AIRFRAME STRUCTURAL DESIGN Practical Design Information and Data on Aircraft Structures By MICHAEL CHUN-YUNG NIU Lockheed Aeronautical Systems Company Burbank, California CONMILIT PRESS LTD,© 1988 Conmilit Press Ltd. Al rights reserved. No part ofthis book may be reproduced in any form or bby any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval devices or systems, ‘without prior written permission from the publisher ‘Second printing, January, 1989 Alfenquiries should be directed to: CONMILIT PRESS LTD, 222/F, Sing Pao Building 101 King’s Rod North Point HONG KONG Thx: 62489 CANID HX. or: TECHNICAL BOOK COMPANY 2056 Westwood Blvd, Los Angeles, California 90025, USA. Telephone: (213)475-5711 nis, please forward to: Any suggestions and con Michael C. Y. Niw Author of the book “AIRFRAME STRUCTURAL DESIGN” clo TECHNICAL BOOK COMPANY ISBN No: 962-7128-04-XPreface This book js intended to udvance the technical understanding and practical knowledge of both practicing engineers and students. The book represents several decades of data collection, research, conversanens ait Aiferent airframe specialists, plus the author's more than twenty years’ experience in airtrame succeed design. In addition, the text is partly based on the author’s lecture (Structures Symposium of Aititome Design) for the Lockheed Extension Education Program (LEEP),Itis therefore, equally uscll to thee avn primary degrees in engincering fields as a reference for designing advanced structures From a structural standpoint, the book is intended to be used asa tool help achieve structural integrity according t0, government regulations, specifications, criteria, ete, for designing commercial of milkary transports, military fighters, as well as general aviation sirraf ean also be considered asa troubleshoot, ‘uide for airline structural maintenance and repait engineers or as a supplementary handbook in teaching Areraft structural design in college. Aircraft design encompasses almost all the engincering disiplines and is not prattical to cover all the information and data within one book. Instead, relovant references ate Presented at the end of cach chapter so that the reader can explore his own personal interests in greater etal, This book does not cover basic strength of materials and structural (or stress) analysis: Its assumed! ‘that the reader already has this background knowledge, [This book is divided into a total of sixteen chapters and emphasizes itemized write-ups, ables, graphs and iustrations to lead directly to points of interest, The data can be used for designing and sizing duframe structures and, wherever needed, example calculations ure presented for clatifcation. As technology continues t0 progress, basic technical data hold true, however, 10 suit today’s desium such as advaneey ‘composite structure some modification to the analysis may be required In preparing this hook, it was necessary to obtain and collect vast amounts of information and data from ‘many sources, (Information and data used in this book does not constitute official endorsemtene ether expressed or implied, by the manufacturers oF the Lockheed Aeronautical Systems Caompsty) Serre appreciation is given to the Technical Information Center of Locked. Aeronautical Systeme Company CASC) for their gracious help. Thanks also to those who contabuted to this book, my colleagues at LSC and other specialists from various companies. Special thanks to Mr, Richard W Baker (Resesrch and Development Engineer of LASC) for his valuable comments in reviewing most of the drafts Ave 1 would lke 10 express my appreciation to Mr. Anthony C Jackson (Composite Design Depariment Manager of LASC) for his comments on Chapter 14.0, Advanced Composite Structures; and to my daughter Nace Nog for her help with this book. Lastly itis my hope that this book, with its wide scope and information an the application of technology (m aircraft structural design, will prove not only to be a valuable reference tool for designing sound airframe, sith structural integrity but also as a “bridge” to carry over the valuable experience and knowledge from those who have setired from the aircraft industry to the next generation of engincers. Homever, ar ‘suggestions and comments for revision would he greatly appreciated by the author, Michael Chun-yung Niv California USA. Mareh, 1988)Preface CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER 1.0 1 12 13 14 2.0 24 22 23 24 25 26 3.0 31 32 33 34 35 3.6 37 38 39 3.10 3.1 4.0 4a 42 43 44 45 46 42 5.0 5a 52 53 54 55 56 57 CONTENTS GENERAL INFORMATION Introduction Development Progress Planning and Structural Weight Computer Aid DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING Introduction Engineer's Responsibility Producibility Maintainability Tooling Other Considerations AIRCRAFT LOADS Introduction Aeroelasticity Flight Maneuvers Basic Data Wing Design Loads Empennage Loads Fuselage Loads Propulsion Loads Landing Gear Loads Miscellaneous Loads Example of An Airpiane Loads Calculation MATERIALS Introduction Material Selection Criteria Aluminum Alloys Titanium Alloys Steel Alloys Composite Materials Corrosion Prevention and Conteol BUCKLING AND STABILITY Introduction Columns and Beam-Columns Crippling Stress Buckling of Thin