicted water temperature agrees well with the temperature profile obtained by
experiments. However, the sinking down problem of ice slurry prevailed. It can be
attributed to the fact that the some of coolant droplets were trapped inside the ice
slurry. As a result the ice slurry moved towards the bottom of the tank due to higher
density of the coolant.
5.1.2.3 Spray from bottom
The nature of spray system is considered one of the most important parameter in the
production of the ice slurry with direct contact heat transfer processes. Here, two
different types of spray patterns were used but it was not possible to produce ice-slurry
with complete elimination of the nozzle clogging and ice agglomeration problem. Due
to some limitations of the shower spray and the fountain spray pattern, where the
25
20
15 Experimental Inlet coolant Temperature (C)

Temperature, C
0
10
-5
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240
Time,min
Figure 5.14 Comparison between predicted and experimental water

temperature with time (nozzle diameter: 3 mm; flow- rate 8 l/min)

nozzles were located at the upper section of the tank, injection from bottom was
introduced into the systems. The experiments were conducted with three different
nozzles, as described in section 4.2.3, and flow rate were varied from 8 l/min to 10
l/min. The nozzle diameter of 3 mm was used to carry out the experiment and the
results found with this nozzle for different flow rate are discussed in this section.
25

Temperature, C
15
0
Inlet Coolant Temperature (D)
10
-5
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
Time,min

with time (nozzle at bottom: diameter, 3 mm; flow- rate 10 l/min)
Figures 5.14 and 5.15 show the comparison beween the measured water, predicted
water temperature distribution with time for nozzle diameter 3 mm and flow rates of 8
l/min and 10 l/min, respectively. From Figures 5.14 and 5.15, it can be seen that a
sharp drop in the water temperature occurs for the first 15 minutes due to a sharp drop
in coolant temperature which was described earlier. The values of the heat transfer
coefficient for sensible cooling part were 5775 W/m2K and 5310 W/m2K for the flow
rate of 10 l/min and 8 l/min, respectively. It was found that nozzle assembly, located at
the bottom, eliminated the sinking down problem of ice slurry towards the bottom of

the tank. It can be attributed to the fact that the ice has a lower density compared to
coolant and also it gets an upward motion due to the injection of the coolant from the
bottom in the vertically upward direction. As a result, all the slurry floats up at the top
of the glass tank. Results obtained from different nozzle location have been
summarized in the Tables 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3.
Table-5.1 Heat transfer coefficient values under different experimental conditions
Nozzle Flor rate

Nozzle
Location Residence time of Heat Transfer Coefficient,
Spray Pattern diameter,
of droplets, sec Coolant, W/m2 K
mm
l/min
3.90 4 4875
Top Shower
3.60 6 4250
6
4.00 4 4875
Fountain
3.90 6 4250
3.84 8 5800
Bottom Vertical up 3
3.70 10 5310
From the Table 5.1, it can be shown that the heat transfer coefficients found by shower
and fountain nozzle assembly were 4875 W/m2K and 4250 W/m2K for the flow rates
of 6 l/min and 4 l/min, respectively. Heat transfer coefficient increased from 4250
W/m2 K to 4875 W/m2 K for a decrease in residence time by of 7.7 % (3.9 sec to 3.6
sec) and for an increase in the flow rate of 50 % (4 l/min to 6 l/min).
For nozzle located at the bottom, the heat transfer coefficient increased from 5800
W/m2 K and 5310 W/m2 K for the flow rate of 10 l/min and 8 l/min, respectively. The
heat transfer coefficient increased 8.50 % for an increase in flow rate by 25 % (8 l/min
to 10 l/min). This can be explained that the residence time decrease with the higher
flow rate of coolant due to higher exit velocity from the nozzle tip, resulting in a
shorter travel time for the coolant droplets. As a result the heat transfer coefficient is

higher for the lower residence time. As described earlier, the λ term is a product of
heat transfer coefficient and residence time. As expected, Nusselt will increase with
the increase in Reynolds number for higher flow rates. As a result, heat transfer
coefficient will increase.
As shown previously in Chapter 4, equation [4.7], λ term is a function of heat transfer
coefficient and residences time. As the rest of the variables are constants, the value of
λ would be determined by the product of heat transfer coefficient and the residences
time. It can be attributed to the fact that the shorter the residence time the higher the
heat transfer coefficient and residence time is low for higher flow rate as shown in
Table 5.1.
Nozzle Flor rate

Nozzle
Location Residence time of Heat Transfer Coefficient,
Spray Pattern diameter,
of droplets, sec Coolant, W/m2 K
mm
l/min
3.90 4 4875
Top Shower
3.60 6 4250
6
4.00 4 4875
Fountain
3.90 6 4250
3.84 8 5800
3.70 10 5310
Table 5.2 shows the effect of flow rate on ice formation time. It is seen that ice
formation increases with an increase in flow rate. The percentage decrease in the time
of ice formation is 30% (50 minutes to 35 minutes) and 25% (40 minutes to 30
minutes) for the shower spray and fountain spray pattern, respectively. Table 5.2 also
shows the ice formation rate for the shower spray and fountain spray pattern. It is seen
that the amount of ice formation for the shower spray mode and fountain spray mode is
2.015 kg and 3.023 kg for the flow rate of 4 l/min and 6 l/min, respectively. Ice
fractions of 20 % and 30 % were obtained by the shower spray and fountain spray

nozzle assembly, respectively. However, the time needed to produce the same amount
of ice fraction was shorter for the fountain spray pattern than the shower spray pattern.
It reveals that the fountain spray pattern shows the better results than that of shower
spray pattern.
Table-5.2 Ice formation rates under different experimental conditions
Flow
Nozzle Time of Ice
Nozzle Rate of Mass of Mass of Ice
Spray Patter Diameter, Formation,
Location Coolant, Waer, kg slurry, kg
mm min
l/min
Shower(Vertical 4 50 2.015
down) 6 35 3.023
Top 6 10
Fountain 4 40 2.016
(Inclined) 6 30 3.023
8 30 3.023
Bottom Vertical up 3 7.5
10 30 4.031
It is also evident from Table5.2 that, for an increase in coolant flow rate from 4 l/min
to 6 l/min (50%), the increase in ice slurry is approximately 50.02% (2.015kg to 3.023
kg). Table 5.2 also shows the ice formation rate for the nozzle located at the bottom of
the tank. It can be seen that the amount of ice formation for this spray mode is 3.023
kg and 4.013 kg for the flow rate of 8 l/min and 10 l/min, respectively. It is also seen
that for the spray nozzle located at the bottom of the tank, ice fractions of 40% and
53.5% were obtained for the flow rate of 8 l/min and 10 l/min, respectively. From
these results, it was found that ice fractions of 20% to 30% could be obtained by spray
nozzle located at the upper section of the tank, whereas, ice fractions of 40-50% were
obtained with the nozzle assembly at the bottom of the tank. Moreover, the shower and
fountain spray mode of nozzle assembly encountered nozzle clogging, ice
agglomeration around the nozzle tip and ice accumulation at the bottom of the glass
column, whereas, these problem were not found with the nozzle at the bottom.

