775130

research-article2018
IJM0010.1177/0255761418775130International Journal of Music EducationAbankwa and Mikkilä-Erdmann

Article

International Journal of
Music Education
Piano teacher education 2018, Vol. 36(4) 616­–629
© The Author(s) 2018
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Targeted competencies DOI: 10.1177/0255761418775130
https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761418775130
journals.sagepub.com/home/ijm
and respective learning
environments of two cases

Julia Abankwa
University of Turku, Finland

Mirjamaija Mikkilä-Erdmann
University of Turku, Finland

Abstract
The investigation of targeted competencies and respective learning environments in two cases
of piano teacher education aimed to identify themes for higher music education programme
development. Application of the model of six instrumental/vocal music teacher roles resulted
in the conceptual understanding of these roles in four permeable spheres of activity: artistic
individuality; pedagogical interaction; professional reflection; and contextual communication.
Findings indicate that the targeted competencies were similar in both cases, and were found
congruent with the role descriptions of the model, while the provided respective learning
environments presented notable differences. Through the comparison of these differences several
issues emerged that propose themes for discussion in piano teacher education development.
Programme developers should consider to facilitate accessibility of teacher qualification and
education, to increase, enhance and broaden practical experiences for student teachers, and to
promote closer cooperation and intensified exchange with working life, that is, local professionals
and institutions.

Keywords
Higher education programme development, higher music education, instrumental music teacher
education, music education, piano pedagogy, piano teacher education

Corresponding author:
Julia Abankwa, University of Turku, Faculty of Education, Turun yliopisto, 20014 Turku, Finland
Email: julaba@utu.fi
Abankwa and Mikkilä-Erdmann 617

Introduction
Research in instrumental music teacher education is relatively scarce and scattered compared to
research in instrumental music learning and teaching (Lennon & Reed, 2012). Recently, this com-
plex field gained more attention, especially in the European context. Some studies have investigated
the development of higher music education students into teachers from different perspectives, con-
centrating on study participants either before (Fernández González, 2012), during (Haddon, 2009;
Haston & Russell, 2012) or after formal teacher education (Maccarelli Slawsky, 2011). All these
qualitative studies aimed to inform teacher education programme development through observing
or interviewing potential teacher education candidates, music undergraduates involved in pedagogi-
cal activities, or teachers working in their profession. Other studies focused on the status and devel-
opment of the teacher education curriculum (Göktürk, 2010), the desired programme outcome, that
is, targeted teacher competencies (Lennon & Reed, 2012), the vision of teacher educators or pro-
grammes (Ferm Thorgersen, Johansen, & Juntunen, 2016; Juntunen, 2014) or how teacher educa-
tors work with students’ teaching experiences (Elgersma, 2012). More qualitative studies that
compare cases of instrument-specific teacher education programmes and include perspectives of
multiple stakeholders could reveal concrete issues and contribute to programme development.
All the above-mentioned scholars seem to be united by the belief that the quality of instrumental
music education depends on the quality of teacher education, and that research in this area has been
limited in the past compared to research in general music education or teacher training. The grow-
ing interest in higher-quality instrumental music teacher education emerged almost simultaneously
with policy developments in arts education during the past decade. The Bonn Declaration (European
Music Council, 2011) translated the goal to ‘assure that arts education activities and programmes
are of high quality in conception and delivery’ (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, 2010, p. 5) into the need for pedagogical training of all musicians who work in edu-
cation. Preferably, ‘the necessary academic, practical and social foundations’ (European Music
Council, 2011, p. 3) for pedagogical work should be a compulsory part of their professional train-
ing. Furthermore, the recommendations address the modernization and development of music
teacher training, the availability of continuous professional development offers for music educa-
tion practitioners, the encouragement of collaborations between musicians and educators, and the
reinforcement of exchanges of best practices at local, national and international levels.
In the course of these policy developments in the European context, a working group of the
Erasmus Network for Music ‘Polifonia’ (www.polifonia-tn.org) investigated the status of teacher
education for instrumental and vocal music. The researchers within the Polifonia working group
drew from qualitative inquiries at several European higher music education institutions, such as
interviews and visits. One finding of the investigation was that teacher education programmes are
a result of different pedagogical traditions, music education systems and musical cultures in
Europe, thus suggesting a ‘multitude of possible approaches to address common goals’ (Lennon &
Reed, 2012, p. 285). The results of this investigation are published in a handbook of the European
association of higher music education institutions, the Association Européenne des Conservatoire,
Académies de Musique et Musikhochschulen (AEC, 2010). One part of this publication identifies
and structures the common goals in a suggested framework for discussion in the curriculum devel-
opment of instrumental and vocal teacher education, defining the various competencies and roles
that a successful instrumental and vocal music teacher should have and take on. Lennon and Reed
(2012) published an article that provides a detailed description of this framework with the relevant
competencies for six instrumental/vocal teacher roles – the teacher as: (a) performer and artistic
role model; (b) planner and organizer; (c) communicator and pedagogue; (d) facilitator; (e) reflec-
tive practitioner; and (f) advocate, networker and collaborator.
618 International Journal of Music Education 36(4)

