Q-1- Define Commercialization of Education.

Effects of Commercialisation of
Education and pros and cons of Commercialization of Education.
Ans:-
Commercialization of education may be liberally defined as a process of private
ownership and management of educational institutions whereby investments are
made with the motive of earning profits.
Commercialization has a positive impact on education. Some of the important
aspects are as follows:
1. Employment opportunity: Commercialization of education provides
employment opportunity. It provides job opportunity to the students. Many private
institutions offer various job oriented courses, various degrees, diplomas,
certificate course etc. which help the students to engage in job. Due to the
presence of commercialization of education various organization such as GATS
(General Agreement on Trade in services), the students gets the opportunity to
doing professional course at the local branch Campuses of foreign institutions.
Like that the teachers, lectures also engaged in the job in foreign countries. This
also reduces the unemployment problem of the country.

2. Economic Development: Commercialization of education helps in the process

of economic development. Commercialization in education helps in increasing the
rate of literacy, Gross Domestic Product, Gross national Income, per capital
income, provide the job opportunity etc. which is the major indicator of economic
development of a country? This indicator also helps in the human resource
development. So commercialization of education contributes in the economic
development of a country.

3. To Face the Global Challenges: Commercialization of education helps the

students in acquiring appropriate knowledge about the advantages in technology.
Emergence of International knowledge Network, Role of English language etc.
The challenges, how to adopt it, how to get/give help etc. and it also provide
demand for training that can be applied in the real word. For this number of
institutions of education system have transformed this structures and curriculum
to meet the new global challenges.

4. Personality development: commercialization of education helps in the

personality development of the students. The commercialization of education
provides formal education to students. For the personality development of the
students they provide moral education which included the development
commercialization skill, soft skill, how to maintain their physical health, to how
face interview, how to adjust with the society etc. In the school syllabus the
subject of moral science are included. This is helpful for the students in the entire
life.
5. Quality of education: Commercialization of education give emphasis on quality
education. The concept of quality education is broader term which indicates the
quality of the learner, quality of the learning environment, quality content, quality
process and quality outcomes. The commercialization of education makes effort
to provide quality education to the students and also offer more demanding
courses in the modern society. Generally every parents wants that their children
take the quality education which help them in their future life as well in the
development of society. A person who gets good education will become a more
dependable worker, better citizen and strong consumer. The commercialization
institution provides good learning environment, good infrastructure facility, good
teachers etc. For achieving quality education.

6. Increased private Institutions: Duo to the presence of commercialization of

education a number of private institutions were increased in various region.
Incensement of private institutions increased the job opportunity and both the
qualitative and quantitative development of education. So commercialization of
education helps in this process.

7. Social development: Commercialization of education give emphasis on the

social development. For the development of the nation, social development is
very necessary. In the private institution the students were provide the social
education how to adjust with the society, knowledge of the various culture,
knowledge about social interaction, provide knowledge to the students to
preserve their culture, knowledge of the norms, social customs etc. So the
commercialization’s in education provide appropriate opportunity to the students
to establish a relationship with the culture traditions, norms etc.

8. Fulfillment of expectation of parents: Commercialization of education helps in

fulfillment of expectation of parents by providing education in the private
institutions. Every parents tries their level best to provide quality education to his
ward and to fulfill their dreams, they spend a lump sum amount of money so that
their ward is able to study in the best educational institution.

9. Development of professional efficiency of teachers: Commercialization of

education helps give attention on the development of professional efficiency of
teachers. In the private institutions they appoint highly qualified teachers, smart
teachers, and also provide proper training to the teachers for their professional
development. The institution provide opportunity to develop to their professional
efficiency through seminars, workshop, study circle, conference etc.

10. Professional and vocational development of learners: commercialization of

education gives very much emphasis on professional as well as vocational
development of the students. The advertisement made by the school and
colleges such as coaching, diploma degree, vocational training, various
 professional and skill development courses etc. which help the student to get a
background about these courses, and provide opportunity to develop their
academic career. Due to the effect of provide E publishing which provide our
freelance writers an opportunity to work from home, have unlimited income
potential as a weekly basis. The research papers, essays, form papers as a
guide for their own and each project we produce is designed to be an excellent
example exactly how their own term paper.