Table 5.3 Heat Transfer Coefficient values during ice formation part
Nozzle Nozzle Residence Flor rate of Heat Transfer Coefficient,

Spray
Location diameter, time of Coolant, W/m2k
Pattern
mm droplets, l/min Sensible Ice Formation
3.9 4 4250 24
Shower
Top 3.6 6 4875 123
6
4.2 4 4250 43
Fountain
3.9 6 4875 118
3.8 8 5310 40
3.7 10 5800 75
Table 5.3 shows heat transfer coefficient during ice formation, residence time of
droplets and ice formation for different experimental conditions. The residence time
for the droplets to travel from the nozzle tip to the bottom of glass cylinder was 3.9 sec
and 3.6 sec for the flow rate of 4 l/min and 6 l/min, respectively, for the shower spray
nozzle at the top of the glass cylinder, which has shown in Table 5.3. The residence
time for the droplets to travel from the nozzle tip to the bottom of glass cylinder was
4.2 sec and 3.9 sec for the flow rate of 4 l/min and 6 l/min, respectively for the
fountain spray nozzle at the top of the glass cylinder.
The residence time for the nozzle at the bottom was 3.8 sec and 3.7 sec for the flow
rates of 8 l/min and 10 l/min, respectively. It can be shown from the Table 5.3 that the
residence time is less for the higher flow rate and especially for shower spray pattern
nozzle assembly. The movement of droplets for two different spray types is different.
For shower spray type, droplets are moving with some initial velocity whereas, for
fountain spray type, it initially acts against the gravity as it travels upward through the
water until brought to rest and then travel towards the bottom of the tank. As a result,
the droplet velocity is higher for shower sprays pattern leading to a shorter residence
time to travel the water pool.

For a shower spray type nozzle design, the heat transfer coefficient during ice
formation was 24 W/m2 K and 124 W/m2 K for the flow rates of 4 l/min and 6 l/min,
respectively. The heat transfer coefficient for the fountain spray nozzle assembly was
43 W/m2 K and 118 W/m2 K for the flow rate of 4 l/min and 6 l/min, respectively. It
reveals that the heat transfer coefficient is high for high flow rate. The heat transfer
coefficients were found to have a lower value during the ice formation than in the
sensible cooling period. This is because the drop diameter and the residence time
during ice formation, these cannot be measured because of the condensation taking
place on the glass cylinder, the presence of ice particles in the water and the intense
mixing in the cylinder. The heat transfer coefficient during ice formation has been
determined from the λ values. The value of λ term can be found by matching the
experimental ice formation rate. From equation [4.7], it is seen that the λ term is a
ad hd τ d
function of heat transfer coefficient and residences time. It term is given by λ = ,
vd ρ d cd
as discussed in Chapter-4. As the rest of the parameter are constants, the value of λ
would be determined by the product of heat transfer coefficient and the residences time
to find out the heat transfer coefficient during ice formation.
5.1.3 Parametric Study
The thermal performance of ice slurry storage system is sensitive to different variable.
A series of simulation results have been obtained for different spray pattern, different
nozzle, mole fraction of ethylene glycol and freezing point depression of glycol
solution. The effect of each parameter on the system has been investigated and
discussed in this section.

5.1.3.1 Effect of Coolant Flow Rate
Figure 5.16 shows the effect of coolant flow rate on the total time of ice formation for
the nozzle diameter of 4 mm and 6 mm. As seen from the Figure, the total time of ice
formation decreases with the increase in flow rate for foutain spray nozzle assembly. It
is seen from the Figure that total time of ice formation is dependent upton the nozzle
diameter. From the Figure, it is also seen that the total time of ice formation for 6 mm
190
170
150
Time,min
130
110
90
Fountain spray nozzle diameter 4 mm
70 Fountain spray nozzle diameter 6 mm
50
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Flow rate, l/min
Figure 5.16 Variation of total ice formation time with flow rate of
coolant
nozzle is higher than that of 4 mm diameter nozzle. It should be noted that longer
period of ice formation represents the longer period of coolant injection for ice
formation as a result more ice slurry formed. Figure 5.17 shows the effect of coolant
flow rate on ice formation time. It is seen that for the same flow rate of coolant, total
time of ice formation is higher for the 6 mm diameter nozzle than for the 4 mm
diameter nozzle. This may be attributed to the fact that the surface area of the droplet
is smaller for 4 mm diameter nozzle than that of the 6 mm diameter nozzle leading to
a faster cooling. As a results more droplets are produced for the same flow rate which

is increased the heat transfer rate due to increase in total number of heat transfer
surface area.
190
170
150
130
Time,min
110
90
Shower spray pattern nozzle diameter 4 mm
70 Shower spray pattern nozzle diameter 6mm
50
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Flow Rate, l/min
Figure 5.17 Variation of total ice formation time with the flow rate of coolant
250
230
210
190
170
Time, min
150
130 Nozzle diameter 3mm
position at bottom
110
90
70
50
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Flow rate, l/min
Figure 5.18 Variation of total ice formation time with the flow rate of coolant

From these Figures, it is also seen that total time of ice formation decreases for both
shower and fountain spray pattern nozzle with the increase in flow rate for the nozzle
diameter of 6 mm. This is to be expected because the heat transfer between coolant
droplets and water increases with the increase in flow rate. As seen from the Figure
5.17, total time of ice formation decreases with the increase in the flow rate for 6 mm
diameter nozzle, whereas, total time of ice formation increases with the flow rate for 4
mm diameter nozzle. This can be explained that as the droplet size for the 4 mm
diameter nozzle is smaller which passes into water very quickly at higher flow rate of
coolant. As a result heat transfer between the coolant droplets and water is less for the
smaller diameter nozzle.
Figure 5.18 shows the effect of flow rate on the ice formation time with the 3mm
diameter nozzle, which is located at the bottom of the test section and inside the
coolant. From the Figure, it is clearly observed that total time of ice formation
decreased with the flow rate. It is expected that as the flow rate increases the heat
transfer also increases which in turn decreases the total time of ice formation.
5.1.3.2 Influence of nozzle diameter
Figures 5.19 and 5.20 show the effect of nozzle diameter on the shower spray and
fountain nozzle assembly. It can be seen from these figures that, in both cases the ice
formation starts at 110 minutes but the duration of latent cooling is slightly longer for
6 mm nozzle diameter. This is due to the fact that as the nozzle diameter increases the
velocity of coolant droplets decreases, thus, pressure near the nozzle tips decreases. As
a result, the movement of ice slurry towards the nozzle tips decreases due to a slightly
higher pressure region than the nozzle diameter of 4 mm.