The present article employed this framework to find evidence of these role descriptions in inter-
views with stakeholders of two different piano teacher education programmes. In addition, it
served as a reference to identify the assumed or provided learning environments wherein the devel-
opment of the roles’ competencies was nurtured. The analysis of two specific cases gives an exam-
ple illustrating the diversity in understanding the targeted competencies and the provided learning
environments.
Accordingly, the research questions were as follows:
In two cases of piano teacher education, one in Finland and one in Germany,

1. What are the commonalities and differences in

(a) the targeted competencies and roles of piano teachers; and
(b) the way the teacher education programme supports the development of these compe-
tencies?
2. What issues emerge for teacher education programme development?

In general terms, commonalities and differences may give an excellent starting point for discussion
and reflection, and for a review of practices, curriculum structures and content, thus encouraging
the exchange of best practices between higher music education institutions.

Methods
The cases presented the piano teacher education programmes of two higher music education insti-
tutions (HMEIs) in Finland and Germany, comparable in size, academic function, location and
importance for the local cultural life. Both cases represent the highest level of instrumental music
teacher education available. The scrutinized data comprised transcripts of nine semi-structured
face-to-face interviews with:

•• heads of instrumental music teacher education programmes (HPs);

•• piano teacher educators (TEs);
•• other lecturers within the programme (Ls); and
•• student teachers (STs).

The interviews took on average 47 minutes and were held in English with Finnish participants
and in German with German participants. All participants were or had been teaching piano or
another instrument at a music school or studio for some time. The interview approach had been
chosen to give voice to those who were planning, teaching and learning in existing programmes, to
hear about their assumptions of the profession and the expected future working environment, their
experiences within and with the programme, and their ideas on the programme development. In
compliance with common ethical research conduct, participation was voluntary. The Appendix lists
the core interview questions. The researcher transcribed all audio recorded interviews and applied
analyses in the language of the interviews. Participants also had the opportunity to comment on the
transcripts. The accounts of German participants that are quoted in this article were translated with
the support of a native speaker. All accounts went through a professional language check, and thus
are linguistically corrected. This step and several other applied measures, such as refraining from
detailed descriptions of the institutes, participants, official positions or the exact programme and
courses, were intended to complicate identification and to increase anonymity. These levelling
measures also underline the objective of comparing two cases: the purpose was not to pinpoint dif-
ferences in specific programmes and to evaluate, but to notice through the differences emerging the
Abankwa and Mikkilä-Erdmann 619

Figure 1.  Four spheres of activity for the six instrumental/vocal teacher roles.

better apparent aspects for discussion in developing instrumental music teacher education (Abankwa,
2016).
The transcripts were deductively analysed, taking the model of instrumental/vocal teacher roles
(AEC, 2010) as a theoretical tool for framing and structuring the analysis. Detailed descriptions of
the competencies for the six different roles of instrumental music teachers (Lennon & Reed, 2012)
defined the categories for accounts from the interviews collected in one chart. Additional attention
was given to what kinds of learning environments and which characteristics of the programme
design were understood to promote the development of these competencies and roles for future
piano teachers. Participants’ accounts of this aspect were collected in another chart.