Sheets ‘Thin Skin-Stringer Panels Skin-Stringer Panels Intogrally Stiffened PanelsCHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER 6.0 61 6.2 63 64 65 66 7.0 71 72 73 74 75 76 27 78 8.0 81 B82 83 84 85 8.6 87 88 9.0 91 92 93 v4 95 9.6 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 104 11.0 na 112 n3 na 1s n6 17 cuTouTs Introduction Lightly Loaded Beams Heavily Loaded Beams Cutouts in Skin-stringer Panels Cutouts in Curved Skin-stringer Paneis Fuselage Cutouts for Big Cargo Doors FASTENERS AND STRUCTURAL JOINTS Introduction Rivets Bolts and Screws Fastener Selection Lug Design and Analysis Welded and Adhesive Bond Fatigue Design Considerations Shim Control and Requirements WING BOX STRUCTURE Introduction Wing Box Design Wing Covers Spars Ribs and Bulkheads Wing Root Joints Variable Swept Wings Wing Fuel Tank Design WING LEADING AND TRAILING EDGES Introduction Leading Edges Trailing Edges Wing Control Surfaces Fixed Leading and Trailing Edges Design Considerations EMPENNAGE STRUCTURE Introduction Horizontal Stabilizer Vertical Stabilizer Elevator and Rudder FUSELAGE Introduction Fusclage Configurat Fuselage Detail Design Forward Fuselage Wing and Fuselage Intersection Stabilizer and Aft Fuselage Intersection Fuselage Opening 162 162 165 173 177 186 204 207 207 210 214 218 219 227 230 243 247 247 251 256 269 277 282 288 296 303 303 326 335, 347 352 355 358 358 363 369 371 376 376 379 380 398 406 412 417CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER 12.0 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 134 135 13.6 14.0 141 42 143 ua 5 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 154 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 16.0 161 10.2 16.3 16.4 LANDING GEARS Introduction Development and Arrangements Stowage and Retraction Selection of Shock Absorbers Wheels and Brakes Detail Design Testing ENGINE MOUNTS Introduction Propeller-driven Engine Mounts Inlet of Jet Engines Wing-pod (Pylon) Mounts Rear Fuselage Mounts and Tail Mounts Fuselage Mounts (Fighters) ADVANCED COMPOSITE STRUCTURES Introduction Composite Materials : Design Structural Joint Design Manufacturing FATIGUE, DAMAGE TOLERANCE AND FAIL-SAFE DESIGN Introduction Performance and Functions Design Criteria and Ground Rules Structural Life Estimation Fail-safe Design Detail Design Sonic Fatigue Design and Prevention Verification Tests WEIGHT CONTROL AND BALANCE Introduction Weight Prediction Performance and Configuration Influences Balance and Loadability CONVERSION FACTORS (U.S. unit vs. SI unit) LIST OF CUTAWAY DRAWINGS 430 430 442 449 454 461 464 466 4am 471 415 478 479 487 489 492 492 500 509 520 526 538 538 543 547 548 554 561 567 570 581 581 585 590 591 599 602 609CHAPTER 1.0 GENERAL 1.1. Introduction ‘There are many aspects of design of aircraft structures, as shown in Fig. 1.1.1. For modern jet aircraft, the ‘design must incorporate clear aerodynamic shapes for tong range flight near or at supersonic speeds, and/or wings fo open up like parachutes at very low speeds. ‘The wings must serve as fuel tanks and engine support structures. All structures must withstand hail and lightning strikes, and must operate in, and be pro- tected against, corrosive environments indigenous to all climates, The structure must be serviceable from 1510 20 years with minimum maintenance and still be light enough to be economically competitive. The design musi incorporate new materials and processes that advance the state of the art. Using new techniques often require developing still newer processes, wings Conver useage mode FIND Tusnage module Nose Sanding geae A good overall structural concept incorporating all ‘these factors is initiated during preliminary design, At the very beginning of a preliminary design effort, the designer writes a set of specifications consistent with the needs. It should be clearly understood that during, preliminary design it is not always possible for the designer to mect all the requirements of a given set of specifications. Infact, itis not at all uncommon to find certain minimum requirements unattainable. It is then necessary to compromise. The extent to whiich com: promises can be made must be left to the judgment of the designer. However, it must be kept in mind that to achieve a design most adaptable to the specified Purpose of the airplane, sound judgment must be exercised in considering the value of the nccessary ‘modifications and/or compromises, ET tselage Main ann gear (a) Mitta figher Fig. LI Aircraft structural breakdown, Airframe Structural Design 1() Mitcary bomber sa ) ary ie ie ‘S 2 Airirame Structural DesignThe fst tak of the designer is 10 famiiarize himsat thoroughly with the specications of the iplane upon which the design to be based. Also i the airplane isto be sold to mote thun one custome, all available information should be obtained to mini- tnize the design that might be requied inthe future Thee sould be no thovght ‘of making 8 gene urpese aplane, suitable for any purchaser any teehee ta an impos ower, fk Frequently posible to arrange a design which wou Simi fture. changes without siesificing iter structural of aerodynamic efficiency or taking a ‘regi penal. Nest, the designer should familiarize himsef with all exiting airplanes ofthe