25
20
Nozzle diamter 4 mm
0
15 Nozzle diamter 6 mm
10
-5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time,min
Figure 5.19 Effect of nozzle diameter on ice formation for flow rate
6 l/min (shower spray)
25
20
0
15
Nozzle diameter 4mm
10 Nozzle diameter 6mm
-5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Figure
Time, min 5.20
Effect of nozzle diameter on ice formation for flow rate
6 l/min (Fountain spray)

30
25
Nozzle diameter 3 mm with 3 hole
20
0 Nozzle diameter 3mm with 1 hole
15 Nozzle diameter 1 mm with 3 hole
10
-5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Time, min
Figure 5.21 Effect of nozzle diameter on ice formation for the flow
rate 8 l/min (Nozzle at bottom)
Figure 5.21 illustrates how the water temperature variation is affected by the change in
nozzle diameter and nozzle holes for the nozzle assembly at the bottom. As shown in
the figure, time taken to reach the freezing point decreases by the increase in the
nozzle diameter. This is well explained with the fact that, as the nozzle diameter
decreased, there will be an increased heat transfer surface area of the coolant droplets
for the same flow rate, which leads to enhance in heat transfer rate.
5.2 Method Using Freezing of Binary Solutions
This section presents results obtained from experiments and simulation of a binary
solution. Effect of solution flow rates and mole fraction of ethylene glycol have been
studied under various conditions on the freezing point depression.

5.2.1 Effect of flow rate
Experiments were conducted with a 7% (volume) ethylene glycol solution for different
flow rates through a heat exchanger placed inside a cold bath. During the experiment
the cold bath was set to temperature of -100 C. The important parameters investigated
to evaluate the performance of the system are: heat transfer coefficients inside and
outside the tube, overall heat transfer coefficient and the freezing point depression of
solution. The effects of mole fraction on ice slurry formation and freezing point
depression were also examined during the experiment.
20
15 Solution Flow Rate 10 lpm

Solution Temperature,C
Solution Flow Rate 15 lpm

0
10 Solution Flow Rate 18 lpm
-5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Total no. of cycle for binary solution through the cold bath
Figure 5.22 Variation of binary solution temperature through the cold bath
for the flow rate of 10 l/min, 15 l/min and 18 l/min.
Figure 5.22 shows the cooling curves for three different flow rates of 10 l/min, 15
l/min and 18 l/min, where the glycol concentration was kept at 7%. As seen from the
figure, total no of cycle decreases with the increase in flow rate of binary solution for
ice formation. This trend can be attributed to the fact that, as there is an increase of
Reynolds number with the increase of binary solution flow rate through the tube, a

significant increase of inside heat transfer coefficient occurred which lead to an
increase in overall heat transfer coefficient. From the Figure, it is seen that number of
circulation of binary solution through the cold bath decreased for an increased in the
flow rate. As expected, the heat transfer coefficient is higher for the higher flow rate.
20 3500
Experimental Solution Temperature 3000
Inside and Overall Heat Transfer

15
Solution Temperature, C
Predicted Solution Temperature 2500

0
Coefficient, W/m K
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficietnt
2
10 2000
Inside Heat Transfer Coefficient
5 1500
1000
0
500
-5 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Total no. of cycle of binary solution through the cold bath
Figure 5.23 Comparison between predicted and experimental solution

Figures 5.23 through 5.25 show the comparison between the predicted and
experimental solution temperature with flow rate, as the cooling process progresses.
Figure 5.23 shows the comparison of 7% ethylene glycol solution and a solution flow
rate of 10 l/min. As seen from the Figure, the predicted and experimental variation in
solution temperature agrees fairly well. It is also seen from the Figure that the inside
heat transfer coefficient is very high, which is approximately 3260 W/m2 K. However,
the overall heat transfer is found to be quite low value which is approximately 325

20 5000
4500
Inside and Overall HTC, W/m K

2
15 Experimental Solution Temperature 4000
Solution Temperature,C Predicted Solution Temperature
0
3500
10 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 3000
Inside Heat Transfer Coefficient
2500
5 2000
1500
0 1000
500
-5 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Total no. of cycle for binary solution through the cold bath
Figure 5.24 Comparison between predicted and experimental solution

20 5500
5000
15 Predicted Solution Temperature 4500
Solution Temperature,C
Inside and Overall HTC, w/m K

0
2
Experimental Solution Temperature 4000
Overall heat transfer coefficient 3500
10
Inside Heat Transfer Coefficient 3000
2500
5
2000
1500
0 1000
500
-5 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Total no. of cylce for the binary solution throgh the cold bath
Figure 5.25 Variation of ethylene glycol solution temperature with distance

(Flow rate 18 l/min)

W/m2 K for the low value of out side heat transfer coefficient. This is because flow
pattern out side the tube (i.e. inside the cold bath) is difficult to define which is neither
natural nor forced convection heat transfer.
Figures 5.24 and 5.25 also show the comparison between the predicted and
experimental solution temperature for flow rates of 15 l/min and 18 l/min,
respectively. For these cases, the inside heat transfer coefficient was found 5220 W/m2
K and 4514 W/m2 K for the flow rate of 15 l/min and 18 l/min, respectively. Overall
heat transfer coefficients were found to be 560 W/m2 K and 518 W/m2 K for the flow
rates of 15 l/min and 18 l/min, respectively. As expected, the heat transfer coefficient
for higher flow is higher.
5.2.2 Effect of mole fraction on freezing point depression
As described in Chapter 4, the equation developed by Wark [53] has been used to find
out the freezing point depression for a binary solution. Figures 5.26 and 5.27 show the
effect of mole fraction on freezing point and on ice formation. As seen from the
Figures, the mole fraction of glycol increases with the increase in ice formation rate.
This is because the ice slurry that is being formed separated from the solution as a
result water volume in the solution decreases which causing an increase in glycol
concentration in the solution. It is also seen from the Figures that the mole fraction of
water and glycol exhibits a reverse relations to each other.

0.09 0.98
0.08
0.97
0.07
Mole Fraction of Water

0.06 0.96
Mole Fraction of Glycol
0.05
0.95
0.04
0.03 0.94
0.02
Mole Fraction of Glycol(B) 0.93
0.01 Mole Fraction of water(A)
0 0.92
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Freezing Point Depression of Solution
Figure 5.26 Effect of mole fraction on freezing point depression of solution
0.09 0.980
0.975
0.08
0.970
0.07
Mole Fraction of Glycol
0.965

0.06 0.960
0.955
0.05
0.950
0.04
0.945
0.03 0.940
0.02 0.935
Mole Fraction of Glycol (B)
0.930
0.01 Mole Fraction of Water (A) 0.925
0.00 0.920
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Ice formation rate, kg/s
Figure 5.27 Effect of mole fraction on ice formation rate