Demerits of commercialization of education: Commercialization of education also

has some demerits. Some of the important points are as follows-

1. More emphasis on marks: commercialization of education give more emphasis

on marks. It not tries to fulfill all round development of students. The students are
forced to get more and more marks in each subject and only give importance on
intellectual activities. Continuous education is too much in this type of institution.

2. Unable to maintain the principle of equality: Commercialization of education is

unable to maintain the principle of equality. In the society there are three types of
people were lived – upper class people, middle class people and lower people.
For the impact of commercialization of education system the poor people as well
as the weaker section of the society are not able to get education due to high rate
of fees in admitting the students

3. Profit oriented: Commercialization of education always give emphasis on profit.

It makes education as a business. People make rise about it but day by day it
increased rapidly. In many schools for the commercial benefit there have soda
machines, candy machines, fast food canteens, café teria in the boundary of the
school or college campus; it is an example of commercialization. From these
sources they earn money from the students only for their benefit.

4. Costly: The impact of commercialization in education which make education very

costlier. In the private institutions the admission fees, monthly fees, development
fees, semester fees etc. are very high. It is not possible for every family to send
their children in that type of institution.

5. Materialistic outlook: Commercialization of education develops the materialistic

outlook among the students. The student have the attitude that to take proper
education and to get a good job. They pay money and take education. The
student only thinks of himself and not for the development of his region, society
and for the nation. They want to spend a luxuries life. The commercialization of
education makes the student self – cantered. The students have the high
expectation for the benefit of him. This type of education not help the student to
develop the democratic attitude towards the people, towards the society and the
 nations. The students only busy with him and forget the duties of the citizenship
and it produces a narrow outlook or narrow attitude among the students.

6. Over burden of Teachers: The impact of commercialization on education also

related with the over burden of the teachers. In the private institutions, for the
commercial benefit they pressure on the teachers and give over burden of work
for the whole day. They were bound to do the activities provided by the authority.
They were busy to take the class, examination, remedial class, tutorial class, to
check the examination copy etc. But on the basis of their hard working in the
whole day they don’t get sufficient amount of money.

7. Mechanical Process: Commercialization’s of education make the education

process as mechanical. It not follows the psychological principle. The children
have given over burden curriculum. The teachers were engaged at all levels, they
take all class, including remedial class, tutorial class, group discussions,
seminars etc. which decreases the attention, motivation of the students towards
learning.

8. Less salary to teachers: In pvt institutions, usually teachers are appointed on

lower salary to increase the profit of the institutions. Due to lower salary, good
quality teachers often avoid joining pvt institutions which ultimately affect the
quality of education.

9. Poor service condition of teachers: - Commercialization of education only

gives emphasis on profit of authorities who open the institution, but not give
attention on the profit of the teachers. They provide less salary to the teachers
but teachers have given over burden of work. They not provide quarters, proper
facility, proper transport, water facility etc. to the teachers. So that the conditions
of the teachers become poor, but they provide proper education of the students.
If all the facilities provide to the teachers the institutions not become in a
condition of profit. So that the commercialization of education greatly impact on it.

10. Over burden curriculum: Due to the impact of commercialization of education of

educational institutions become a business enterprise. The curriculum of the
institution is very is spread. It includes various additional subjects in general
curriculum. The small children are suffering from it. The books provided by the
institutions are very expensive and in the lower stage which are not
psychologically effective.
Q-2- Short Note on any two committees of Commercialisation of Education.
A- The Birla Ambani Report on commercialisation of Education
The Prime Minister’s Council on Trade and Industry appointed a Committee headed
by Mr. Mukesh Ambani and Mr. Kumarmangalam Birla to suggest reforms in the
Educational sector.
The Committee, which submitted its report in the year 2001, highlighted the
important role of the State in the development of Education. Some of the
suggestions in the report include:
1. The Government should confine itself to Primary Education and the higher
education should be provided by the Private sector.
2. Passage of the Private University Bill.
3. Enforcement of the user-pay principle in higher education.
4. Loans and Grants to the economically and socially weaker sections of society.
The Report suggested that the Government must concentrate more on Primary
Education and less on Secondary and Higher education. It also recommended the
passing of the Private Universities Act. The Birla- Ambani Report further
recommended that the Government must encourage business houses to establish
Educational Institutions.