same general type as that proposed H possible, itis advisable to collect al Eomumens, both posiive ad negative, of ls passenger maintenance groups, an operators using the eating equipment. The designer should not blindly copy any existing design Just because i tappens to be availble. On the eter hand tt {ake advantage both ofthe successes snd mistakes of ‘others is inefficient, Today’ jet airplanes ave much feter payloads at longer ranges and at higher speeds than past modes A great many shapes and sizes of vrngs and empennages were considered Varios wing Shape sould be examined in depth for aerodynamic high and low speed performance ful capaci, ang, torsional and’ weight characteristics and system compatiblity. High it an lateral contol deviows, pitch an yaw devices onthe empennage, and sizes were established ‘Av the final conigustion vas determined statements Gt work decribing the structore were sipplicd to manufacturing for scheduling purposes, Joints in the ‘structure were established based on manufacturing’s feces, subcontract programs, rae mater ava hilt and schedules "Th aircraft ndusty has for dhe past two decades speit considerable research and developmen efor tO exploit the very attractive. structural efficiencies achicrible through the tse of advanced compose Strvcnives. AGvanced composite oer prome. Of substantial weight savings relative to curren metalic Structures, Further, the numberof parts required (0 build a composte: component may be dramatically les than the numberof pars neode Yo construct the sme component of metal alloy. This cam lead to Significant Tabor savings, sometimes offen the Somenfat_higher price of the present composite taeras. These fetes, together wi the tarent Fesstnce to corrosion, make composites very ate tie candidate materials fr future erat structres 1.2 Development Progress ‘The modern aeronautical engineering of aiveraft design has been an evolutionary process accelerated tremendously in recent times from the demanding requirements for safety and the pressures of cont Pettive economics in structural design. For example 1900-1915 In this period, the Wright Brothers demonstration’ of practical mechani cal fight, power requirements, stabil lay and control were overriding con- siderations, successful flight was cone which permitted repair and turn around in a few weeks or days Strength “considerations. were -sub- frdinate and ultimate strength of few critical parts was the extent of siruetural analysis. World War Laccelerated the solution of power plants and stability and control problems. Engine reliability was improved by ground qualifiea- (fatigue) testing Commercial development of metal aieraft for public transport took place in this era. Design and analysis emphasized. static ultimate. strength and, except for the engine, had litle fr ‘no consideration for airframe fatigue During this period, there grew an increasing awareness of the fatigue Potential in airframe safety. A large Increase in performance capability resulted from WW IL technology Higher material static stengths were developed without a corresponding increase in fatigue strength. Static timate design alone was not suff cient; it was joined by fatigue design. 195S—present. Safety from fatigue alone. was. rec ‘ognized to be inadequate; fail-safe and damage tolerance, ie, static strength of damaged requires ade- {quate inspection intervls to discover and repair fatigue and other damage before cracks feach catastrophic pro- portions. 1915-1930 1930-1940 1940-1955 So today we design for: # Static ultimate (and yield) strength Fatigue life ofthe sittrame (crak initiation. Static residval strength of damaged structure. # fatigue eof damaged sects Caspcton interval # ThermaPsiress analysis and design of supersonic aircraft “The primary objective of the structural designer ix to achieve the maximum possible safety margin and achieve a “reasonable” hfetime of the sera struce ture, Economie obsolescence may not come a8 soon 48 anticipated. For example, some of the old DC-3's sill fying today are approaching. or exceeding 100,000 hours of service. Fis record is achieved only by fail-safe structure, knowledge of when and where {0 look for eracks, and replacement of afew wtal parts ICs the purpose ofthis book to discus, in some detail, the "design procedures, analysis method Imatctial properties ahd experimental dats necessary {o equal Or better the past structural safety record in the fage of ‘ever increasing. performance, adverse environments, and complexities of future aia j Atatame scart desig goes tro thse phases: * Specification of function and design criteria 4 Determination of base external applied toads, $ Cateulation of internal element loads Airframe Structural Design 3* Determination of allowable element strengths ‘and margins of safety. ‘* Experimental demonstration or substantiation test program (Fig. 1.2.1) Engineering is experimental, empirical, and theore- ical in that order. The physical facts must be known, farst; they may be empirically manipulated before the “perfect theory” is available. Failure to recognize this ‘order of priority can lead to disaster if theoretical analyses are relied upon without thorough and careful ‘experimental substantiation loads are relatively