KEE 3543

SENSOR AND
INSTRUMENTATIONS
Astrolabes in Islamic world by Mariam Al-
Astrulabi and its contribution in the
modern world
Lecturers: Dr. Juliza Jamaludin
Student Names and IDs:
NAJIHAH BINTI MOHD 1170521  History of Astrolabe Inventions
SHUHAIMI
 Relation between Mariam al-
Astrulabi and Astrolabes

MUHAMMAD AQIL 1170525  Anatomy of Astrolabes

FALAH BIN HAZAMI  Contribution of Astrolabes to modern
world
MOHAMAD AIMAN 1170526  Introduction
IZZAT BIN SAHARUDIN  Biodata
SITI NUR AISYAH 1170527  Abstract
BINTI MOHD ROBI  Types of Astrolabe
 Integration of Aqli Naqli
MOHAMAD IZZAT 1170538  Conclusions
HAZMI BIN MOHAMAD  Working Principle of Astrolabes
NAWAWI
Abstract

This chapter reviewed about the Muslim Civilization that rise during of Islam’s Golden
Ages. The Islamic Golden Age was one of the most exceptional times in human history
of academic achievement and cultural flourishing. The advances made during this era,
spanning the years from about 750–1250, are similar to the blossoming of knowledge
in ancient Greece or the later European Renaissance. Unlike ancient Greece and the
European Renaissance, a fortunate convergence of economics, patronage, and great
minds has made the Islamic Golden Age possible. This chapter briefly identifies many
of the Mariam Al- Astrulabi’s most significant changes in human development. A
Muslim scientist and scholar of the Islamic Renaissance Age: A brilliant Muslim woman
named Mariam Al Astrulabi was known for her passion for space science and
astronomy in Aleppo; north of Syria in the tenth century.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The presence of female Islamic scientists such as Mariam al-Astrulabi seems to be
proof that Allah has never limited His servants to seek, study or study knowledge,
especially for women.

Mariam al-Astrulabi, she has the full name Mariam al-Ijliya al-Astrulabi. His father was
a famous Astrolabe maker, a complicated device for land navigation and timepiece. It
is uncertain when Mariam al-Astrulabi was born, only she was thought to have existed
in the 10th century or around 944 AD

Between Astronomy and Astrolabes

Throughout the entire existence of stargazing, Islamic space science or Arabic

cosmology alludes to the advancement of cosmology made in the Islamic society,
particularly during the Golden Age of Islam (between 8-15 centuries), and a large
portion of it was written in Arabic. This headway happens for the most part in the
Middle East, Central Asia, Al-Andalus, North Africa, in the Far East and in India.
Islamic cosmology later impacted Indian, Byzantine and European space science (see
Latin interpretations from twelfth century) just like Chinese stargazing and Mali
cosmology [1].

This is in line with astrolabe's discovery in the Islamic world, where astrolabes were
first introduced to the Islamic world in the middle of eighth century. In the early
centuries of islam, astrolabe has been fully developed. The Arabic treatise in
astrolabes was published in the ninth century and shows a long closeness to the
instrument (the oldest Arabic instrument that exists from the 10th century, and there
are almost forty instruments from the eleventh and twelfth centuries)[1].
 Figure 1 : an ancient astrolabe instrument

Astrolabe is a valued invention in Islam, because its capability to discover or

detect prayer times is astronomically defined and it is also used as an aid in finding
direction to Mecca for muslim’s worship(qibla direction)[2]. It is very important to
remember that astrology was an element deeply embedded in the early of Islamic
culture and astrology was one of the standards of the utilization of astrolabe.

The differences between the astrolabes from the Maghribi, Andalusia and the
Mashriq have various interesting style. The astrolabe is also used in Indian Mughals
in a rather less complicated style. For example, Persian astrolabes are very complex.

Figure 2 : Persian astrolabes

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Biography

The biography of Mariam al-astrulabi has been described in the article of

Damanhuri[3]. During the tenth century at Aleppo, Syria, there is a girl known as
Mariam al-astrulabi lived there. She is a scientist whose name is known for designing
and building astrolabe.Astrolabe is a global positioning instrument that determines the
whereabouts of the solar system. The instrument is used for astronomy, astrology,
and horoscopes (zuhri,2014).

