Management of Geotechnical Data & AGS 4

25 May 2010

USING DATABASE TOOLS FOR SITE CHARACTERISATION

Salvatore Caronna
Director of Product Management, Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Products
gINT Software - A Bentley Solutions Centre
Santa Rosa, California

SYNOPSIS: One of the main tasks of a site investigation is the development of a subsurface model. This is
composed of two tasks: determining the geometry of the soil and rock layers and their properties. A lot of
geological and engineering judgment goes into this process. However, a well designed database and
appropriate tools can aid the practitioner in many of the steps and can find patterns that would be difficult to
catch with manual inspection methods.

1. SITE CHARACTERISATION GOALS

The ultimate goal of any work with subsurface data is to help the engineer reach design decisions. Site
characterisation builds a model of the site and thus provides a view of the data to understand the site
conditions.
The model consists of surface geometries and material properties. Besides providing a high level view of the
data, derivation of the model provides data for entry into analysis software.
On any site there may be many models:
• Stratigraphy
• Surfaces over time (water level, subsidence, settlement, etc.)
• Solid models of some parameter (shear strength, PID, compressibility, permeability, lead
concentration, etc.)
This paper focuses mainly on stratigraphic models.

2. SITE CHARACTERISATION ISSUES

In the end the stratigraphic model is to consist of a series of non-crossing units. Any unit would encompass
one or more adjacent layers. Building the model is an iterative process:
• Perform a first pass assigning layers to different units.
• Check the appropriate properties on each unit to ensure that each unit encompasses like materials.
• Revise the unit assignments and recheck the properties, etc.
The way units are assigned, and the properties that are relevant, depend on the design goal. Foundation
and contaminated land investigations could result in very different models since their design goals require
different material properties.

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--1
This process requires looking at data in different ways to ensure proper unit assignments. With large
quantities of data it is difficult to build a model using manual tools; automated software processes are
required.
Once the extents of the units are determined, the surface geometries need to be derived. There are many
mathematical methods of modeling surface geometries. Care and judgment must be taken in applying these
methods.

3. DETERMINING THE STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS

3.1. The Overall Process

• Review the logs, lab results, and section diagrams and identify associated layers.
• Set up a units table for all units found in the review. Give each unit a name.
• Associate a unit with each layer in every borehole. Two or more adjacent layers could be in the
same unit. For modeling purposes units cannot cross nor can they be repeated within a borehole
with intermediate units. If this occurs, give them names like “ABC-Upper” and “ABC-Lower”.
• Identify the property or properties of most interest. If it is a foundation project they are probably
strength and compressibility. For an environmental project it is probably permeability.
• Generate a histogram for each property and for each unit. If a property in a unit has multiple peaks,
there are sub-units within the unit. Create sub-units, insert new sub-layers as appropriate and
associate the appropriate units to the layers. Repeat this process until the histograms generate
single peaks for each property in each unit.
• Check the property distributions through the site. There may be large enough variations in area
and/or vertically to warrant creation of additional sub-units.
3.2. Units Table Construction
After the review of the logs, sections, etc., units will have been identified. They must be recorded in the
database and assigned to each layer. Therefore, the first step in the database work is to construct a units
table. Following is an example:

This table will be used as a valid value list for the unit assignments to layers. At minimum the unit name is
required. A field describing each unit would also be useful.
Associating a pattern and colour to each unit allows tagging of the units on reports. Some analysis tools also
have support for pattern and colour associations.
The material property columns are to be filled in at the end of the process. These can be used in the
investigation report and exported to analysis software. The properties listed are just examples. Any
properties relevant to the study are to be added.
3.3. Associate Units to Layers
A “Unit” field of some type (GEOL_GEOL or GEOL_GEO2 in the AGS format) needs to be added to the
table where layers are defined. That field would reference the UNITS table as its valid value list. Following is
an example:

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--2
Multiple stratigraphic models could be built for a project. In the above configuration that would require an
additional unit field for each model. For example, one unit category for strength parameters and another for
permeability could be added.
Two other unit definition configurations are possible:
• Build a separate table for each unit categorisation with Top Depth, Bottom Depth, and Unit fields.
• Build a one-to-many child table of the layer table that could assign multiple unit categories to each
layer.
The configuration depicted above is the easiest to use and the most common.
3.4. Generate the Property Histograms
For each relevant property in each unit, generate a frequency distribution. Following is an example for the
SAND unit:

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--3
Since we are looking at strength properties, for a sand layer we plot N Value. CPT results would also work.
For cohesive soils unconfined or shear strength results would be appropriate. For rock units point load,
unconfined compression, and/or RQD would work.
This plot shows that our one SAND unit is really two units. We must break up the unit assignments to layers
appropriately for the SAND-1 and SAND-2 units.

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--4
3.4.1 Reassign Units to Layers
In the Units table rename SAND to SAND-1 and add the SAND-2 unit. We must now go back into the
layering table and assign either SAND-1 or SAND-2 to each layer which formerly had the SAND unit
assigned to it. To speed this process, generate a table of N Value results with the associated identification
information for SAND-1 and SAND-2 and sort by the ID information:

Move through each of the boreholes reassigning the units appropriately. Tables like the ones above will
speed the process. It may be necessary to split existing layers into multiple layers to accommodate the new
units. For example, a layer from 8 to 11 metres was assigned to unit SAND. There are one or more N values
in the top portion of the layer that falls into the SAND-1 unit and one or more in the bottom portion that falls
into SAND-2. Review of the field log and lab results provide indications of where the break should be made.
Once this process is completed, regenerate the histograms to double check the changes and to obtain the
statistics for each property.