predictable from model data and substantiation for a certification program should be ‘more of less routine. The laboratory development test rogram is an important feature of any new vehicle rogram; both to develop design data on materials and’ shapes, and to substantiate any new theory of structural configuration. Assuming clear-cut oDjce. tives, design criteria, and adherence to design rules ‘and development test evaluations, the certification test Program will demonstrate success without degencra Inginto more and expensive development work SERGI cue mopantonwttae sates age competion cones a corr veenonien Sp a ‘nd roidoa strat Fracture id pact, SSS. wun asic ucture frame - ¥% lengeton Nate Frame sce ipo 7B conven Say, Soar cap seas Rb to singer joint Fig. 12.1 Development testing of a transport airplane. ‘This does not mean we do not need theory. It does mean that we may and do need to progress beyond the capability of theory. But when we do, we must Fecognize and account for this fact wherever it may be critical. The engineering system evolved to handle any situation, be it a method of design, a component, of a vehicle design is illustrated in Fig, 1.2.2. Of primary significance are the three boxes in heavy outlines. Laboratory development testing Flight test data Certification or substantiation test progam, ‘The dotted arrows indicate feed-back where ex- Perimental data is utlized to modify the design as hnevessary, The feed back loop for fight data on basic loads for conventional airplane vehicles is not as important as it once was simply ‘of research, experimental dita, empirical know-how, ‘and substantiated theory on the subject exists. Basic 4 Airframe Structural Design [esse Speciteation |] Destin Gra] Basi Loads light Test Oata it Laboratory, ‘ine Osan | Ose a Contiieation Test Progam ———— Tend ects | Fig, 1.2.2 Airplane design, development and certification,1.3. Planning and Structural Weight {A good design is the rest of proper plang and SexBdhling, Ths means scheduling wot only the diet Teaponsbity but also scheduling th data fom other rou or sll Hrnst have al the data required, stents loads from tess, acrodyamic tequemens sysems date such a6 conto, elects fel, ad Ridtauc “incrfoces, interchangeably, malsain: ay, servicesbity, spect srne requirements, and ick pre Allmes be aoe wa tnely manner {Denstres good ineprated design, The designer the Caius wf inowe when he feed is data sed ticles he is committed 1, He isthe one who tmust make hs requremns known and wien, he neds thom, He fs the one who must foOW Up 35 ‘Shen ag necessary to ensure reeling the dae He sat fecognize ha someone eke’ performance i Uatsctey in time to ake tps though his super iors to remedy the situation. There is no other satis- factory way (0 schedule interchange of de data fine e's “ge and ake” slvaton, pareulry Fenwen design groups. Loads and aerodynamic data requirements cate scheduled somewhat more pr Googe but itis al the designer's responsi To ftantin a constant monitoring of sexe and. ero> dynamic progress, Remember, it the designers timate esponsibility to release desis on schedule to the slop, Fig, 131 shows an example of bat Sharing design purposes, I is parcculy weft in management sired into scion “Me fact that sructral desipere of srst engi reefs who determine. seta sizes shh! be Concered ith weuht should ot strike one as Stange Neverteese in today's specialization there i'aMtendeney to wartow one's wewpont fo the aechanics of his job and to forget the fundamental reasons for that job. Ithas been said, sometimes in jst and again in earnest, thatthe weight engineer is paid to worry about weight. However, unless every ater engineerin a company is concerned about weight, that fompany may find it dificult to mect competition or, in other words, to design good performance sit plane. Weight engineers can estimate or calculate the ‘height ofan airplane and its component pars. Actual ‘weight savings, however, are always made by design 1s OF stress engineers. Avery small marpin of weight can determine the difference between excellent and poor performance of an airplane. Ifthe structure and {Equipment of a successful model were increased only Sip of ils pross weigh, the consequent reduction in fuel o pay load may well mean cancellation of a contract. In transport aireraft the gross-weight limit is Slofiitely stipulated; thus, any increase in cmply ‘weight wil be offset by a redvetion in fuel or pay load (Fig, 132} ‘The weight break-down of aircraft structure over the years. shows @ remarkable consistency in_ the values ofthe structure weight expressed as 20-40% of the take-off gross weight (or all-up weight) realized in service, irespective of whether they were driven by propellers or by jet en ‘At the project stage, if performance and strength are kept constant, a saving Of structure weight is also accompanied by savings in fuel, the use of smaller ‘engines, smaller wings to Keep the same wing loading fd so on, such thatthe savings in take-off weight of the aireralt to do the same job is much greater than the weight saved on the structure alone ‘The object of siuetural design is to provide the structure thot will permit the airraft, whether military ‘ouaieston or civilian, to do the job most