Figure 3 : illustration of Mariam al-astrulabi

Astrolobe is likewise used to decide the time and as a route by finding locations
based on latitude and longitude. Meanwhile, astrolobe Muslims are used to determine
the place of worship(qiblah) , to know when we should do our prayer, and the
beginning of the month of fasting and eid celebration[2]. Astrolobe is known for ancient
smartphones. Today, we know astrolobe as a modern version of the Global Positioning
System (GPS). Astrolobe craft is very rapidly developing in the ninth century until 10.
This technique is not just anyone can master it.

At that time, people who are experts in making astrolobe called a mechanical
engineer. Mariam was the first woman known as a mechanical engineer in the field of
astronomy. But, not many articles or reviews that tell the story of the first female
astronomer engineer in the early days of the rise of Islam.
 Although very little is mentioned, Mariam's story is well known in Europe.
Among European scientists, Mariam was nicknamed al-Astrolobe. She is a brave and
sophisticated Muslim woman in the world of science. As a result of his expertise and
intelligence, many European scientists are oriented to him. Thus, the science of
astronomy can develop rapidly as it is today.

Mariam's success in the field of Astronomy cannot be separated from his

father's role. Mariam's father was an employee who made astrolobes famous in
Baghdad. Mariam's father was known by the title al-Ijliya al-Usturlabi. His astrolobe
design technique is a secret. It was his father who was Mariam's main teacher in
making astrolobe. But, Mariam makes the design and manufacturing techniques more
complicated and innovative.

He and his father were employed by the city authorities. At that time, Aleppo
was controlled by Sayf al-Dawla who ruled in 944-967. Astronomy, which is
traditionally controlled by his father, is always handed down to his children. For
generations, the Ijliya family has always made tools related to astronomy[4].

After knowing the secrets of his profession, Mariam invited his father to study
to the same person. They studied with Bitolus with 16 other engineers. However, it is
not known where and when the astronomy teacher was when Mariam and his father
studied. In his story, Bitolus is precisely the most famous astronomer.

The name al-Ijli was taken from the name Bani Ijli. A tribe that is part of the Bani
Bakr, one of the Arab Bani of Rabiah. Thus, Mariam and his family were originally
inhabitants of Nejd, in the middle of Arabia. But, they migrated because it became one
of the Bedouins who had to move to the southern border of Mesopotamia.
Types of Astrolabes

Astrolabes is an astronomical apparatus that has many functions. It illustrate the

changes of the stars in the sky around the sky poles. It can be used to define the time
between days and nights and to assess the time of celestial events such as dawn,
sunset and dusk, and to estimate a tower's height or a well's depth. This astrolabes
also can be used to find the direction of Mekah from anywhere in the world and thus
leads to the direction of Qiblat [5]

For Muslims, Astrolabe was of great interest in finding the times of prayer, seasonal
cycles and deciding Al Qibla's course.

A basic astrolabe consisted of a metal or wood disk marked off in degrees with the
circumference. In the middle of the disk there was also a handheld pointer called the
alidade by Arab astronomers.

The angular distances could be calculated by sighting with the alidade and taking
readings of its location on the graduated sphere.

The astrolabes established the foundations that led to the discovery of the GPS and
used it to guide the planes. Modern scientists considered astrolabe as a device that
helps to solve problems related to the old astrolabe made by Muslim astrolabe makers.

The Astrolabe helps astronomers and navigators to determine the position of the sun,
moon, stars and other celestial bodies and to calculate their altitude.

There are two types of astrolabes. The first one ,known as planispheric astrolabe. This
types of astrolabes used to help astronomers to calculate the position of celestial
objects.This planisheric astrolabes has a very clear design and the most powerful
astronomical calculator. It has several parts such as mobile disks,rulers and has very
fine scales around the disk.[6]

In 15th century,the maritime astrolabes appear,this types of astrolabes used to

determine the altitude of the sun or star and also can be used to determine the latitude.
This astrolabes came in two parts which is graduated circle and an alidade and the
last one is pointer to measure the angles. This planispheric astrolabes were a bit
complicated because the operations depended on the people’s latitude. [7]
Anatomy of Astrolabes