Four spheres of activity

While working with the two analysis charts (one for competencies, one for learning environments),
it emerged that a substantial number of accounts was ambiguous in referring them to one of three
categories or roles, namely the teacher as planner and organizer, the teacher as communicator and
pedagogue and the teacher as facilitator. Although Lennon and Reed pointed out that all roles are
in practice ‘interwoven and continuously overlapping in the process of teaching and learning’
(Lennon & Reed, 2012, p. 300), they could be grouped depending on the sphere of activity. All
three above-mentioned categories define the competencies necessary for interaction with students
in teaching and learning situations. Accordingly, the learning environments were found similar for
developing competencies in the different aspects of this interaction. This uncovering led to the
conceptual understanding of the six instrumental/vocal teacher roles in four spheres of activity (see
Figure 1), which structures the presentation of the findings and the discussion of this article.
These spheres of activity are permeable and built around the centre of all action, the individual
as performer and artistic role model. The second surrounding sphere comprises the roles that
describe the competencies for interaction with students, the teacher as planner and organizer, as
communicator and pedagogue and as facilitator. The next layered sphere concerns the relation with
the profession as such, the teacher as reflective practitioner. The fourth enclosing sphere covers the
620 International Journal of Music Education 36(4)

relations of the professional individual with the community and the context, the teacher as advo-
cate, networker and collaborator.

Findings
The four spheres of activity structure the presentation of the findings in four sections, which are
each subdivided into competencies and learning environments. Each subdivision presents notable
commonalities and differences of the two cases and includes quotes for illustration. All sections
conclude with highlighting an emerging issue relevant for programme development discussion.

Artistic individuality
Competencies – professional musicianship and artistic personality.  All participants unanimously stated
high-level music performance skills and artistic personality as substantial qualities of a piano
teacher. These qualities of comprehensive musicianship included knowledge about a wide reper-
toire, different musical styles, musicology, music theory, physiological basics relevant for tech-
nique and performance, improvisation, sight-reading, ensemble leading, skills on other instruments,
and eventually further specializations in one or more of these areas of expertise. A skilled, knowl-
edgeable, artistic and experienced musician, acts as a source of inspiration for students in develop-
ing their own musicianship.

One should be very good himself or herself in playing the piano to be a good teacher. (TE)

… in the broadest sense, to be a role model that can inspire, that gets enthusiastic about music. This is then
also contagious … (L)

One teacher educator made his point in underlining the necessity of the artistic aspect in teaching
and learning situations.

For me, it would be important for the artistic content to already be a subject in beginners’ piano tuition.
… And this does not depend on a method, but on the individual teacher. […] It would maybe include
interest in other forms of art. So … that not only the matter of music is dealt with, but that connections and
parallels are shown. (TE)

Another participant also highlighted that student teachers should develop an artistic understanding
of teaching as an integral part of the pianist’s profession.

Teaching is artistic work; it’s one form of artistic work, it’s one form of working as an artist. The medium
is different than just our own instrument and the stage and the concert hall, but it is still the thing. (TE)

This last quote is one example illustrating the permeability of the spheres in the conceptual under-
standing of instrumental/vocal teachers’ roles, as it contains an understanding of the pedagogical
work, the interaction with students, and potentially also with the community, as integral to the
individual’s artistic personality.

Learning environments – institutional reputation and comprehensive musicianship.  Both HMEIs of this
study had a very high reputation for excellence in piano studies; therefore, gaining a place in the
programme was proof of their performance and artistic skills and competencies.
Abankwa and Mikkilä-Erdmann 621

It’s horribly difficult to get in; there are not many places. Usually, they are very good pianists, those who
get in. (Finnish participant)

[We have] very high artistic standards that are upheld, […] that is, we take care that the accepted students
have a very good fundamental level. (German participant)

The further development of these competencies was predominantly supported by the individual
piano studies and compulsory courses in music theory, musicology and other respectively relevant
subjects. Among these course offerings, student teachers seemed to have obligatory core subjects,
and some freedom of choice in more specialized subjects. Both HMEIs therefore seemed to offer
the students the potential to develop a strong but individual artistic profile. However, the question
of how these artistic competencies would be integrated into the pedagogical work was neither
raised nor specifically explained. It is therefore assumed that this aspect seemed to be subject mat-
ter in piano pedagogy courses and other pedagogical projects.