effectively; that is with 1080 170 wen Twat 7y00 PAPERS SEPP PE ese ee basse. T4 re] i i i Mistones 90% stuctore Fist ta PRA eleae. Fight cee ana + cho tate, tig, tale and soni atu testing Acpine proot O Pe [= wr] gps oe (L Gonstew aitrame Fig. 13.1. L-1011 complete structural test program schedule for project commitment. Airframe Structural Desism 5the least total effort, spread over the whole life of the aircraft from inital design until the aireraft is thrown ‘on the scrap heap. ‘here is thus, an_all-embracing simple criterion by which the success of the structural design can be judged. tis not sulficiont to believe that percentage structural weight is of itself an adequate Measure of effective design, either of the complete aitplane or of the structure itself, A well-known example is the provision of increased aspect ratio ai the expense of structural weight, which may give increased fuel economy at cruise and reduction in the total aircrait weight. Nevertheless, percentage struc- tural weight is a useful measure, provided its limita tions are recognized, 80 a titer. 38) 35: re inereasa in OFM Litres ratio {Commercial vengnon £290.00 1) 65 60 +—_____|_ 180000 20000 00000 Operatingereny neigh (OW) iat Fig. 3.2 Example of 5% increase in OEW and 25% reduction of payload, or 0 keep the same payload and redesign to achieve a 9% Lif drag ratio. 1.4 Computer Aid The requirements of structural analysis ate under- going changes due to different environments. (ie, akitude, speed, ete.) different construction, refined detail, expanded analysis coverage, and broadened analytical concepts as shown in Fig. 14.1. Motivated by these changes in analytical requirement, the digital computer and its effective use have assiimed para- mount importance, Environmental changes ‘have tated the search for improved structures. The altitude and speed have not only motivated ch for lighter structures but have necessitated. ‘the considerations of heated s Different environment Different construction Refined detail Expanded analysis coverage Broadened analytical concepts Stress analysis for composite structures Fig. 14.1 Changed requiements for modern airplane design 6 Airframe Structural Design Finite Element Modeling (FEM) Probably the most versatile tool in structural anatysis is the use of finite clement modeling (FEM), Before FEM, industrial stress analysis was largely an approu mate science. Equations were available for deter. mining ‘stress and strain exactly in simple beams shown in Fig: 142. A major structural discontiuity Occurs at the juncture of components such as the wing and body, At such siructaral junctions, a major rede tribution of stresses must occur and the flemaral di similarities of the wing and body must be designed for. Regardless of the construction details. at ths junetur, the major components affect each other In those cases whete the proportions of a component are such that beam analysis (or theory) can be employed, itis common practice to assume the behavior Of oot of the components and correspondingly analyze the ‘ther component. In the ease of the ‘wing/body juncture ax mentioned previously, such a procedure could assume the body to provide cantilevered sup. or boundary for the wing and then analyze the wing by beam bending theory Hig. 14.2 Equilibrium and compatibiity analysis, Such conventional procedures will essentially ‘ensure that the analytical forces that occur hetweett the wing/body will be in equilibrium. Unfortunately, the actual clastic structural compatibility that i present usually enforces a different distribution of forces between these two major structures. Thus change in. the analytical requirements is present and the analytical technology must he powerful enough to ‘ensure both force equilibrium and deflection cone, patibility a the structural discontinuity. Most of the aircraft construction is stich that not only must the force equilibruim be satisfied, but the elastic deflection compatibility must also he repre: sented, This represents a broadening of the analytical Concepts. whercin itis required to change the analy- tical technology to include both equilibrium and compatibility concepts which give the actual stuctaral load or stress distribution, However, most practical structures, especially aircraft structures, are very redundant 0: indeter, ‘minate which means the analysis of redundant struce tures leads 10 the need to solve sets of simultancous Finear algebraic equations. If the actual redundant structure is large, the set of simultaneous equations will also be large, ic clement modeling represents a part with @ mesh-like “network of simple geometric. shapes ‘combined “in building-block Tashion as. shown inFig. 