Before proceeding to the main part of this research paper, it is great to know the
component inside the astrolabe. The figure below illustrates the breakdown of a typical
astrolabe showing the basic components. [8]

Figure 4: The components of astrolabes

Each component of the astrolabe will be discussed in details in later parts of this
section. David [9] states that the plates in this diagram is different from European
plates because it is produced in Yemen or Hejaz which has a lower latitude compared
to Europe. Earlier astrolabes usually have seven markings representing seven
climates of antiquity, six located on the latitude disks while another one is on the mater.
Based on Figure 1, there are 6 components that make up the astrolabe: Pin, Sight
(Alidade), Motherdisk (Mater), Latitude disk, Spider (Rete) and Horse. The
components explanation can be explained further by referring an article by Cem
Nizamoglu. [10] According to Cem Nizamoglu [10], the explanations are as explained
below:

1- Pin: Enables the main parts of the astrolabe, which included the index, rete and
Alidade (Sight) to freely rotate. It acts as the connector and inserted at the back of the
mater.
 2- Alidade (Sight)- it is a revolving rod, small in size that is used
to make observation and reading off scales. At the end of the
alidade, two pins called sights are attached. Within the alidade
are holes which the astrologer uses to aim at their object of
interest on the disk.

Figure 5- Alidade

3- Motherdisk (Mater)- The mater is the base by which other latitude

plate are placed. Usually, several types of circular scales which varies
by astrolabe to astrolabe are carved at the back of the mater [11]:

- Calendar scale. Used to determine the months and days, usually is

divided into 12 parts, 30○each.
Figure 6- Mater
- Hour scale, divided to 24 parts, could be used in equal or unequal
hours.

- Graduated scale. The scale is divided into four quadrants which is

further divided for 90 parts per quadrant.

Some astrolabe also included (mostly in planispheric astrolabes) the shadow square
scale which could be used in land surveying. Usually, a typical astrolabe will have the
following configuration [12]: The altitude scale around the rim of the instrument which
is used to determine the inclination of the sun, a planet, or a star. The next scale,
moving inwards to the center of the mater is the zodiac scale. A Julian calendar is
usually included for western astrolabes, located just inside the zodiac. By contrast, in
the eastern Islamic world astrolabes rarely included a Julian calendar because Islamic
calendar is more popular and widely used there. The last common scale, the shadow
square is in the lower half of the center.
 4- Latitude disk: Each plate is specific for certain latitude. There
are three crucial part in the latitude disk which are the altitudes
effective range, the grid marking zenith and the horizon. Some
astrolabes also include celestial equator and the tropics of
Cancer and Capricorn as the elements of the celestial sphere.
Figure 7- Latitude
Disk

5- Spider (Rete): This spider-web like structure functions to

project the basic elements of the celestial sphere: some part of
the sky the Sun passes through and the zodiac constellation.
Using these basic elements of the celestial sphere as reference
points, the rete shows a number of fixed stars (between 20 and
30) deemed useful in astronomical computations [11]. A pointer
Figure 8- Rete
is used to show the position of the star.

6- Horse: It functions to prevent the loosening of moving parts of within the instrument
when in use. The name comes from the fact that this component is often shaped to
resemble a horse’s head by its maker.

According to another article [11], there are other parts of astrolabe mentioned in the
article which are the rule, the limb and the throne. These components however are
considered unimportant or part of a larger component. For example, the raised edge
of the mater is named the limb, meaning that it is part of a larger component (mater).
The limb is the reference for the astrologer when the rete is rotated for computation
process. This helps the astrolabe to perfectly emulate the heavens at that particular
time.
History of Astrolabe Inventions

Ancient civilizations such as Babylonian and Greek has sought the knowledge of
astronomy for thousands of years. Knowledge of the starts is very important at that
time because scientist or scholar want to calculate the seasons and wind direction by
determining the movement of the stars. The history of astrolabe invention starting from
early Greek astronomy and was made famous by its scientific achievements. Before
in the period of Appolonius (225 B.C.), the knowledge of stereographic projection of
celestial objects is already existed. Hipparchus of Nicaea (fl. 150 BCE) has described
about the underlying mathematical principle of stereographic projection which related
to astrolabe projections [12].