0.18 0.980
0.16 0.975
0.970
Ice Formation Rate, kg/s
0.14 0.965

0.12 Ice Formation 0.960
Rate (B) 0.955
0.10
Mole Fraction 0.950
0.08 of Water (A) 0.945
0.06 0.940
0.935
0.04
0.930
0.02 0.925
0.00 0.920
0.015 0.025 0.035 0.045 0.055 0.065 0.075 0.085
Mole Fraction of glycol
Figure 5.28 Effect of mole fraction of glycol on ice formation.
Figure 5.28 shows the ice formation rate with the mole fraction of glycol. As seen
from the Figure, ice formation starts at a mole fraction of 0.025 and 0.975 for glycol
and water, respectively. As the ice formation increases mole fraction of glycol also
increases which affects the freezing point of ice slurry. From Figure 5.28, it can be
shown that, for a small change in mole fraction of water from 0.975 to 0.95, the
freezing point depression changed from -20 C to -50 C. This can be explained with the
fact that, as there is an increase in glycol concentration in the solution, the freezing
point increase.
5.3 Energy Recovery from Ice Slurry
This section presents the results of energy extraction obtained from the experiments
and prediction. Heat transfer characteristics, especially overall heat transfer (OHTC),
average heat flux and cooling duty have been studied under different operating

conditions. Effect of ice slurry flow rate, cooling medium flow rate and ice slurry
concentration on overall heat transfer coefficient and heat flux have been investigated.
Flow rates of cooling medium and ice slurry were varied between 8 l/min and 12
l/min.
5.3.1 Effect of flow rate on OHTC and cooling duty
Here, the flow rates of ice slurry through the tube have been changed within the range
of 8 l/min to 12 l/min. The temperature of the inlet ice slurry is about -0.10C. The
cooling medium water flow rate was maintained at about 14 l/min and at a inlet
temperature of around 230C. Figure 5.29 shows the effect of ice slurry flow rate on
overall heat transfer coefficient (OHTC) and cooling duty. Ice slurry flow rate through
the tube affects the heat exchanger to change its overall heat transfer coefficient.
Outside heat transfer coefficient increases with the increase in velocity of tube side ice
slurry and, as a result, the overall heat transfer coefficient increases [63-65], which can
be observed from Figure 5.29. Due to this increase of inside heat transfer coefficient,
the overall heat transfer coefficient of the heat exchanger also increased. Overall heat
transfer coefficient were found to be 1.43 kW/m2 K, 1.18 kW/m2K and 1.086 kW/m2K
for flow rates of 12 l/min, 10 l/min and 8 l/min, respectively. Figure 5.29 also shows
the variation of overall heat transfer (OHT) coefficient and cooling duty with ice slurry
flow rate for an average ice slurry concentration of 5-20%. As seen from the Figure,
the cooling increases with the ice slurry flow rate. The cooling duty starts to increase
due

1.60 11
1.40
10
OHT coefficient, kW/m K

1.20
2 9
Cooling duty, kW
1.00
0.80 8
0.60 OHT coefficient, kW/m K

7
0.40 Cooling duty, kW
6
0.20
0.00 5
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Flow rate of ice slurry, lpm
Figure 5.29 Effect of ice slurry flow rate on heat transfer coefficient
and cooling duty
12
1.4
11
Cooling duty of ice slurry, kW

1.2
OHT Coefficient,W/m K
10
2
1
9
0.8
8
0.6 7
Experimental Value OHTC
0.4 Cooling duty, kW 6
0.2 5
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Flow rate of cooling water, l/min
Figure 5.30 Effect of cooling water flow rate on heat transfer coefficient
to the higher overall heat transfer coefficient although the temperature variation of
cooling water is almost same for each flow rate. The temperature variation of cooling

water is almost same for each flow rate, however, due to the increase in overall heat
transfer coefficient, the heat transfer rate increases. The cooling water temperature
varies from 230C to 110C.
Figure 5.30 shows the effect of cooling medium flow rate on the overall heat transfer
coefficient and cooling duty. From this Figure, it can be seen that the overall heat
transfer coefficient increases slightly with the cooling medium flow rate. This can be
attributed to the fact that, as there is an increase of Reynolds number with the increase
of cooling medium flow rate over the tube bundle, a significant increase of outside
heat transfer coefficient occurs. Due to the increase of shell side (out side) cooling
medium flow rate, outside heat transfer coefficient increases which causes a slight
increase in overall heat transfer coefficient. From the Figure, it is clearly observed that
cooling duty also increases with the increase in overall heat transfer coefficient and
flow rate.
5.3.2 Comparison of experimental and predicted results
Cooling medium and ice slurry flow rates have been varied between 8 l/min and 12
l/min. Other operating parameters have been maintained constant. The cooling duty
has been calculated from the ice slurry melting process. It is found overall heat transfer
coefficient increases significantly with the increase in ice slurry flow rate. Predicted
result matches satisfactorily with the experimental results.

11
1.55
1.40 10
2
OHT Coefficient,kW/m K 1.25
9
Cooling duty, kW
1.10
0.95
8
0.80
Experimental Value
0.65 Dobran Correlation [58] 7
Soo Correlation [57]
0.50
M.Haid Correlation[56] 6
0.35 Cooling duty, kW
0.20 5
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5
Flow Rate of Ice Slurry, lpm
Figure 5.31 Comparison between experimental and predicted overall heat

transfer coefficient with the ice slurry flow rate
As described in Chapter 4, correlations developed by Haid et al. [56], Soo [57] and
Dorban [58] have been used to compare the predicted and experimental heat transfer
coefficient. Figure 5.31 shows the effect of ice slurry flow rate on the overall heat
transfer coefficient and cooling duty. Figure 5.32 shows the effect of cooling water
flow rate on overall heat transfer coefficient. From Figures 5.31 and 5.32, it is
observed that predicted overall heat transfer coefficient obtained by correlation of Soo
[57] and Dobran [58] is near to the experimental value. However, the correlation of
Haid et al. [56] deviated significantly from the experimental results. From these
figures it is seen that the variation of the heat transfer coefficient is fairly constant. It
can be explained that the change in flow rate is not high, the corresponding change in
velocity is also small. As the heat transfer coefficient is a function of Reynold’s

number, which in turn is a function of velocity, the variation of heat transfer
coefficients is small.
1400
1200
Overall HTC, W/m K
2
1000
800
Experimental Value
Dobran Correlation [58]
600
Soo Correlation[57]
Haid et al. Correlation[56]
400
200
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Flow Rate of Cooling Water, lpm
Figure 5.32 Comparison between experimental and predicted overall heat
transfer coefficient with the cooling medium flow rate
Effect of ice slurry concentration
Effect of ice slurry concentration on the overall heat transfer coefficient has also been
investigated. An analysis of data collected during the experiments has been made to
determine the ice formation rate. The concentration of ice slurry is computed from the
ice slurry that is being formed in the glass cylinder. Volume of ice formation can be
calculated as follows
dV water × ρ w πrtan2 k δ × ρ w
Volume of ice formed, Vice = = (5.1)
(ρ w − ρ ice ) (ρ w − ρ ice )
The ice slurry formation rate can be found from the following equation.
. Vice × ρ ice
Rate of ice formation, m ice = (5.2)
t ice
Where, δ is increased in water level of glass cylider due to ice formation,