14.3. Entire airframe finite element model Fig 1.4.3, Bach element has characteristics easly found from simple equations. So the behavior of the entire structure ts determined by solving the cesulting set of simultaneous equations (or by matrix tech= piques) for ull the elements, In the early days, finite element models were built manually (the element mesh was drawn by hand), ‘Then node coordinates, element connectivity. and cother pertinent data were written on lengthy tabula- tion sheets and transferred to computer cards via a keypunch machine. Because of the huge amount of data to be handled, manual model-building is tediow time-consuming, costly, and error-prone, In additio the resulting model may be less than optimal because the lengthy construction time prohibits the analyst fom refining the model with alternative mesh den- ities and configurations. To overcome these def ciencies, preprocessors or 3D mesh graphics program from CAD/CAM (Computer-Aided Design and Computer-Aided Manufacturing) system were developed to aid in moclel building. ‘These programs reportedly reduce model-building time and costs by as, much as more than 80% ‘Many FEM programs have been written. However, only a few are satisfactory for general use. These programs handle linear static and dynamie structural analysis problems. Some of them perform a type of linear heattransfer analysis and damage tolerance analysis. ‘One of the earliest FEM programs and probably the most well-known is NASTRAN (NASA STRuct tural ANalysis), developed by NASA in the mid 1960 to handle the analysis of missiles and. aircraft structures. NASTRAN ig one of few major programs with public domain versions available. Several major aerospace companies have modified NASTRAN for their particular applications, Various types of graphic scopes are available showing model deformed-shape and displacements, For dynamic analysis, these deformed shapes are sometimes animated ia slow motion t@ show how the structure bends, wists, and rocks during operation CAD/CAM System The use of interective computer graphics for data hhanding indesign, manufacturing and pr support programs quickly spread from aerospace to automotive applications and gradually permeated the broad base of general industry during the past decade. CAD/CAM. (Computer-Aided-Design and C puter-Aided- Manufacturing) provides a common dat base of the elected design for all disciplines such as preliminary design studies, loting production d tool design, numerical control (NC) design, control, product support, manufacturing, ete. Data can be accessed to other design groups like airplane payloads, controls, hydrablies, powerplant, clectrical, mainienance, etc, to nartow the gap between design and manufacturing and also to open up 2 new oppor- tunity for excellence in all design. I is no exaggeration that CAD/CAM system has been considered as the second industrial revolution of this century “The large-scale computer (rmaintrame) is the heart of the CAD/CAM system that can provide a rapid and uncomplicated interface between engineer and machine to produce the geometric and mathematical definition for different programs. computer is the center of this system and the graphics terminal as shown in Fig. 14-4 provides the ei and machine interface. The other components. the hardware system provide fast response and recovery ‘of work in the event of a hardware failure oF pow failure, the ability for the compuier to operate on multiple tasks, magnetie tapes far control of ma Airframe Seeuctural Design 7EB Seaten Se SEP Fi ig. 14, 4 Typical g raphto make parts or plot druvings, and disk dives for coutuing data and. storage of the work accom pihed. Fig 1S shows the ipucl hardware system Eomponents andthe dataflow EAD/CAM system ts 2 broad data hase system and most of the tompanies simpy do not ned this Semple yim. These compares find suioneted rating stem more resonable way to get sarted in CADICAM. The atomated “éraing.ystom increas in productivity from two to sitfold and steties mote Te denny te compe Inemory and con easily he changed and repoted in 4 few minutes to accommodate engincering modifica tions. Automated drafting increases productivity by coupling the creativity of the engineer with the ‘computer's high speed and huge memory. This frees the engineer from perforn we-consuming, repetitive tasks such as drawing the same shape many times, making the same change to soveral drawings, or painstakingly measuring and dimensioning a. part ‘And the drawing is produced in minutes with the push of @ button. As'a resul, the engineer-machine team can produce a drawing more quickly and more accurately than would otherwise be possible, REFERENCES 1, Anon: Aisfame & Powerplant Mechanics, ACB5-15, Department of “Transportation; Federal Aviation ‘Administration, 12, MeKinley TL and Bent R.D. Basic Science for Aero space Vehicles. MeGrawHlill Book Company. New York, NY. 1963. 13. 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(May. 1956). 301-330, 1.12, Newell, AF and Howe. D2 Aiteralt Design Trends Aurcrji bnginering, (May, 1962), 132—139, 113, Way, WW" Advantages of Aircraft System Macrity SAE paper No. 720507, (1973). M4 North, DM: “Soviets Test Twossat MIG. Version’ Aviation Week & Space Technology: (Mi 28.1977) 17, Sweetman, Bs ‘Fexbat — Something Compleety Different” Plight International, (Apnl 22. 197 Hata 116, Smyth, $4-°CADAM Dats Handing from Concep: tal Design Through Product Supp” ATAA peer No. M840, (1979). LIT. Wehiman, MID: CAD Produced Aiveratt Diving, AIA paper No. S1.0722R, (1981) LIX, Santon, Ds The Anatom’ of The Aeroplane, Are fin Elevioe Publishing Company Ine. New York, NY, 1966, Well, EC: ‘Operational Agpeets of Jet Ueamspont Design’ ero Digest. May 1953) 1.20. Epsicin, A: Some Effets of Structural Deformation "Aieplane Design Acro Digest (Feb. 1949). 