Figure 9: The Concept of Stereographic Projection

Figure 10 : The principle of Stereographic Projection

The anaphoric clock that used mechanised construction is was the first machine
invented and functioned that implement the Hipparchus’s theory of stereographic
projection which is described by Vitruvius (died post 27 CE) less than two centuries
later. With a set of stars moving around the clock, it was built in Egypt and Alexandria
to show the hours in a day. The most famous astronomer from antiquity Claudius
Ptolemy (fl. 150 CE) has wrote in his Planisphaerium about an intensive theoretical
treatment of stereographic projection [12]. Ptolemy also included a discussion about
a horoscopic instrument. By using Hipparchus’s theory of stereographic projection
combining with his own work on the instrument, Ptolemy was the first who invent
astrolabe. This astrolabe consider as the simpler version of astrolabe because it only
can determine latitude and longitude of the sun and the stars.

In the late of antiquity and Byzantium, this was the era where writers started
composing manuals about an astrolabe. Theon (fl.375 CE) explained about the uses
and the construction of an astrolabe in his work which entitled “On the Little Astrolabe”
. After Theon, many authors such as Synesius of Cyrene (ca. 370-415 CE) and
Ammonius, a Byzantine scholar (died post 517 CE) apparently wrote about the
treatises on the astrolabes. Not only wrote in a short work, Ammonius also teached
about the astrolabe to a number of people. At the same time in Syria, Severus Sebokht
of Nisbis and Bishop of Kennesrin also wrote about the description of the astrolabe.
Through the Persia and Harran, the knowledge about the astrolabe extend further from
Syro-Egyptian and Byzantine. As the knowledge widespread to the world, the
production of the astrolabe also expanded to another country speedly.

The product, idea and knowledge from Greek civilization continued to evolve
from time to time until the Islamic civilization. This era, scientists of Islamic civilization
starting to learn and study about the concepts created by Greek civilization until they
entered Islamic Golden Age starting from the 8th centuries. Greek knowledge
especially science and technology knowledge received a good attention during
Abbasid caliphate. Pre-Islamic translation activities was held at Harran. Al-Mansur,
second Abbasid caliphate (712-775 CE, caliphs from 754) promoted the various of
sciences especially astrology and astronomy and he also supported the translation of
Greek language into Arabic language. Astrolabe was a useful tool. Besides to the
political uses, astrolabe is also useful in immediate religious application. Astrolabe can
helps them in finding the correct times of the five daily prayers and the direction of
Holy Kaaba, Mecca which are both complicated astronomical and geodetic operations.
The fast perfected techniques that was used in astrolabe gives possibility easily to
determine both correct times of the five daily prayers and the direction of Holy Kaaba,
Mecca.

In the next few centuries, a short text about the constructions and the uses of
an astrolabe was written by Al-Kwarizmi (fl. 825 CE) . Al-‘Ijliya in 10th centuries
innovated the function of astrolabe become more functional. Ahmad ibn Muhammad
ibn Katir al-Fargani (fl. 857 CE) and Ali bin Isa (fl. 830 CE) also wrote about the treatise
on the astrolabe[12]. In Damascus and Baghdad, Ali did many various astronomical
observations. The details about anatomy of the parts, constructions and the uses of
an astrolabe can be obtained and researched through the Book of Instruction in the
Elements of the Art of Astrology narrated by al-Biruni, a Persian scholar (973-1048
CE) in the early 11th century. At the same time, the profession in making astrolabe
also developed as Arab craftsmen developed their knowledge, skills, creating family
workshop. Early Islamic caliphates also agreed the oldest surviving astrolabes date
was from this time of intellectual era.