ρ ice = Density of ice (kg/m3)
tice =Time of ice formation (sec)
1300
1200
Overall HTC,W/m K
2
1100
1000
Experimental Value
900
Dobran Correlation[58]
Soo Correlation[57]
800
Haid et al. Correlation[56]
700
0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24
Concentration, %
Figure 5.33 Effect of ice slurry concentration on overall heat transfer coefficient
11.0 5.5
10.5 5.0
10.0
4.5 Chilled water cooling duty,kW
Cooling Duty ,kW
9.5
4.0
9.0
3.5
8.5
3.0
8.0
Ice-Slurry 2.5
7.5
Chilled Water
7.0 2.0
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Flow Rate, lpm
Figure 5.34 Comparison of cooling duty between ice slurry and chilled water

Figure 5.33 shows the effect of ice slurry concentration on overall heat transfer
coefficient. From the Figure it is seen that the heat transfer coefficient remains fairly
constant as the ice fraction increased. This behavior seems to be consistent with the
work of Bellas et al. [55] and Knodel et al. [68].
Figure 5.34 shows the comparison between ice slurry and chilled water cooling duty.
The heat transfer capacity of the shell and tube heat exchanger was found to increase
by more than (35-40%) when compared with the single-phase fluid i.e. chill water
only. This is to be expected in the design of ice slurry storage applications.
Chapter-6 Conclusions
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
An ice slurry generation and storage system using direct contact heat transfer was
designed, fabricated, and tested. A series of experiments was conducted under
different mode of nozzle assembly. Experimental results were analyzed to evaluate the
effect of different parameters on the system performance and, finally, compared with
simulation results, good agreement was found between the model and experimental
results. A parametric study was performed to analyze the effects of various parameters
on the system performance. Based on the experimental and theoretical study, following
conclusions are drawn:
1. Three different physical conditions for ice slurry generation using FC-84 were
investigated. The droplets behavior and direct contact heat transfer
characteristics of the droplets were experimentally investigated under different
operating conditions. The tested nozzle arrangement in the glass column were
as follows: (a) nozzle located above the water at the top of the glass tank, (b)
nozzle located inside the water at the top of the glass tank and (c) nozzle
located at the bottom of the glass tank and submerged into coolant. Among
these three combinations of nozzle assembly, it was found that nozzle located
at the bottom of the glass tank shows best results.
2. The direct contact heat transfer coefficients between the coolant droplets and
water for both spray patterns, shower and fountain, were found to be 4250
W/m2 K and 4875 W/m2 K for flow rates of 4 l/min and 6 l/min, respectively.
Chapter-6 Conclusions
Heat transfer coefficients for the nozzle located at the bottom of the glass
column were found to be 5310 W/m2 K and 5800 W/m2 K for coolant flow
rates of 8 l/min and 10 l/min, respectively.
3. The effects of mole fraction on ice formation were studied using the model
developed for the evaluation of freezing point depression. It was found that the
mole fraction of the glycol increases with the increase of ice formation. It was
also found that, as the ice formation increased, the mole fraction of glycol also
increased, which affected the freezing point of ice. A change in the freezing
point depression from -20 C to -50 C was found for a change in the mole
fraction of ethylene glycol from 0.025 to 0.045.
4. Results show that the inside (tube wall and solution) heat transfer coefficient
for ice slurry production with binary solution increases with increase in flow
rate. Inside heat transfer coefficient were found to be 3260 W/m2 K, 5220
W/m2 K and 4514 W/m2 K for the flow rate of 10 l/min, 15 l/min and 18 l/min,
respectively.
5. For the energy recovery system, a significant change in the overall heat transfer
was found with the flow rate of ice slurry. And the overall heat transfer
coefficients were found to be 1.40 kW/m2 K, 1.2 kW/m2K and 1.10 kW/m2K
for flow rates of 12 l/min, 10 l/min and 8 l/min, respectively. The heat transfer
capacity of the shell and tube heat exchanger was found to increase more than
35-40% compared with the single-phase fluid i.e. chilled water only.
Chapter-7 Recommendations
CHAPTER-7
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
The thermal performance of an ice slurry generation and melting system was
investigated in this study three nozzle assemblies by conducting experiments and
compared with simulation results. At the end of present study, the following
recommendations are made for future work.
• For current experiments, the coolant used is FC-84. According to the
manufacturers data the solubility of FC-84 is 11 ppm which implies that
water is immiscible in FC-84. An independent beaker test was carried out
to investigate the solubility of coolant. It was found that some ice particle
forms in the solution at low temperature this may be due to thermal
expansion and high pressure. The performance of the system can be
determined with other Fluorinert group coolant.
• Initiative should be taken to develop two phase flow heat transfer
correlation for the studies.
• For the ethylene glycol test, the freezing point increases with ice formation
and with increase in glycol concentration in the solution. Water at lower
temperature can be added to the solution during ice formation in order to
keep the mole fraction of the glycol constant.
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Appendix A
Appendix A
CALIBRATION OF GRAPH & INSTRUMENT
Appendix A
APPENDIX A- CALIBRATION OF INSTRUMENTATION
All thermocouple were calibrated against the standard liquid-in-glass thermometer that
has an accuracy of ±0.05oC by immersing them in a constant temperature water bath.
Each thermocouple was connected to the respective channel of the data logger and
calibrated for heating and cooling.
The equations of the calibration curves of the thermocouple are given in Table A.1.
Table A.1. Equations of calibration curves of the thermocouples
Thermocouples Type Equation of calibration curve (y=m.x+c)
T1 T y=0.9958*x+0.154
T2 T y=0.9959*x+0.1516
T3 T y=0.9957*x+0.1335
T4 T y=0.999*x+0.1576
T5 T y=0.9965*x+0.1566
T6 T y=0.9968*x+0.134
T7 T y=0.9974*x+0.1305
T8 T y=0.9984*x+0.1275
T9 T y=0.9968*x+0.1362
T10 T y=0.9977*x+0.1512
T11 T y=0.9968*x+0.1367
T12 T y = 1.0064*x + 0.0537
T13 T y = 1.0077*x + 0.0195
T14 T y = 1.0052*x + 0.0617
*y=Actual temperature, C, x=Measured temperature,oC
Appendix A
30
25
y = 0.9958x + 0.154
2 20
R =1
Actual temperature, C 15
o
10
5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30 o
Measured temperature, C
Figure A1 Calibration graph for channel 1
30
25
20
y = 0.9959x + 0.1516
15
Actual temperature, C
2
R =1
o
10
5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
o
Figure A2. Calibration graph for channel 2
Appendix A
30
25
20
y = 0.9987x + 0.1335
15
Actual temperature, oC 10
5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
Measured temperature, oC
30
25
20
y = 0.999x + 0.1576
15
o
10
5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
o
Appendix A
30
25
20
y = 0.9968x + 0.1367
15
o
10
5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
o
30
25
20
15
y = 0.9968x + 0.134
10
5
Actual temperature, c
o
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
o
Appendix A
30
25
20
y = 0.9974x + 0.1305
15
10
o
5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30 o
30
25
20
y = 0.9984x + 0.1275
15
o
10
5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
o
Appendix A
30
25
20
y = 0.9968x + 0.1367
15
o 10
5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30 o
30
25
y = 0.9977x + 0.1512 20
15
o
10
5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
o
Appendix A
30
25
20
y = 0.9965x + 0.1566
15
o
10
5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
o
Measured temprature, C
30
25
20
Actual Surface Temperature, C
y = 0.992x + 0.1893
o
15
10
5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
o
Measured Surface Temperature, C
Appendix A
30
25
20
Actual surface temperaure, C

o 15
y = 1.0086x - 0.1674
10
5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
o
Measured surface temperature, C
30
25
20
Actual Surface Temperature, C
o
y = 1.0096x + 0.0003 15
10
5
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
o
Measured Surface Temperature, C
Appendix B
Appendix B
TABULATED RESULTS
Appendix B
Table B.1. Heat transfer coefficient values under different experimental
conditions given in chapter 5
Nozzle Nozzle Flor rate of