The time conflict between artistic and pedagogical training.  Participants agreed that teaching would be
an essential part of the pianist’s profession in working life and a substantial source of income;
therefore, basic pedagogical training would be necessary for all. Interestingly, both HMEIs had a
different structure in offering their teacher training, which might communicate an underlying dif-
ference of understanding teaching as an integral part of a musician’s profession. At the Finnish
HMEI, it was compulsory to complete a one-year piano pedagogy course during the three years of
bachelor studies as students in the piano department. The complete teacher qualification was an
option in the master’s programme, but highly recommended and a requirement for those intending
to work at a public music school or HMEI in Finland. In contrast, the German HMEI offered two
separate bachelor and master programme lines, either in performance or in performance and educa-
tion. The artistic programme also included a minimum of pedagogical courses, but substantially
fewer than the artistic–pedagogical programme. In addition, the pedagogical disposition was
assessed during the admission procedure for the performance and education programme.
In both countries, participants voiced the challenge and time conflict of student teachers to
simultaneously develop expertise in two domains: the performance skills; and the teaching skills.
Surprisingly, there seemed to be no other alternatives in either case to obtain complete teacher
qualifications than with the described offers. While this deficiency could be addressed in pro-
gramme and curriculum development, it still seemed necessary to promote the teaching profession
to student teachers to initiate a teacher identity.

Later, it is no longer possible to study this basic piano pedagogy. […] So, we have to start in the bachelor’s
programme, even though the students are not so fond of it at the beginning. (HP)

I believe that many start their studies thinking: ‘Actually, I would like to be a great pianist’, … even those
who are in the pedagogical training. […] How important and exciting and varied this profession can be,
some do not understand yet. (TE)

Pedagogical interaction
Competencies – empathy and relationship.  Participants described the core competencies in teaching
and learning situations with the ability to understand and support the various needs of different
learners and to communicate adequately and effectively using a great variety of methods and tools.
The main goal for piano teachers should be to nurture and develop a student’s individual musical
potential. This objective would necessitate a great deal of empathy and the inclination to consider
622 International Journal of Music Education 36(4)

the students’ holistic developments within their social contexts, which in many cases would not
correlate with the experiences of the piano teacher’s own development trajectory.

You need to want to work with children, teenagers, adults and nowadays also with senior citizens, and to
convey a sense of happiness. They should leave the lesson and say: ‘Yes, this was great – this was fun!’ …
and maybe also develop a little bit of an appreciation for the accomplishments of professionals. (L)

This view on what is an important outcome of instrumental music lessons did not intend at all to
lower standards and expectations – it meant to be sensitive to the students’ individual needs,
potentials and intentions. Piano teachers should be able to teach individuals of all ages and levels,
including gifted children, children with learning difficulties and children with only little parental
support. They should demonstrate theoretical knowledge and a human understanding of develop-
mental psychology and have access to appropriate methodical resources. The following quotes
illustrate this deep understanding for intimate communication with students as a basis for learning
situations.

A very important factor is the quality of social skills: empathy, somehow reading or understanding another
person, and maybe also being able to perceive with only a few words what is happening inside someone
else … to get closer, and thereby being able to anchor the learning content. (L)

What makes one a good teacher? … Devotion […], devotion to the art, but also to the student, […] that’s
very important. (TE)

All participants mentioned that the relationship with the student is of utmost importance and that it
is the teachers’ responsibility to build a safe and trusting relationship with their students. This kind
of relationship is the basis for learning and may last very long, even longer than with any other
teacher during general school education.

You have the responsibility of creating a safe and confidential relationship, where the child can feel totally
secure, so then the learning can happen. (TE)

We have such precious individuals with these young children coming to us, and we have the chance to
accompany them for a very long time – much, much longer than a teacher at a school. (L)

I believe that when tuition fails, when it somehow falls short, then the reason is … probably rather the lack
of relationship competence. (TE)

The accompaniment and support for such a long-term development requires planning, monitor-
ing and evaluation for each individual student. Teachers should be able to define realistic goals for
and with their students. Keeping a holistic development of their students’ musical personalities in
mind, they should plan, create and organize appropriate learning environments for individual les-
sons as much as for long-term aims. These tasks also require the knowledge about common national
frameworks, such as the Finnish national curriculum for instrumental music learning that is applied
at public music schools, or the terms and regulations of ‘Jugend musiziert’ in Germany, a music
competition on regional, federal state and national levels under the patronage of the German Music
Council.

[…] organizing concerts, organizing exams, preparing children for exams, entrance exams or concerts, or
ensemble playing, chamber music … (Finnish participant)
Abankwa and Mikkilä-Erdmann 623

Recently was ‘Jugend musiziert’. […] There, you are three days at the regional competition, you take care
of your students, counsel them in all sorts of things, listen to the competition, and of course you held
recitals beforehand. (German participant)

Learning environments – interplay of theory with varied practical experiences.  Participants’ understand-
ing of the competencies piano teachers would need in interactions with their students and the
respective study content were similar in both cases. The understanding that student teachers would
learn best through a combination of theoretical courses, group seminars, observations, practical
experiences, supervision and feedback also was very similar.