B- The Punnayya Committee 1992-93

The Punnayya Committee that was set up by the University Grants Commission
made valuable recommendations on the need for the Universities to identify various
other means of revenue generation. The Committee has recommended that as a
general rule, Universities should generate 15% of its annual maintenance
expenditure through internally generated resources and this should go up to at least
25% at the end of ten years. The Committee also recommended that students
receiving higher education should also bear a reasonable proportion of the cost of
higher education.

Q-3-Importance of education as per Universal Declaration of Human Rights

and right of education as per UDHR.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a milestone document in the
history of human rights. Drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural
backgrounds from all regions of the world, the Declaration was proclaimed by the
United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948 (General
Assembly resolution 217 A) as a common standard of achievements for all peoples
and all nations. It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be
universally protected and it has been translated into over 500 languages.
Article 26.
Article 26 of UDHR sets out following important points towards education.
1. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the
elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory.
 Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and
higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
2. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and
to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It
shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or
religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the
maintenance of peace.
3. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to
their children.

Q-4- WTO and GATS norms on education sector as service sector.

Ans:-Education Services presently is divided into five sub-sectors, namely,
1. Primary education, which includes pre-school and other primary education
services.
2. Secondary education, encompassing higher secondary, technical,
vocational secondary and technical services, Higher Education, which covers
post-secondary technical and
3. vocational education services as well as other higher education services
including university degrees,
4. Adult Education such as online or correspondence courses for adults,
5. Other Education; not elsewhere classified

GATS apply to several ways (modes) of supplying education services:

1. Cross-border supply (e.g., distance education).
2. Consumption abroad of services by consumer traveling to supplier's country
(e.g., students studying abroad).
3. Commercial presence (e.g., a campus abroad).
4. Presence of natural persons from supplying country in consuming country
(e.g., faculty teaching abroad).

The WTO has identified certain barriers to trade. These barriers/ obstacles
include the:
 restrictions on free movement and nationalityrequirements of students and
teachers,
 immigration regulations,
 type of courses,
 movement teachers,
 modalities of payments or repatriation of money,
 conditions concerning use of resources,
 direct investment and equity ceilings,
 the existence of public monopolies,
 Subsidies to local institutions,
 economic need tests,
  exchange controls,
 Non-recognition of equivalent qualifications, etc.
Because services are not objects, barriers to trading services are referred to as non-
tariff barriers. The goal of 'free trade' regime under WTO is to get these barriers
removed in order to further liberalize the world economy

Q-5-Short Note on Right to Education as a Human Right/Fundamental Right

Ans:-
The term education has been defined as the process of developing and training the
powers and capabilities of human being.
The right to education has been recognized as a human right in a number of
international conventions, including the The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR) adopted in 1948 which states “Everyone has the right to education.
Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages” and
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights which recognizes a
right to free, compulsory primary education for all, an obligation to
develop secondary education accessible to all.
Indian constitution known to be a document committed to social justice. The
constitution of India takes care of every aspect of human development. Article 45 of
the Constitutionsays that “The state shall endeavour to provide free and
compulsory education to children upto the age of 14 years”
Q-6- Right to Education : Article 21 A
Ans:-
Right to Education
The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002 inserted Article 21-A in the
Constitution of India to provide free and compulsory education of all children in the
age group of six to fourteen years as a Fundamental Right in such a manner as
the State may, by law, determine.
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, which
represents the consequential legislation envisaged under Article 21-A, means that
every child has a right to full time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable
quality in a formal school which satisfies certain essential norms and standards.