Location Residence time Heat Transfer Coefficient,
Spray Pattern diameter, Coolant,
of droplets, sec W/m2k
mm l/min
Shower (Vertical 3.88 4 4253
Top 6
down) 3.58 6 4875
Fountain 4.17 4 4253
6
(Inclined) 3.88 6 4875
3.84 8 5310
3.7 10 5802
Table B.2. Ice formation rates under different experimental conditions given in
chapter 5
Flow
Nozzle Time of Ice
Nozzle Rate of Mass of Mass of Ice
Spray Patter Diameter, Formation,
Location Coolant, Waer, kg slurry, kg
mm min
l/min
Shower(Vertical 4 50 2.015
down) 6 35 3.023
Top 6 10
Fountain 4 40 2.016
(Inclined) 6 30 3.023
8 30 3.023
Bottom Vertical up 3 7.5
10 30 4.031
Appendix B
Table B.3. Heat Transfer Coefficient values during ice formation part given in
chapter 5
Nozzle Residence Heat Transfer Coefficient

Nozzle Flor rate of
Location Spray time of
diameter, Coolant, During Ice Formation,
Pattern droplets,
mm l/min 2
sec W/m k
Shower 3.88 4 24
Top
(Vertical 3.58 6 123
6
Fountain 4.17 4 43
(Inclined) 3.88 6 118
3.84 8 40
3.7 10 75
Table B.4. Experimental results for the variation of cooing medium flow rate
graph plotted in section 5.6
Cooling Ice-slurry Overall heat transfer Average heat flux

medium flow flow rate coefficient, (W/m2K) (W/m2)
rate (l/min)
(l/min)
9 12 1051.09 15.24
10 12 1156.44 16.65
12 12 1200.85 16.49
Table B.5. Experimental results for the variation of Ice-slurry flow rate graph
plotted in section 5.6
Cooling Ice-slurry Overall heat transfer Average heat flux

medium flow flow rate coefficient, (W/m2K) (W/m2)
rate (l/min)
(l/min)
12 9.0 1068.12 15.42
12 10.0 1179.59 16.45
12 12.0 1428.23 17.96
Appendix B
Table B.6. Comparison between experimental and simulation results for ice
slurry flow rate variation graph plotted in section 5.6
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient,

Cooling medium Ice-slurry flow 2
Correlation W/m K
flow rate, l/min rate, l/min
Predicted Experimental
Dorban 1409.01
12 12 Soo 1459.52 1428.1
Haid 1192.58
Dorban 1164.46
12 10 Soo 1201.76 1179.3
Haid 983.935
Dorban 1051.9
12 8 Soo 1085.61 1086.1
Haid 869.195
Table B.7. Comparison between experimental and simulation results for cooling
medium flow rate variation graph plotted in section 5.6
Cooling medium Ice-slurry flow Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, W/m 2K

Correlation
flow rate, l/min rate, l/min
Predicted Experimental
Dorban 1186.87
12 12 Soo 1222.43 1200.85
Haid 1029.43
Dorban 1201.76
10 12 Soo 983.94 1156.44
Haid 1201.76
Dorban 1151.05
8 12 Soo 1189.34 1051.09
Haid 956.72
Appendix C Error Analysis
Appendix C
ERROR ANALYSIS
Uncertainity analysis
An ice slurry generation and storage system using direct contact heat transfer was
design, fabricated, and tested. In this analysis the heat flux and overall heat transfer are
very important than other finding in the experiments. So, for error analysis for the heat
flux and temperature and flow rate has been undertaken according to Moffat [69]. The
term uncertainity analysis or error analysis refers to the process of estimating how
great an effect the uncertainity in the individual measurments have on the calculated
results. If the results R of an experiment is caculated from a set of independent varibles
so that, R=( X1, X2, X3, …………., XN). Then the overall uncertainity can be caculated
using the following expression.
1
  ∂DIP  2
2
∂R = ∑ 
 
∂X i   (C.1)
  ∂X i  
∂DIP
where, stands for the partial derivative of the entire set of equations (DIP) with
∂X i
respect to the variables Xi.
Uncertainity analysis for heat flux and overall heat transfer coefficient
The heat flux is dependent on several measured parameters. The heat flux equation is a
function of a number of input parameters. The heat flux equation is as follows:
q '' = q '' (mis , mc , Tisi , Tiso , Tci , Tco ) (C.2)
U b − w = U b − w (mis , mc , Tisi , Tiso , Tci , Tco ) (C.3
where, mis and mc are the ice slurry and cooling medium water flow rate in l/min; Tisi
and Tiso, are the ice slurry inlet and out let temperature, respectively; Tci and Tco are
the cooling medium water inlet and out let temperature, respectively.
The uncertainty in the various measured parameter results in an overall uncertainty in
heat flux, q '' and U. These are estimated using the procedures given by Moffat [69].
The uncertainty in q '' can be expressed as:
0.5
 ∂q '' 2
  ∂q ''
2
  ∂q ''  
2

 
δmis  +  
δmc  +   
δTisi  + 
 ∂mis   ∂mc   ∂Tisi  
δq = 
''
2 2 2 
(C.4)
 ∂q ''   ∂q ''   ∂q ''  
 ∂T δTiso  +  ∂T δTci  +  ∂T δTco  
 iso   ci   co  
0.5
 ∂U 2
  U b−w
2
  U b−w 
2