Generally, the piano pedagogy courses have to be a combination of one’s own experimenting, own teaching
and seminar offerings. (HP)

However, the organization of the provided learning environments presented remarkable differ-
ences, especially in the timely structure and in the nature of practical experiences. In Finland, stu-
dent teachers had only a short lecture series as an introduction to music teaching and then started
with the piano pedagogy courses. Two of these courses were organized within the bachelor’s pro-
gramme, one for teaching beginning students, one for more advanced students. Both year-long
courses were regular seminar meetings, in parallel accompanied by teaching a practice student
from the practice music school of the HMEI. After the completion of these two courses, student
teachers could apply for the complete teacher qualification during the master’s programme. This
qualification included many more theoretical courses, such as developmental psychology, general
music pedagogy, different aspects and issues of education and research methods for thesis work.
Overall, it seemed that student teachers first made practical, hands-on and concrete experiences,
which they could then relate to the subsequent deeper theoretical studies. The following two quotes
illustrate the underlying logic of this approach.

Actually, when I started my pedagogy studies, I hadn’t taught piano before, so the first autumn was like …
‘What are we talking about?’ (laughs). And then, when I started to teach in the music school in spring, that
was when I got an idea of what it could be. (ST)

I have the feeling that the students are very hungry to know more, to go deeper after [the piano pedagogy
courses]. (HP)

In contrast, student teachers at the German HMEI seemed to work first on general and basic
theoretical subjects before obtaining more practical and concrete experiences in the piano peda-
gogy courses. The head of the programme pointed out the interplay of all theoretical subjects that
discuss all relevant topics, which then would have to be followed by the implementation of this
knowledge and practical experiences.
These practical experiences in both HMEIs included peer teaching, teaching in front of the
seminar group and group discussions, and individually supervised teaching of piano students fol-
lowed by discussions and feedback. The differences seemed to be in the amount and intensity of
supervised teaching. Whereas student teachers in Finland had the responsibility for one practice
student during the one year-long pedagogy course, which was fortnightly individually supervised
and subsequently discussed, the supervised teaching in the German case seemed less formally
regulated and organized. German student teachers brought their own private students to the semi-
nar, or borrowed piano students from peers or working piano teachers, and could arrange individ-
ual appointments with the teacher educator. They also attended a teaching block seminar, where
624 International Journal of Music Education 36(4)

they taught the music school piano students of the teacher educator during one weekend. Several
participants in both cases emphasized that the most effective learning environment for developing
pedagogical skills – such as communicating with the students, planning lessons or facilitating
learning – was regular supervised teaching with discussion and feedback.

I think that the most important part of it is the practice because everyone has his or her own practicing
student. They work weekly with them, and every other week I’m listening and commenting. I’ve seen that
this is where the development happens. (Finnish participant)

That would actually be ideal: one-on-one tuition [here: individually supervised teaching of student
teachers]. That is, of course, a financial factor. … … But this is really effective. This is where student
teachers learn the most. (German participant)

Professional reflection
Competencies – reflective practice and professional development.  Critical reflection on their own pro-
fessional work constitutes another enclosing sphere of activity for piano teachers. Activities in this
area are directed towards the individual self, the interaction with students and the profession itself.
Unanimously, all participants pointed out that the teacher education programme should be based
on and develop reflective learning and working practices. They indicated that this process can only
be started, but they seemed to expect that a piano teacher continues and advances his or her profes-
sional development during working life.

It is the questioning of what you did. Asking yourself what kind of other option would have been there,
what went wrong, […] what was the reason behind it, what other alternatives would have been there. (TE)

It’s important to prepare them for the real life. … And when they get a job, how to improve that, how to
work there. (TE)

Learning environments – feedback and introduction to the professional world.  To support the develop-
ment of reflective working practice, student teachers experienced the effectiveness of reflection
through individual supervision and feedback. They also practiced how to critically reflect others’
and their own teaching experiences in the seminars and were asked to self-reflect their teaching and
experiences in writing for self-evaluation and lesson planning purposes.