Article 21-A and the RTE Act came into effect on 1 April 2010. The title of the RTE
Act incorporates the words ‘free and compulsory’.
‘Free education’ means that no child, other than a child who has been admitted by
his or her parents to a school which is not supported by the appropriate Government,
shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him
or her from pursuing and completing elementary education.
‘Compulsory education’ casts an obligation on the appropriate Government and local
authorities to provide and ensure admission, attendance and completion of
elementary education by all children in the 6-14 age group. With this, India has
moved forward to a rights based framework that casts a legal obligation on the
Central and State Governments to implement this fundamental child right as
enshrined in the Article 21A of the Constitution, in accordance with the provisions of
the RTE Act.
The RTE Act provides for the:
 Right of children to free and compulsory education till completion of elementary
education in a neighbourhood school.
 It clarifies that ‘compulsory education’ means obligation of the appropriate
government to provide free elementary education and ensure compulsory
admission, attendance and completion of elementary education to every child in
the six to fourteen age group. ‘Free’ means that no child shall be liable to pay any
kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing
and completing elementary education.
 It makes provisions for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age appropriate
class.
 It specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments, local
authority and parents in providing free and compulsory education, and sharing of
financial and other responsibilities between the Central and State Governments.
 It lays down the norms and standards relating inter alia to Pupil Teacher Ratios
(PTRs), buildings and infrastructure, school-working days, teacher-working hours.
 It provides for rational deployment of teachers by ensuring that the specified pupil
teacher ratio is maintained for each school, rather than just as an average for the
State or District or Block, thus ensuring that there is no urban-rural imbalance in
 teacher postings. It also provides for prohibition of deployment of teachers for
non-educational work, other than decennial census, elections to local authority,
state legislatures and parliament, and disaster relief.
 It provides for appointment of appropriately trained teachers, i.e. teachers with
the requisite entry and academic qualifications.
 It prohibits (a) physical punishment and mental harassment; (b) screening
procedures for admission of children; (c) capitation fee; (d) private tuition by
teachers and (e) running of schools without recognition,
 It provides for development of curriculum in consonance with the values
enshrined in the Constitution, and which would ensure the all-round development
of the child, building on the child’s knowledge, potentiality and talent and making
the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety through a system of child friendly and
child centred learning.

Q-7-The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (Amendment)

Act 2010
Ans:-Amending the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009,
this Bill seeks to expand the definition of "children belonging to disadvantaged
group" to include children with disabilities.
 The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (Amendment) Bill, 2010
was introduced in the Rajya Sabha on April 16, 2010. 
 The Bill amends the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act,
2009.  It expands the definition of “child belonging to disadvantaged group” to
include children with disability.  “Child with disability” is defined as a child who is
blind, leprosy cured, hearing impaired, locomotor disabled, and mentally ill.  It
also includes children suffering from autism, cerebral palsy, mental retardation
and multiple disabilities.
 A child suffering from autism, cerebral palsy, mental retardation and multiple
disabilities has the same right to pursue free and compulsory elementary
education which children with disability have under the Persons with Disabilities
(Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995.
 The Act provides for establishing School Management Committees to prepare
school development plan.  Article 30 of the Constitution provides that all
minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to
establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.  Thus, the Bill
states that School Management Committees of minority institutions shall function
only in an advisory capacity.  

Q-8- Fundamental Duty: 51A (k)

Part IVA of the Indian Constitution deals with Fundamental Duties. As of now, there
are 11 Fundamental duties.
Originally, the Constitution of India did not contain these duties. Fundamental duties
were added by 42nd and 86th Constitutional Amendment acts.
Article 51A: Fundamental duties
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India –
1. to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National
Flag and the National Anthem;
2. to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for
freedom;
3. to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
4. to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
5. to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the
people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional
diversities;
6. to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
7. to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
8. to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and
wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures;
9. to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;
10. to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
11. to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so
that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement.
12. to provide opportunities for education by the parent the guardian, to his child, or a
ward between the age of 6-14 years as the case may be.

Q-9-Rights of Minorities to establish and administer educational institutions

Art. 29 and Art. 30
Article 29: Protection of interests of minorities.-
1. Any section of the citizensresidingin the territory of India or any part thereof
having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to
conserve the same.
2. No citizen shall be denіed admission іnto any educational іnstіtutіon maintained
by the State or receiving aіd out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race,
caste, language or any of them.

Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer educational

institutions.-
1. All mіnorіtіes, whether based on relіgіon or language, shall have the rіght to
establіsh and administer educatіonal іnstіtutіons of their choіce.
(1A) In making any law providing for the compulsory acquisition of any property of
any educational institution established and administered by a minority, referred to
in clause (1), the State shall ensure that the amount fixed by or determined under
such law for the acquisition of such property is such as would not restrict or
abrogate the right guaranteed under that clause.
2. The State shall not, іn grantіng aіd to educatіonal іnstіtutіons, dіscrіmіnate against
any educational іnstіtutіon on the ground that іtіs under the management of a
mіnorіty, whether based on relіgіon or language.

From the careful perusal of the above two Articles, it is found that together, they
confer four distinct rights on minorities. These include the right of:
a) any sectіon of cіtіzens to conserve іts own language, script or culture;
b) all religious and linguistic minorities to establіsh and administer educatіonal
іnstіtutіons of their choіce;
c) an educational institution against discrimination by State in the matter of State
aid (on the ground that it is under the management of religious or linguistic
minority; and
d) the citizen against denial of admission to any State-maintained or State-aided
educational institution.

Q-9-Recent legislative attempt to accelerate the process of commercialisation

of education.
Ans:-
Q-10- Regulation of Higher Education in India
Ans:-Regulation of Higher Education in India

CENTRAL UNIVERSITY
Central universities are established through an Act in Parliament and are funded by
the Union Government. Older universities have been established through individual
acts such as Delhi University Act. In 2009, the Central Government established a
number of universities together through the Central Universities Act.
STATE UNIVERSITY
State universities are established through an Act in the State Legislature and receive
funding from the respective State Government, and sometimes from the Central
Government, usually via UGC.

DEEMED-TO-BE-A- UNIVERSITY
UGC accords a deemed-to-be-a-university status to an institution. Upon receiving an
application, the UGC committee forwards its recommendation to the Department of
Higher Education, MHRD, which declares a university as deemed-to-be-a-university.
Both government and private universities can be deemed universities. Gokhale
Institute of Politics and Economics and Symbiosis International University are
examples of government and private deemed universities, respectively.

Deemed university status allows greater autonomy in operations, syllabus,

admission, and fees, than allowed by the above types of universities. Deemed
universities are also eligible for funding from the UGC. Jurisdiction of deemed
universities is pan-India and worldwide. For example, Birla Institute of Technology
and Science, Pilani has an offshore campus in Dubai.

Since 2009, no university has been granted deemed university status. Furthermore,
the Government of India announced that it is withdrawing deemed university status
from 44 institutes in February 2010. The matter is sub judice.

PRIVATE UNIVERSITY
Private universities are established through an Act in State Legislatures. Until now,
no private university has been established at the Centre through an Act in
Parliament. The Private Universities (Establishment and Regulation) Bill was
introduced in Parliament in 1995 to regulate the entry and operation of private
universities, but it received strong opposition. Some states had contended that the
bill was unconstitutional and challenged its constitutionality since Entry 32 of the
State List confers the power to incorporate and regulate universities to the states.
Subsequently, the bill was withdrawn by the Central Government in 2007. Private
universities also have to obtain recognition from the UGC. They do not have the
power to affiliate colleges that are run by a different trust.

INSTITUTE OF NATIONAL IMPORTANCE

Institutes of National Importance are institutes accorded power to grant degrees
because of their strategic and economic importance for the country. These include
institutes such as IITs, AIIMS’ and NITs. These institutes have been established at
both Central and State level.
Based on this, there are only two types of universities that can be under private
management: Deemed and Private Universities.
COLLEGES
Colleges can be affiliated to either central or state universities. Private colleges are
usually affiliated to state universities as it appears that affiliation requirement or
regulatory requirements are much easier under state universities. Colleges have to
follow the entry, operation, and exit requirements as defined by the university.
Additionally, they have to be recognised by one of the 15 professional councils
regulating the courses. In 2013, The Supreme Court ruled that AICTE has only
directory or recommendatory control over MBA and MCA (Master of Business
Administration and Master of Computer Application) courses run by colleges; it
cannot superimpose regulations over the university (Association of Management of
Private Colleges v. All India Council for Technical Education 2013, 271).