 b− w
δmis  +  δmc  +  δTisi  +
 ∂mis   ∂mc   ∂Tisi  
δU b − w = 2 2 2  (C.5)
 U b − w   U b−w   U b−w  
 ∂T δTiso  +  ∂T δTci  +  ∂T δTco  
 iso   ci   co  
The error involved in the measurement of temperatures, δT, can be determined as
(
δT = δT1 2 + δT2 2 )0.5
(C.6)
Where, δT1 is the fixed error in the measurement of temperature which is ±0.020C and
δT2 is the random error which can be determined from the standard deviation of the
population of measured data as
 N (Ti − T )2 
0.5
δT2 = ∑  (C.7)
 i =1 N − 1 
where T is the mean of the population of measured data and N is the populaiton size.
The uncertainity in the measurment of ice slurry and cooling medium flow rate is ±
1.5 % of the measured flow rate.
After calculating the different errors of δT for heat exchanger shell side outlet and tube
side inlet and out let, from equation (C.4) and (C.5), the error for calculating the heat
flux and overall heat transfer can be calculated.
As the expressions of U and q involve expressions that are difficult to differentiate
analytically, the gradients are computed numerically by perturbing the input variables.
Following are the processes used to accomplish the numerical uncertainty analysis
Moffat, [69].
1. Calculate the values of U and q '' for the measured data and store the values as
Uopt, q '' opt.
2. Increase the value of first variable, mc by its uncertainty interval, δmc and δmis.
Calculate the value of U+ and q '' + using the new value of the first variable,
which becomes (mc+δmc), keeping all other variables at their measured value.
Find the difference (U+)-(Uopt) and ( q '' +)-( q '' opt) and store them as C1x+and
C2y+ respectively which represent the contribution to the uncertainty of U and
q '' caused by the increase of first variable by its uncertainty interval +δmc.
3. Decrease the value of the first variable, mc by its uncertainty interval δmc and
repeat step-2 to calculate the value of U- and q '' -. Find the difference (U-)-
(Uopt) and ( q '' -)-( q '' opt) and store them as C1x- and C2y, respectively.
4. Calculate the average of the absolute values of C1x+ and C1x- and store them
as Cx1. Similarly calculate the average of the absolute values C2y+ and C2y- as
Cy2.
5. Repeat step 2 to 4 for the other variables mis , mc , Tisi , Tiso , Tci , Tco to get the values
of Cx2 to 7 Cy2 to78.
6. The uncertainty in the value of U and q '' are the root-sum-square of the Cx1 to 7
and Cy2 to 7 respectively. So, form the uncertainty data of, the uncertainty of U
and q” can be calculated. The uncertainty in q” ±2.525% for a measure
uncertainty in the inlet and outlet temperature and mass flow rate of ±0.1% and
1.5%. The uncertainty of overall heat transfer coefficient is given below in the
table.
Table C.1 Uncertainties in the measured and derived parameters
δTisi δmis Ub-u δTci δmc δTiso δTco δUb-u 100δUb-u

(o C) (kg/s) (w/m2K) (o C) (kg/s) (o C) (w/m2K) Ub-u
Run- 0.02 0.00133 1051.09 0.02 0.00067 0.02 0.02 128.3 12.1
1
Run- 0.02 0.00133 1156.44 0.02 0.00067 0.02 0.02 136.0 12.8
2
Run- 0.02 0.00133 1200.85 0.02 0.00067 0.02 0.02 142.1 11.8
3
Run- 0.02 0.00087 1068.12 0.02 0.00046 0.02 0.02 118.6 11.1
4
Run- 0.02 0.00087 1179.59 0.02 0.00046 0.02 0.02 108.6 9.2
5
Run- 0.02 0.00087 1428.23 0.02 0.00046 0.02 0.02 139.8 9.7
6
Run- 0.02 0.00171 0.02 0.00065 0.02 0.02 117.5 10.0
1164.46
7
Run- 0.02 0.00171 0.02 0.00065 0.02 0.02 137.6 11.5
1201.76
8
Run- 0.02 0.00171 0.02 0.00065 0.02 0.02 106.5 10.8
983.935
9
Appendix D General Solutions
Appendix D
GENERAL SOLUTIONS
General Solution for water temperature profile
1. The energy balance for the water and cylinder
dTw
(M g c g + M w cw ) = −[v d ρ c cc N d (1 − e −λ ) + U o ]Tw + v d ρ c cc N d (1 − e −λ )Tdi (t ) + U o Ao Ta
dt
(D1)
It is seen that the term, v d ρ c N d = m& c the coolant mass flow rate through the nozzle.
The exponent λ , can be expressed in the form,
( a d N d τ r ) hd
λ= (D2)
m& c cc
where ( a d N d τ r ) can be interpreted as the total heat transfer area between the drops
and the water at any instant. For spherical drops,
6τ r hd
λ= (D3)
d d ρ c cc
where d d is the mean diameter of a coolant drop.
Expressed in terms the directly measured quantities, equation (B1) takes the form
dTw
(M g c g + M w c w ) = −[m& c c c (1 − e − λ ) + U o ]Tw + m& c c c (1 − e − λ )Tdi (t ) + U o Ao Ta (D4)
dt
If the measured fluid temperature variation at the nozzle inlet, Tdi (t ) , is known,
equation (B1) can be solved numerically to predict the water temperature variation
with time until ice formation occurs.
2. General solution for the temperature of water up to point of ice formation
Depending on the nature of the fluid temperatures, it is generally consist of a linear
portion and a polynomial portion. The linear portion is usually occurring in the first 5
minutes, when the fluid enters the heat exchanger for the first time. There is a sharp
drop in the fluid temperature at the exit of the heat exchanger after one run through the
heat exchanger this is because fluid already is being cooled in the heat exchanger. The
general solution of equation (21) for the linear and polynomial part can be discussed as
follows. For the linear part ( τ ≤ ∆τ 1 )
N d v d ρ e c d (1 − e − λ )e − µτ τ µt
Tw (τ ) = Fo +
(M g c g + M w cw ) ∫0 e Tdi (t )dt (D5)
 1 − e − µτ 
U o Ao Ta  
 µ 
Let, Fo = Tw (0)e − µτ +
(M g c g + M wc w )
Fluid temperature drops very fast because of the high heat transfer rate at the
beginning of the experiment and in this short period of time the temperature drop is
linear and after that the temperature is decrease uniformly which can be represented by
the polynomial. So, this short time the temperature profile water can be written as
τ
N v ρ c (1 − e − λ )e − µτ
Tw (τ ) = Fo + d d e d
(M g c g + M w cw ) ∫ (a
0
1 + bt1 )e µt dt (D6)
Integrating Equation (B6), it yields,
N d v d ρ e c d (1 − e − λ )e − µτ  e µτ − 1 b 1 1 
Tw (τ ) = Fo + a1 ( )) + e − µτ ( 1 (e µτ (τ − ) + )
(M g c g + M w cw )  µ µ µ µ 
(D7)
On further re-arranging equation (B7), it yields,
N d v d ρ e c d (1 − e − λ )e − µτ  1 − e − µτ b 1 − e − µτ 
Tw (τ ) = Fo + a1 ( ) + 1 (τ − ( )
(M g c g + M w cw )  µ µ µ 
And after this short period of time the general solution of the water temperature can
be written with the polynomial ( τ > ∆τ ) part of the fluid temperature,
τ
N d v d ρ e c d (1 − e − λ )e − µτ
Tw (τ ) = Fo +
(M g c g + M wcw ) ∫ (a
0
2 + b2 t + c 2 t )e µt dt (D8)
Integrating the equation (B8), it yields,
N d v d ρ e c d (1 − e − λ )e − µτ  e µτ te µτ τ e µt t 2 e µτ
τ
2te µt 
Tw (τ ) = Fo + a 2 + −∫ dt + c 2 − c2 ∫ dt 
(M g c g + M wcw )  µ µ 0
µ µ 0
µ 
(D9)
After rearrangement Equation (B9), it yields,
N d v d ρ e c d (1 − e − λ )e − µτ  e µτ e µτ 1 e µτ 2 1 
Tw (τ ) = Fo + a
 2 + b (τ − ) + c (τ λ − 2(τ − ))
µ µ τ µ τ 
2 2
(M g c g + M w cw ) 
(D10)
Appendix E
Appendix E
DETERMINATION OF FREEZING POINT OF A BINARY