As the time goes by, many of Persian scholars like al-Biruni travelled to the
India to introduced instruments such as astrolabe which later they bring the astrolabe
to the court in Delhi. The instruments of astrolabes was sponsored by Sultan Firuz
Tughlaq, Sultan of Delhi (1300-1388 CE, reigned from 1351) sponsored. Mahendra
Suri (1340-1410 CE) was the first who wrote Sanskrit treatise on the astrolabe with
the titled Yantraraja “The King of Astronomical Instruments”. In the mid 16th centuries,
Mughal India adopted the astrolabe with great enthusiasm. To regulate their affairs,
new rules relied heavily on astrology and they considered the astrolabe as political
tools and valuable astrological. Emperor Humayun interested in astrolabes and The
production of Indo-Persian astrolabes was produced in Lahore until it became a center
for production of astrolabes in present-day of Pakistan. Diya al-Din Muhammad, a
famous member of a family which lead the manufacture of astrolabes until more than
100 of astrolabes can be produced for the next centuries. The knowledge about the
astrolabe have reached China in the 13th century. In Maraghah, Jamal al-Din brought
Kublai Khan models that were in use at the observatory. Then, astrolabes has been
claimed by Marco Polo to be seen in Beijing. Astrolabe does not seem popular in China
culture.
 In Byzantine, only one complete has been found and identified in 1062.
Astrolabe production extend further to the west across North Africa and Muslim Spain.
History in North Africa which was characterized by dearth of texts and a wealth of
instruments which is over contrast with the history of the astrolabe in Byzantium.
Converting ideas and sharing conservative stylistics features between North African
and Maghribi which make them apart from the eastern Islamic instruments. On the
back of these astrolabe, there was the presence Christian calendar because of closer
connection to Christian Europe. The tradition of using astrolabe was strongest in
Morocco although it were produced and used across North Africa. This is because
astrolabes were manufactured and used for more than 500 years in the Morroco. North
Africa have the most prolific makers as he was keep producing many astrolabes in
Morocco until 18th century.
How Astrolabes works

Astrolabes are developed astronomical tools, bringing together a mechanical example

of the sky's rotation with a simple view, which can be utilized to make measurements
of the ascent of objects above the horizon. All in all, this equipment gives the user the
ability to tell the time, recognize objects in the sky, and anticipate when sun will rise
and set. The basic working of this equipment has differed a little in their deep past. All
use of the correlation among the obvious motion of the stars, as we can see from
specific latitude on planet, and time granting them to be utilized to discover the time
from the stars or Sun, and the arrangement of the stars and Sun at a specific time. All
astrolabes tools give the resilience to be utilized as an aid to both observation and
computation of stars. Robert A. Egler properly stated in a 2006 article of the Journal
of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada:

"In present astronomy, it is astrometry that rules, with its priority on determining
celestial things for what are that object, how does it work, what they are made of, and
how they develop.

The pre-telescope tools were all created to locate the location of celestial object in
association to the Sun and each other, and to tell their movements. Concisely, these
tools are not for analyzing the heavens, but somewhat for measuring the heavens."[13]
In astrolabe observations, stars are measured at the moment, they cross the parallel
altitude of the astrolabe. This contemporary reduction
technique calculates the place of the observer's highest
point on the celestial sphere, and then the astro latitude and
astro longitude of the location (Kivioja, 1985)[14]. Before
starting the observation, you are required to grasp it straight
by holding on to the ring upside down. While in case of
observing the Sun, then you are required to hold it and
straighten up the rule so that the Sun’s ray passes straight
to both views onto a spot on the ground. This will prevent
you from looking directly to the Sun. The altitude or angular
height of the Sun can be found using the degree indicator at
the back of the plate over the skyline. While for observing of
the stars you need to grasp it up and view through up at the
star and repeatedly measure the angle where the degree Figure 11: How to use Astrolabes

scale will cross with rule scale. For observing the height of the building, you need to
measure your distance from the centre of the building, then view over at the height of
the building, after that, the shadow ratio of horizontal and vertical distance is
measured. (Emily Winterburn 2005)[15]