17 non: ‘Tomorrow's Fighter: Updated or out- ated” Aviation Week & Space Technology, (Aug. 10, 1987), 61-108, 1.22, Wood, C2 ‘Cargo Plane Des Digest (Dec. 1983), 203, 12%, Rieger, NF: Basic Course in Finite-cloment Analysis? Machine Design, (Bini, 1981). ‘Anon: "Russia's New Long-Havlee” Flight duter: rational, August 20, 197), 324 Laver: “Design Probe ~ Another Look at the Square Cube Law.” Fight tnemanonel (Oot. 17.1968). 615-616, 1.26. Cleveland, PA’ ‘Size Erfecis in Conventional Aircraft Design’ Journal of Aircraft, (Now-~Dee. 1970), 483-512. 1.27, Black, RE. andl Stem, LA: “Advanced Subsonic Transporis —'A Challenge fr the }994"s" Journal of Aircraft (May 1976), 221-321, ‘Anon: "Two or Three Engines?" Flight erations (Gepl. 18, 1969). 416—447, 1.29, Higgins. RAW: "The Choice Bowwoon One Eng Two An Appreciation of the Factors involved Choosing “A Single oF Twin-Engine Layout Miliary Tactical itera Aireraft Engineering, (No 1968) 1.30. Higgins, RW: “The Choice Between One Lagine oe Two for Tactical Stike/Clase Suppoet Aireralt! Zhe Aeronautical Journal of The Royal Aevoneutica Society. uly. 1964), 620 131, Lachmann, G.Vi Bowndary Layer and How Contr! ‘ts Principles and Applicaton. Vol. | and Vol. 2 regamon Press. New York NY. 1961 1.32, Teichmann, EK: Airptane Design’ aual Pitman Pablishiag Corporation. New York, N.Y. sth Edition, 1958 LA3, Anon: NATOS Flee Nations. Frank O'Shanobn ‘Ass Lud, London CHAD. Foods, “JI: “The Air Force/Mocing Advanced Mediuin STOL. Transport Prototype” SAL puper No. 24385, (Apt 1973) 1.35, Bates, RES “Suuctural Development of he DC-10) Douglas paper No 0, Say 1972), 1.36. pulling EH. Trends ia Modern Aiveralt Siruevral Design’ SAF puper No. 92 (May. 1957) Mackey. DJ and Simons, HL: "Structural Develop. iment of he LIU L Thestat” ATAA puper No. 72-77 (Apt 1972), Las, Marks, MD. Characieristics of Th ETS Protoype Ain (apni 1973} Considerations” Aer Technical Basis for The SOL MeDevnnell Douula tsa anc? NALS paper Nie 73, Airframe Structural Design 9140 La 13, Magruder, WM: ‘Development of Requicement, Contiguration and Design for the Lockheed 1011 fet Transport’ SAE puper No. 80583 (Oct. 1968). Morisset, J: Tupolev 144 and Concorde” The fica performances are compared forthe first time: NASA TTF 15446,(Apiil 1974). Kropul, Band’ Herbst, WB: ‘Design for Air Combat? ALAA paper No. 72-749,(Aup 1972), Woolsey 1P:US. Airplane Builders Finding Many Barriers to New Programs’ Air Transom World, (Feb. 1976), 12-17, Sandor, Pa: Structural Design of Future Commer: ne Structural Design ial Transpons: AIAA paper No. 73-20, (Jan, 1973), 144 Poottt, H.R: “Design of Fighter Alietalt” stor Digest (eb, 1948), 145, Anon: ‘Aircraft Design at the AIAA* Alight Iner- ottonal, (Sept. 8, 1972). 146, Barton, Ce "Spruce Gosse — Preradactyt of World war Il! Popular Mechanics, (Nov. 1977), 147. Aronson, “RB: “Blown-wing STOLS on Trial" Machine Design, (Oct. 1977).26— 11. 1.48. Satre, P Supersonic Aie Transport — True Probiems and Misconceptions” Journal of Airey lan Teh, 1970), 3-12,CHAPTER 2.0 DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING 2. Introduction Design and manufacturing are successive phases of @ single operation; the ultimate objective of which is the ‘emergence of an acceptable final product. In aero- space context, such acceptability has several com: ponents: market viability, operational efficiency, ‘capacity for further development and structural integrity. Less obvious but just as important, a struc- ture must not be so complex or difficult in’ concept that its realization will create great difficulties, or increase the cost of the manufacturing process, Design has always carried with it — indeed — a degree of prestige; because its effectiveness can be seen in the final product and a successful design can ‘confer something approaching glamour upon those responsible. Production, on the other hand, emerged later as a specialized branch of engincering and is sandwiched between the designer's drawings and the final product. Consequently, its achievement is less Apparent and frequently, in the past, it has not been azcorded a like degree of consideration or exedit. Yet, itis the production phase of the operation that trans- lates the design into hardware (sce Fig. 2.11). ‘An aircraft is conceived as a complete structure, bbut for manufacturing purposes must be divided inte sections, oF main components, which are in turn split into subassemblies of decreasing size that are finally resolved into individual detail parts. Each main component is planned, tooled and built av a separate unit and joined withthe others in the intermediate and final assembly stages (see Fig 2.1.2) i Schedaling Engeing ‘Contracts-airplan Delivery schedule © Preliminary design # Aiplane quantiy Monitors coordinates * Speciications Deter sehete be] Timespan fom "Go-ahead to 3 Research a tests + Contactsspare parts complston + Dati desien 2 Casters tequtereats 1 Tomintam ontimedeiveries Production design Production Control Manutacioring Pnlneeting + "Machine shop orders 2 "Manafacturingsncenhy pat ist Pla Engicerng S Toole > Machine shop orders, = "Plant space S Mateat © Toot requirements © Machinery L. 2 Pans Tooting Computer equipment 2 Design and produce tos 