SOLUTION INTO A BEAKER
Appendix E
1 Model for binary solution into a beaker
This model is developed to predict the freezing point depression of ethylene glycol
solution into a beaker. The heat exchanger temperature is assumed to be constant.
Figure E.1 shows the beaker and heat exchanger assembly. The temperature
distribution of the solution into the beaker depends on the mole fraction of water and
glycol and the mole fraction is changed during ice formation. In order to obtain the
temperature during the ice formation period, the governing equation obtained by
considering the heat transfer between ethylene glycol solution and the heat exchanger
during ice formation phase.
Solution
temperature, Ts
Ethylene glycol
solution Q&
Heat exchanger
Figure E.1. A beaker partially immersed into a heat exchanger
Rate of heat gained by the heat exchanger cooling fluid from the ice slurry and glycol
solution at Ts to the heat exchanger cooling fluid at Tb can be expressed in term of
overall heat transfer coefficient U
Q& = −UA(Ts − Tb ) (E1)
Rate of heat transfer from the ice slurry and glycol solution to the heat exchanger is
given by
Appendix E
[
Q& = M s X w M w C w + M s (1 − X w ) M g C g
dTs
dt
+ H if M s]dX w
dt
(E2)
Combining equation (E1) and (E2), it yields,
[M s X w M w C w + M s (1 − X w ) M g C g ] dTdt s
+ H if M s
dX w
dt
= −UA(Ts − Tb ) (E3)
In the equation (E3) Xw, is mole fraction of water in the solution, Ms is the total mole
of the solution which is the ratio of mass of solution and molecular weight of the
solution and can be written as follows
Mass of water + Mass of Ethylene Glycol

Ms =
Molecular weight of water + Molecular weight of Ethylene Glycol
Vw ρ w + V g ρ g
Ms =
Mg + Mw
where,
ρ
of water, kg/m3 Cw =Specific heat of water, kJ/kg K
w=Density
Vg=Volume of Ethylene Glycol, m3 Cg = Specific heat of glycol, kJ/kg K

ρ 3
g= Density of Ethylene Glycol, kg/m
(1-Xw)= Mole Fraction of Ethylene Glycol
Mw= Molecular Weight of Water, kg/kmol
Hif = Molar Heat of enthalpy, kJ/ Kg
Mg=Molecular weight of Ethylene Glycol,
kg/kmol R=Molar (Universal) Gas Constant,
Vw= Volume of water, m3
8.3145kJ/kmol K
Now from equation (E1) and (E3), we get,
 H if   - H if  dTs
[M s X w M w C w + M s (1 − X w ) M g C g ] dTdt s
+ M s H if G.  2
Exp
  RT 
 RTs   s  dt
= −UA(Ts − Tb )
(E4)
Appendix E
 − H if  dTs  H if   − H if  dTs
M s M g C g + M s ( M w C w − M g C g )G.Exp  + M s H if G. 2 
Exp  
 RTs  dt  RTs   RTs  dt
= −UA(Ts − Tb )
(E5)
On further re-arrangement equation (E5) can be written as
dTs − UA(Ts − Tb )
= (E6)
dt  − C1   C1   − C1 
A1 + BExp  + D 2  Exp 
T  T  T
 s   s   s 
Equation (E6) shows the temperature distribution of the solution into the beaker with
time
Where,
A1 = M s C g M g
B1 = M s (M wCw − M g Cg )G
 H if 
C1 =  
 R 
D1 = M s H if G

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ICE SLURRY STORAGE SYSTEM IN DISTRICT

COOLING APPLICATIONS FOR AIR-

MOHAMMAD KAMAL HOSSAIN

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

always enlightening and inspiring.

financial support, which enabled him to carry out this study.

rendered towards his developments in education.

for enabling him to achieve this end.

1.3 Objectives of Research 4

1.4 The Scope 4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

and Design Aspects

2.2 Ice Slurry Flow Heat Transfer and Characteristics 11

2.3 Advantages and Cost Savings Resulting from use of the 14

Ice Slurry System

CHAPTER 3 THE EXPERIMENTS 19

3.1.2 Coolant Path 21

3.1.3 Centrifugal Pump and Flow Meter 22

3.1.4 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 22

Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning ii

3.1.5 Progressive cavity pump 25

3.1.6 Cooling coil, secondary refrigerant, and the cold bath 26

3.3 Direct Contact Heat Transfer Method 28

3.3.1 Mode of Operation 28

3.3.1.1 Nozzle at the top: Shower spray 29

3.3.1.2 Nozzle at the top: Fountain spray 30

3.3.1.3 Injection from bottom 32

3.3.1.4 Test procedure 33

3.3.2 Estimation of the drop size 34

4.2.1 Model for binary solution 52

4.3 Energy Extraction for Space Cooling Purpose 60

4.3.1 Energy withdrawal analysis 60

4.3.2 Ice slurry properties 63

CHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 64

5.1.1 Experimental Results 64

5.1.2 Comparison of experimental and predicted results 67

5.1.2.1 Nozzle operation at shower spray mode 67

5.1.2.2 Nozzle operation at fountain spray mode 72

5.1.2.3 Spray from bottom 76

5.1.3 Parametric Study 82

5.1.3.1 Effect of coolant flow rate 83

5.1.3.2 Influence of nozzle diameter 85

5.2 Method Using Freezing of Binary solutions 87

5.2.1 Effect of flow rate 88

5.2.2 Effect of mole fraction on freezing point depression 91

5.3 Energy Recovery from Ice Slurry 93

5.3.1 Effect of flow rate on OHTC and cooling duty 94

5.3.2 Comparison of experimental and predicted results 96

CHAPTER 6 CONCLULSIONS 101

APPENDIX A CALIBRATION OF GRAPH & INSTUMENTS 113

Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning iv

APPENDIX C ERROR ANALYSIS 126

Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning v

operating conditions. A successful development of an efficient ice slurry storage

system would be useful for applications in domestic and industrial air-conditioning

and industrial applications was investigated.

evaluation of the system performance. A series of experiments was performed to

Ice Slurry Storage System in District Cooling Application for Air-conditioning vi

from bottom was 3 mm.

change in the mole fraction from 0.025 to 0.045 of glycol.

phase fluid i.e. chill water only.

Symbol DESCRIPTION UNIT (SI)

A Surface area of the tube m2