By making use of the stars and the Sun, we

also can discover the time. First, you need to
choose the plate that is most suitable to your
latitude. Every of it is carved with circles
marking out degrees of altitude indicating 0 at
the horizon to 90 at the zenith (or the point
directly above the observer). After that, the
star is inspected to figure out its altitude and
on the rete we can locate the stars. Next, we
need to line up the altitude on the plate with
the indicator of the star by rotating the rete.
Lastly, the rule is rotated till it is well lined with
the star at right altitude when the rule is
Figure 12:Astrolabes
connected to the front. From the rim we can
indicate the time.it does not give a great difference when we compare in finding the
time from the altitude of the Sun, it just required an additional step. You need to use
the calendar on the back of the plate and then figure out and locating the location of
the Sun from the ecliptic. Like before, when the rete is lined up correctly at the altitude
of the plate the ecliptic will function instead of star indicator. [15] It should also be
noted that in the middle ages the time of day was occasionally meant as the side of
the day or night that had passed. That being said, sunrise was the start of the 1st hour
of the day, noon was the edge of the 6th hour and sunset was the edge of the 12th
hour of the day and the start of the 1st hour of the night. The duration of the hour
adjusted during the year with the total of change relying on the latitude. One hour was
shorter in the winter than in the summer. We called these hours as “Unequal Hours”
and a lot of astrolabes had bends on the plate for deciding the unequal hour of the
night or the day. The usage of these hours for local time maintain on to deliberately
fall as trustworthy clocks became in one’s disposeal in the 17th and 18th centuries
even though their use reached in many parts of the world strongly in the 19th century.
The unequal hour is the ratio of the day that has elapsed. The practice is quite simple
to get used to and is utterly important for part of environments. [15]

The astrolabe often functioned within a religious context. Muslims inventors usually
carved the thrones of their tools with a passage from the Qur’an. The religious
relationship was not simply as a representative. Astrolabes could also be practiced
and used in religious way. Extra features exclusive to Islamic astrolabes are one of
those tables that is designed to help in determining the 5 pillar. Islamic civilization
required them to determine the prayer times and the direction of the Mecca as their
Qibla’, and this make use of only two pillar out of five. For instances, the time of
the asr prayer is determined as when the shadow of vertical part of plate that emit the
shadow is equal to the distance of the shadow at noon adding the length of the vertical
part of the plate.[15] Whenever this occur the scale of cotangents is usually provided.
The plates have some sort of lines that determine which particular cities at it. When
we want to find the direction of Mecca we use this by intersecting today’s date with the
line of cities by the rule that is been moved. The altitude of the Sun provided by the
intersection will direct to the direction of the Mecca in that particular day. This feature
utilizes the fact that as the sun get passed the sky it will change its altitude and azimuth
(moving from East to West). [15] Hayton also aptly stated that the close correlation
between Islam and astronomy have been related to open up a lot of opportunities in
invention and innovation of it for further development to create many more functions.
Everything related with astronomy required good knowledge and good ability in the
knowledge of the stars to predict the prayer time and locating of the direction of Mecca,
as both of it is a hard challenge for the observers. So by using the astrolabe, the
difficulty in determining five prayer times and Mecca as Qibla’ direction could be
dissipated better. [16]

In casting a horoscope, we need to determine the location of the stars that available
in the sky at the date of the birth. The step do not differ much as stated above, as it
can be done by locating the location in the plane for the Sun and for the time of the
birth and choosing the right mark for the latitude of the day of the birth. And after
that, the date of birth is arranged well with the rule. Following by rotating the rete till
the section of the ecliptic corresponding to the right date rule. [15] The arrangement
of this will then display all the stars that is available in the sky. Note that this will shows
all the stars on the rete above the sky that only available during that time of birth and
all other than above of the horizon will not visible at that day. Furthermore, there are
some astrolabes that have the tables carved on the back showing other astrological
knowledge that will also be used in casting the horoscope. [15] Some examples might
be the table of triplicities that showed the zodiac signs of Earth, Water, Fire and Air.
This zodiac is classified into limits (5 unequal sections of every sign), decans (3 equal
sections of every sign) and faces (2 polarities of positive and negative specified for the
rulers for every decan) and instruction about the planets ruling every sign. There are
some facts that the zodiac is classified into 28 and not 12 and every signs would refer
to as the position of the moon in specified day. In contrast, some astrolabes would
indicate the moving course of the star for 24 hours by engraving 12 astrological parts
on the plates. [15]

Islamic advancement is well versed with using the astrolabe as one of its important
tool. Even today it is considered as exceptional tool as it still can be used and operated
and even been taught in school. Islamic advancement through a lot of invention and
innovation has shown its knowledge in astronomy and this knowledge should be well
preserved to ensure its ability is not destroyed. The astrolabe can also be used in
many other ways including determine the width of a river, the extent of a well, and
have developed into showing on how to compute the course of a disease, how to
calculate the capacity of a building, and how to determine the movements of a distant
enemy. [17]
3.0 DISCUSSIONS