I think that it’s important to try to improve all the time, and it depends on how we give feedback, how we
comment and how we try to help them to improve their skills as a teacher. The feedback is the important
thing. (TE)

Because also with the … practice students, that is what we do. First, we teach, then we reflect and then we
try to … do something better the next time. (ST)

One participant of the German HMEI underlined the necessity of consistent feedback mecha-
nisms to give student teachers the chance and time to implement and develop their skills based on
this reflective work. One participant of the Finnish HMEI told about the HMEI’s endeavours to
increase reflective writing work in the beginning of the studies to be included in more organized
portfolio work. This development indicated also a change from grading exams to other forms of
assessment.
Abankwa and Mikkilä-Erdmann 625

Reflective practice seemed to also include an understanding of the responsibility for one’s own
professional development. At both HMEIs, student teachers were introduced to professional asso-
ciations and further education opportunities.

Therefore, it is very important to hear about professional development during higher education studies to
get a taste of it, to see how exciting it can be, and that it is part of the profession to undergo further training
later. (HP)

Interestingly, teacher educators from both HMEIs stated that there should be more high-quality
professional development opportunities available on the market, and these could eventually be
provided by HMEIs. Reflecting the profession and developing it further usually happens in com-
munities of practice, in exchange with colleagues and the environment. This connection provides
the link to the all-encompassing sphere of activity of piano teachers as advocate, networkers and
collaborators in their specific contexts.

Contextual communication
Competencies – understanding the community and the broader working field.  Like in any other profes-
sion, piano teachers should be aware of and be able to identify the role, responsibilities and possi-
bilities of their work in the broader context, such as at the local level within the organization of
music education as well as in general school education, the community’s cultural life and in rela-
tion to society. Some aspects of this outreach are communication with parents or guardians of
students, own or students’ participation in cultural life, cooperation with colleagues and other
institutions and promoting the profession itself at a societal level. Participants in both cases men-
tioned these activities as responsibilities of piano teachers.

Dealing with parents is a very, very big part. (TE)

What they need to understand is that they are representatives of our artistic piano playing. And wherever
they work afterwards, they are kind of … the light there, and it’s their responsibility to not only teach a
student for a half an hour and then another for a half an hour, but work actively in the music school and
do their artistic work, maybe kind of founding a chamber music society there, or whatever. (TE)

Overall, there was a tendency of development towards a broader outreach of piano teachers’
responsibilities. Participants described these responsibilities on the one hand concerning more gen-
eral music education, and on the other hand concerning the piano teacher’s own portfolio career.
These outreaching activities could include, for example, the cooperation with other institutions or
the creation of new learning environments.

This occupational field must open somehow […]. It makes sense to try for cooperation between music
school and comprehensive school. (ST)

For me, it also requires that student teachers not only know all about the piano, but that they notice all
these connections and cross-links, so that an interdisciplinary and educational space can develop, or they
create one. Actually, they have to do it themselves. (HP)

Learning environments – cooperation with working life.  In both HMEIs, competencies in this area were
acknowledged as gaining more and more value; in particular, the programme heads expressed the
necessity for these skills in the expected working environment. In order to inspire students for
626 International Journal of Music Education 36(4)

Figure 2.  Summary chart.

working possibilities, to give them ideas for their future careers, the Finnish HMEI offered a com-
pulsory lecture series with different speakers from working life. Additional learning environments
to nurture the development of competencies in this field included a music creation project with
children for a group of student teachers, or group project work that needed to be planned, organized
and evaluated by individual student teachers. Such larger group teaching experiences seemed to be
relatively unusual events for pianists. An additional supporting factor might be that part of the
teacher qualification courses were organized together with students from other art disciplines.
The German HMEI offered a compulsory one-year seminar about cooperation with schools,
kindergartens and day cares, introducing educational programmes, such as string classes, and pro-
viding class teaching experiences in instrumental music education. Although existing educational
programmes in this field were somehow not directly relevant for piano teachers, most participants
acknowledged that it would broaden the perspective and initiate creative considerations.

Discussion
For both cases in this study, the targeted competencies were found to be similar, resonating with
the model of instrumental/vocal teachers’ roles (AEC, 2010; Lennon & Reed, 2012). The respec-
tive learning environments, however, were very different in some ways, which also complies with
the ‘multitude of possible approaches’ mentioned by Lennon and Reed (2012, p. 285).
The main issues emerging through the comparison of the two cases were: (a) the time conflict
arising through the need to develop expertise in two domains at the same time in the existing
teacher training programmes; (b) the need to provide a wide range of practical experiences in com-
bination with theoretical reinforcement and complementation; (c) the necessity of continuous pro-
fessional development possibilities; and (d) the ambition to enhance cooperation within the
professional world to indicate broader understanding of working responsibilities and possibilities
of piano teachers (Figure 2).
Abankwa and Mikkilä-Erdmann 627