AUTONOMOUS COLLEGES
‘Autonomous’ colleges have autonomy with respect to the curriculum, examination,
and admission. Since they are not allowed to grant degrees, they are affiliated to a
government university, which grants the degree. Usually colleges of repute are
granted autonomy to manage their own affairs. Most of the older and established
colleges are autonomous in nature and are financed either by the Central or State
governments. Examples include Madhav Institute of Technology & Sciences
financed by the Madhya Pradesh Government or Shri Govindram Seksaria Institute
of Technology and Science, Madhya Pradesh.

The University Grants Commission (UGC) was established in 1956 under the
University Grants Commission Act, 1956. The All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE) was established in 1987 under the All India Council for Technical
Education Act, 1987.
These two institutions have been created to achieve two distinct objectives in the
sphere of higher education.
While the objective of the UGC is to promote and co-ordinate University education
and to determine and maintain standards of teaching, examination and research in
Universities, the AICTE aims at ensuring coordinated and integrated development of
technical and management education and maintenance of standards.
Various committees on higher education have earlier recommended a single
regulatory body. While National Knowledge Commission (2006) recommended an
independent regulatory authority for higher education, the Committee on Renovation
and Rejuvenation of Higher Education (Professor Yashpal Committee: 2009)
advocated an apex regulatory body by converging multiple regulatory agencies in the
field of higher education. Further, the University Grants Commission Review
Committee (Prof. Hari Gautam Committee) in 2014 had recommended that the UGC
should be replaced by an apex institution titled National Higher Education Authority.
Q-11- Regulation of Medical Education
Ans:-
National Medical Commission (NMC) is an Indian regularity body of 33 members
who overtake medical education regulations from Medical Council of India  from 8
August 2019. It became a permanent law passed by Parliament of India and later
approved by President of India on 8 August 2019

Before NMC, MCI was the regulatory body which was first established in 1934 under
the Indian Medical Council Act, 1933. The Council was later reconstituted under
the Indian Medical Council Act, 1956 that replaced the earlier Act.

Functions of the council

The main functions of the Medical Council of India are as follows:
 Establishment and maintenance of uniform standards for undergraduate
medical education.
 Regulation of postgraduate medical education in medical colleges accredited
by it. (The National Board of Examinations is another statutory body for
postgraduate medical education in India).
 Recognition of medical qualifications granted by University or UGC in medical
institutions in India.
 Recognition of foreign medical qualifications in India.
 Accreditation of medical colleges.
 Registration of doctors with recognized medical qualifications.
 Keeping a directory of all registered doctors (called the Indian Medical
Register).
Registration of doctors and their qualifications is usually done by state medical
councils.

Q-12-Regulation of Legal Education

Ans:-
For the first time, the Bengal Regulation VII of 1793 established regular legal
profession for the East India Company's Courts. This Regulation controlled the
appointment of Vakilsin civil judicature courts in the provinces of Bengal, Orissa and
Bihar and conferred special powers on the Sudder Dewani Adalat19 to enroll
pleaders20 . The Regulation was enacted with a view to strengthen the legal
profession in the best interests of the litigant public, members of the bar serving as
trustees of their clients and thus helping in the sound administration of justice. The
regulation created for the first time a regular legal profession for the Company's
Adalats.

In India, legal education has been traditionally offered as a three years graduate
degree. However the structure has been changed since 1987. Law degrees in India
are granted and conferred in terms of the Advocates Act, 1961, which is a law
passed by the Parliament both on the aspect of legal education and also regulation
of conduct of legal profession. [2] Under the Act, the Bar Council of India is the
supreme regulatory body to regulate the legal profession in India and also to ensure
the compliance of the laws and maintenance of professional standards by the legal
profession in the country.

Education and Directive Principles of State policy

Education as subject is Concurrent List

Regulatory / Laws governing higher education in India

4.2 UGC (Establishment Of and Maintenance Of Standards In Private
Universities) Regulations, 2003
4.3 Other Legislative Attempts

4.3.1 The Foreign Educational Institutions (Regulation of Entry and Operation)

Bill 2010