Relation between Mariam al-Astrulabiya and Astrolabe

In the history of Islamic civilization, many Muslim inventors as a major contributor to

the current civilization. Indeed, without Muslim women, the Islamic civilization would
not have reached the level it once had. Incredible women from different faiths and
backgrounds worked together men to advance the civilization. Ibn al-Nadim, a famous
bio-bibliographical work Al-Fihrist has mentioned 16 names of engineers, artisans of
astronomical instruments, craftsmen and other type machines. Al-‘Ijliyah binti al-‘Ijli al-
Asturlabi or Mariam al-Astrulabiya Al-Ijliya was contributed in the making of astrolabes.
Mariam inherited her father’s skills and she followed her father’s profession who is
also a famous instruments maker. Mariam’s family was the member of a rich tradition
of engineers and astronomical instrument.

From her father’s occupation surroundings, Mariam got her interest and the
knowledge about astronomy and astrolabe. Although Mariam gained all the knowledge
from her father, Mariam excelled above her father and other inventors that famous in
that era. Mariam’s astrolabe designs were more convoluted and ingenious. Mariam
was very creative and innovative advancement in her work. She was constructing the
tool and made a remarkable improvements to the astrolabes. She intricated and
ornated astrolabe design and features. This is one of the reasons why she was able
to eclipse the other inventors.

As Mariam’s invention in astrolabe is so famous in her city, her designs and art
were recognized Sayf al-Dawlah and then she was employed at the court of Sayf al-
Dawlah in Aleppo (333H/944 CE-357/967)[18]. In tenth century CE, Sayf al-Dawlah
was the one of the powerful Hamdanid rulers in northern Syria who guarded the frontier
with Byzantine empire. Mariam also was studied with a certain Bitolus[19], who taught
her about the secret of the professions. She also helped further developed
timekeeping and advanced in navigation with her knowledge and skills. In addition,
she is credited for the designs, improvements and advancements. As she persued
her studies and loved to help innovate new technology for her time, Mariam remains
a role model until today as many impact of astrolabe inventions on the modern world
that will be explained in the next discussion.
Contribution to the modern world

Astrolabes were an important navigational tool used for various purposes. Indeed, the
astrolabe offers so much especially during the Islamic Golden Age when the astrolabe
technology advances a rapid rate thanks to the innovations made by the Islamic
scholars at the time. Based on [5], there are 4 key uses for the astrolabes during the
Islamic Golden Age which is telling the time, observing the time for some of Islam’s
important religious events, for astrology and surveying. Each key uses will be
discussed further later.

Telling time

One of the most basic yet crucial function of the astrolabe is telling the time. There are
two system of astrolabes for telling time: Equal hours and unequal /seasonal hours.
For equal hour system, it will divide the day into 24 equal parts, representing 24 hours
on a day. This number is put on the rim of the astrolabe, from 1 to 12 and is repeated
twice. The next system (unequal hours) is introduced later, which alters slightly the
first system. Instead of dividing it into 24 parts, it first divided the day into daylight and
darkness. After that, each partition is allocated 12 equal portions. In the case of
unequal hours, there are curved lines engraved on the astrolabe which signifies
unequal hours. For example, the country is expected to have 13 hours of daytime, the
curved line will take 1 part from the darkness portions to be allocated to the daylight
partition. For Islamic astrolabes, an additional 5 lines is added to mark the daily prayer
times.