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--5
3.5. Spatial Distribution of Properties
Even after identifying the units properly through the above process, it is important to look at the property
distribution across the site both by area and vertically. There may be significant trends of property changes
across the site or in parts of the site. A “normal” distribution of property values does not imply even
distribution across the site. Uneven distributions may be significant enough that you may wish to break up
the units into sub-units with suffixes of north/south, east/west, top/bottom, etc.
The distribution patterns can be seen through various views showing the data horizontally and vertically
across the site.

This plot shows no significant variation trend vertically for this property in unit SAND-1. However, it does
show two distinct groupings of boreholes.

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--6
This plot posts the average N values in each borehole for unit SAND-1. It also colours the borehole markers
from blue (highest) to red (lowest) average N values. The posted values and the colours indicate a trend
toward lower N values towards the northeast.

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--7
This plots all the N values in each borehole within unit SAND-1 at the appropriate site location. The vertical
lines above and below each borehole indicate the N values. The shorter the top vertical line, the higher the
maximum N value in a hole. The shorter the bottom vertical line, the lower the minimum N value in a hole.
Again, the indication is lower N values at the northeast section of the site.

This is the same plot as above except that the average N value in a borehole for SAND-1 is plotted. This
removes some detail but makes the understanding of the data clearer.

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--8
This 2D plot projects the data on a profile line that runs from the southwest to the northeast corner. Now the
trend is quite clear.

For final verification, the average N values for each borehole in the SAND-1 unit are exported with the
borehole coordinates and imported into a surface modeling program (SURFER in this example).
Investigating the spatial distribution reveals that the SAND-1 unit must be further subdivided into SAND-1a
and SAND-1b. The unit to layer reassignment process must be performed once more along with the
generation of the property histograms.

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--9
4. BUILDING UNIT SURFACES

4.1. Introduction
The next step is to extract the data necessary to generate surfaces to define the unit boundaries in space.
This will require the surfaces for the top of ground and the bottom of each unit. The data required are the
East, North, and Elevations defining the point from each borehole for each surface. Database filtering and
exporting tools are crucial to extract the appropriate data for each surface.
Many programs can take these data and generate surfaces:
• Surfer (Golden Software)
• RockWorks (RockWare)
• Surpac (Gemcom)
• GEO5 Terrain (Fine Software)
• Civil3D (Autodesk)
• Microstation, Geopak, InRoads, MXRoads (Bentley Systems)
• Many more
Experimentation, judgment, and experience must be brought to bear. It is very easy to generate these
surfaces. Do not confuse ease of generation with accurately modeling the data.
Two types of surfaces can be used, triangulated irregular networks (TINs) and regular grids. Which is used
depends on the data and judgment as to which type best models the data.
4.2. Triangulated Irregular Networks (TINs)

TINs connect all data points with straight lines generating a triangular mesh. They assume the surfaces
between points are planar and only extend to the edges of the data points. TINs are the only way to
accurately model man-made structures since they can handle sharp angular bends.
TINs can be generated in different ways:

Any four points can be connected by two configurations of triangles. The resulting contours can be
significantly different. However, there are well defined algorithms that pick the “optimum” configuration and
some programs allow user overrides of the connections.

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--10
4.3. Regular Grids

These methods generate a regularly spaced grid over the maximum extent of the original data points. The Z
values (elevation in our case) for the grid points are interpolated and extrapolated based on one of many
algorithms. A rectangular surface is always generated. Some programs have tools that allow blanking the
area that is extrapolated (or any desired area).
The resultant surface can be very different depending on the gridding algorithm. Following are some
dramatic examples using the same XYZ data with six different gridding algorithms:
Minimum Curvature Moving Average Kriging

Natural Neighbour Polynomial Regression Inverse Distance

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--11
4.4. Common Issues with Surface Generation
Whether using TINs or regular grids, issues arise that need to be dealt with in building the surface models.
Some common examples:

Missing Unit

Short Borehole

Curved Surface

Resolving these issues require the ability to alter the XYZ data, insertion of additional XYZ points, and/or
assignment of “null” data points.

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--12
4.5. Null Points
Where data is not known “null” points can be inserted. Null points have normal X,Y locations but have
special Z values that indicate to the program that data is not known. The software will then leave holes in the
surface around those points. Unfortunately, different software have different values for null Z. Refer to the
software documentation for its definition.
These can be used in resolving the issues with surface generation described above:
• Missing Unit: If you don’t wish to guess at the boundary at the hole with a missing unit, specify a
null value at that borehole.
• Short Borehole: If you don’t feel comfortable interpolating under the short borehole, specify a null
value at that borehole.
• Curved Surface: If it is determined that the unit boundary is straight across the river, interpolated
points can be placed where the boundary crosses the river banks and a null point placed at the
interpolated position over the river.

5. SOME THINGS YOU CAN DO WITH THE FINAL MODEL

Once the model is completed both graphics and data can be extracted from the database. Some
possibilities:
• Extract the unit properties for use by analysis software.
• Display property plots vs depth and/or elevation for each unit.
• Use background colours on material graphics to indicate the associated unit.
• Calculate unit volumes (if there are no holes in the surfaces!).
• Cut sections through the surfaces for profile views.
• Superimpose the unit surfaces with graphic representations of other data.

Surface with overlaid contours and borehole locations (Surfer)

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--13
 Three superimposed surfaces (Surfer)

3D Stratigraphic Model (RockWorks)

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--14
 Unit boundary meshes with Boreholes and PID solid contours (RockWorks)

6. SUMMARY

• Building site models requires an iterative approach with some experimentation and a lot of judgment.
• Before you start the model, know what you are modeling. What kind of decisions and
recommendations do you have to make and what characteristics of the site are important to making
those decisions and recommendations?
• More than one model may be necessary for a complete analysis.
• With large quantities of data the process can be impractical without software tools.

AGS Format Conference 25 May 2010

Using Database Tools for Site Characterisation--15