The lack of alternative programmes of teacher training and the limited flexibility to obtain pro-
fessional pedagogical qualifications as a musician seem somewhat surprising. On the one hand, the
integration of pedagogical studies in a musician’s formation meets the recommendations of the
Bonn Declaration (European Music Council., 2011). On the other hand, there still seems to be only
limited accessibility to complete teacher qualification programmes. It is quite common in other
domains to have the potential to obtain comprehensive teacher qualifications following academic
content studies, an option that did not seem to be established in the field of instrumental music
teacher education in the context of the two cases. Nevertheless, the development towards more
alternative pathways to teacher qualification should not neglect the necessity of promoting the
teaching profession as part of a musician’s portfolio career.
Combining all variations of practical learning environments from both HMEIs would result in
manifold and valuable teaching experiences for student teachers. Formal learning experiences,
such as individual supervision, group teaching, peer teaching, block teaching, long- and short-term
teaching or various project initiatives, could be provided through cooperation with stakeholders
within a network of HMEIs with local music schools and local piano teachers. The establishment
of a practice music school system seems to have some advantages similar to mechanisms in com-
prehensive teacher education. Some teaching aspects, such as building a long-term student–teacher
relationship or working with established frameworks, could be formally covered in this learning
environment. Closer cooperation with the professional world would also have the advantage of
better exchange with academia, from which both fields could benefit. This interplay could be a
starting point for increased further education possibilities, and would provide the chance to macro
model for continuous professional development and reflective practice. Furthermore, intensified
collaborations between HMEIs and the local context could facilitate the transition from graduation
to professional establishment, for example through mentorship. Again, this inauguration period is
a common feature in comprehensive teacher education of both countries involved in this study, but
not yet in the field of instrumental music teacher education.
According to art education policies by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (2010) and the European Music Council (2011), and considering labour market devel-
opments, piano teachers need to have a broader understanding of their working responsibilities and
possibilities – an understanding that goes beyond teaching pianistic artistry and embraces working
on more general levels of music and art education. Providing the opportunities for student teachers
to gain respective authentic practical experiences, for example, in collaboration projects with
schools or kindergartens, seems mandatory. Additionally, it might be worth supporting student
teachers in developing a professional vision, as suggested by Ferm Thorgersen et al. (2016), through
reflecting on professional assumptions and openly discussing perspectives and possibilities.
The investigation in the present study is based on interviews only. Curriculum document analy-
ses and course observation would have complemented the in-depth comparison of the two cases
similar to the investigations of the Polifonia working group (AEC, 2010). For this article, the scope
of the study did not allow for observations, and the authors refrained from document analyses, as
the resources substantially differed in amount and format and did not provide useful units of com-
parison. However, the employment of these investigation tools is encouraged for collaborating on
national and international levels for exchanging best practices at HMEIs.

Pedagogical conclusions for piano teacher education development

Through the illustration of the many different roles a piano teacher needs to take on and the compari-
son of the provided learning environments in two cases, some themes emerged that could be consid-
ered for the development of piano teacher training. Teacher training courses could, for example, also
628 International Journal of Music Education 36(4)

be offered as supplementary studies for music graduates or professional musicians to facilitate the
accessibility of teacher qualifications. Closer cooperation and intensified exchange with local pro-
fessionals and institutions could increase and broaden practical experiences for student teachers, in
addition to preparing and eventually facilitating the start of professional working life.
The field of instrumental music teacher education still has ample room for research; for exam-
ple, longitudinal studies of transitioning from graduation into professional working life could
reveal the flaws and strengths of existing programmes and advise curriculum development. Overall,
there seems to be a valuable chance of institutional learning through comparing cases, which also
meets the recommendation of music education policies of exchanging best practices.

Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit
sectors.

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Appendix: Interview questions

HMEI = higher music education institution.

1. Please briefly describe your position and tasks at the HMEI.
2. Let us begin with the end in mind: What competencies should a piano teacher have?
3. How is piano teacher training offered at the HMEI?
4. What are the special features of the teacher training at the HMEI?
5. What (do you think) are the principles/basic ideas behind this way of preparing future piano
teachers?
6. How would you like to develop the teacher training?
7. How does the teacher training programme development happen?
8. What would you like to add to the topic of piano teacher training?