Observing the time for some of Islam’s important religious events

Most religion usually estimate the time of their important religious events through the
motion of the stars, be it Islam or Christianity. For Christianity, the most obvious
example of this is Easter. For Islam, there are countless religion event determined
through the movement of the stars/heavens such as the two eids: eid ul fitr, and eid ul
adha but the most important and widely celebrated by all is Ramadhan.
Astrology

Other than telling time, astrology is also one of the main uses of astrolabe which
included constructing horoscopes. First, the sky is drawn for that particular moment.
Then, the astrologer began by putting on the horoscope signs of known zodiacs. This
process is called dividing the houses which could be done in various ways but is not
presented here. The process repeats the process for stars below the horizon and then
calculating the division of houses above the horizon. Some astrolabes were tailored
specifically for the purpose of dividing the houses. Astrolabes also functions as a
handy astrological reference tools because it is engraved at the back of the instrument.
Persians astrolabes are a perfect example of this as the lower half portion at the back
of the astrolabe are full of astrological tables. A detailed example on the uses of
astrolabes in the field of astronomy could be obtained at Chaucer’s Astrolabe Treatise.
Some notable mentions in the treatise include the ability of astrolabes to find the
declination of any degree in the zodiac from the equator, the degree of the Sun using
the rete for any date, the degree of the zodiac where any planet rises on the horizon,
regardless of whether its latitude is north or south. [20]

Surveying

Given the relatively unique combination of calculation and observational scale, the
astrolabe is perfectly equipped to solve terrestrial problems especially with the help of
shadow square. The terrestrial problems include determining the distance between
two point, the height of a pole and the depth of wells.

However, moving towards the modern era, much of the astrolabes function have been
displaced by new invention such as sextant, modern computer and mechanical clock.
[21] However, some still possess the astrolabe due to its beauty as quoted in the
British Museum, it feels like holding the world in your hands. [22] Some uses of it in
the modern era is in education for things like studying retrograde motions and star
transits as was done by Owen Gingerich. [23] Another function of it is that it motivates
the innovation of the sextant and mechanical clock. Some even argued that it is
equivalent to a smartphone for the Middle Ages. [22] The astrolabe can tell us the
time, our location and also do some calculations, the same as a modern smartphone.
It is portable, used by many (for ordinary people, usually it is made of wood), and has
multiple functions. In one way or another, one could say that the astrolabe is the
pioneer of modern smartphone where we want everything to be within our reach. As
a muslim, we can be proud that this innovative device went through its rapid progress
period in the Islamic Golden Age, pioneered by our scholars[23]. To top it off, our main
topic of discussion, Mariam is a woman which means that woman also contributed to
the rise in Islam. Despite the difficulties, we did manage to find some evidence to
ensure that Mariam’s achievement is known to the world.[24]
4.0 Integration of Aqli and Naqli

The Al-Quran consist of many scientific and experimental clue in astronomy, stars,
moon and cosmology. AL-Quran contains 30 chapter and 114 Surah.Each Surah
concocts of many verses. There are more than 1160 ayat(verses) in Al-Quran that tells
us about the stars,moon and cosmology. The 43 verses talk about Earth, Planets,
Moon, Sun, sunrise and sunset twilights, dawn, day and night sky, stars and
navigation, extreme, zodiac, lunar calendar, the relationship between solar and lunar
calendars, cosmic era, expanding universe, bigbang, and great crush. So, we as a
Muslim student should take this verses as the guidance to learn deeper about A-Quran
and astronomy.

Surah Al- An’am : 97

‘And He who created stars for you, so that you can take it as the guide to light up in
the land and sea. Indeed, He explained His greatness to the people who know.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
During the era of Islamic civilisation, the astrolabe knowledge and information have
been developed and well expanded throughout the world. With that rapid
development, there are many researchers and scientist that came to learn and
mastered this knowledge. It cannot be denied that some of the concepts by Western,
Latin and Greek researchers were taught and applied by Muslim scientists. However,
the ingenuity of Muslim scientists had made astronomy more interesting through
modifications and improvement of earlier inventions and innovation. Even today,
ideas improved or invented by Muslim scientists like Mariam Al-Astrulabi are
renowned throughout the world and are still applied to solve certain problems. This
has showed that Islam civilisation has success in being one of the sides that
modernised the world. Muslim civilization had succeeded in leading to become the
model of reference for the building of human civilizations even till today, including in
the discussion of the continuity of the astrolabe as a multifunctional astronomy
instrument. The theories and knowledge of the astrolabe invention have helped a lot
in advancement of modern world. All in all, this manuscript is done to complete
information and explain in further detail on astrolabe not found in previous research.
This manuscript has provided a lot of understanding in Islamic advancement in earlier
times.
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