2 Omer equipments Sper tot for composite structures : — T Major Assembly Fabsication Siapeactaing Control) Traut Engineering + Major stctre aa Manpower atections Standard systems assembly Macho + Detal production Standard procedures Finished product oe Heil Sateen of ents and 7 i # Production analysis ett ut et y # "Conta of quality through inspection of Designs Transpo imateal,punsandfinshed product Fe] + hihctmatcral Sater + Insureto meet he engineering Requiem Par LJ specications Durctases @ Sires Fnkhed product — + Raw mater Ships Rect Tigi Operates + Purchased pants $ Part flight ess each airplane + Matera 3 Traineusomer igh croms + Aireraftequipment (plane) Fig. 211 {[_cereoner Hew an airplane is bait Aictrame Structural Design 11‘Tooling is required for each stage of the building of each component — detail tooling of individual paris, ‘of which there may be many thousands, followed by assembly tooling of increasing size and complexity for the stages of progressive assemnbly Fig. 21.2 Final assembly of airplane. There is nothing new in attempting to design an aireralt to give trouble-free operation, This has, of course, always een one of the major pars of a designer’s job. In recent years there fas been incor- porated the maintenance requirements in every engineering drawing before going into production. If aireraft have become (oo difficult to maintain, tis not entirely due to lack of appreciation of the problem in the drawing, but mainly to the very great increase in complexity of modetm aitcraft, particulary in the past few decades. A great deal of this complication is due to equipment and automatic gadgetry, Between 25 to 40 per cent of the total direct ‘operating cost (DOC) of an airplane is due lo miain- tenance, quite apart from the losses due to airplanes ‘ot being serviceable when required. 2.2. Engineer's Responsibility The design engincer is the “general practitioner” t0 the engineering profession as compared with staff oF research types or engineers. Design engineers must diagnose the symptoms of potential structural failures and service problems early in the design stage. On the shoulders of the design engineer rests the final total design integration responsibiiy, To do @ thorough job, the design engineer must: (2) Coordinate thoroughly and integrate the design ckage ino the overall structure: © Use design data type diagram 10 make co- ordination definite # Donot depend on oral covordination (2) Establish hasies as early as possible: jased on functional requirements © Loads and materials — make sure to use the right foads and materials 10 avoid needless drawing changes ‘+ Acrodynamie requirements © Geometry’ and jig information, interchary ability, produeibilay, repairabilty. replace- 12 Airframe Structural Design ability, maintainability tc * Identification of problem details early to avoid backtracking in design (3) Spend acequate time to plan the job * Plan layouts and) drawings to represent the work ‘+ Make schedules realistic + Study the requicements and select an optimum solution (4) I you encounter interface problems, make ee gee © Where clearances are required and the re- quirement for such clearances + The interface (0 which the detail ataches (5) Review processes, finishes, assembly procedures. ete: ‘Heat treatment requirements ‘Prevent siress risers which cause structural fatigue ‘+ Rough machine requirements 1 climinate mocking sresses ‘+ Cold work treatment on machined surfaces to increase structural fatigue life, such a5 shot pening ‘+ Surface plating ‘Forming and machining techniques (6) Sebcontractor-buit production joints for assem- bles that must conform to shipping limitations, (1) Production joints resulting from raw material size restrictions or size of fabrication tools, ie. skin mills, stringer mills, stretch presses, protective finish tank size (8) The subassembly plan and how these subass blies are loaded into the final assembly fixtures. The design engineer is essentially involved in putting ogethera structural jigsaw puzzle ©) After all, the most important one, is that the fengincer should dedicate himself (or herself) to the jb. 2.3 Producibility In aircraft design, time is always the essence of the ‘contract, and the pressure is always on, There is never sutficient time (and, frequently, not the information) to consider objectively all the possible ways of doing & job and thereby to arrive, on the first occasion, at the ‘optimum method. Because of the difficulties of assessing (under the combined pressures of technical requirements; ecano= ‘mic realities and time) the best method of achieving a given objective in terms of function and cost, the initial process of collaboration and analysis fas, over the last several decades, tended to develop almost into ‘4 new form of specialized engincering activities under the name of producibility engineering, ‘The name is 0 ‘more than a convenient label for an analytical process now, perhaps, more concentrated and consciously applied than formerly — that has always been & patt of good design and” engineering practice. The first lage iS to make available ia the eatliest days of the design, before anything is committed to materials or ‘methods, all available information that will contribute to the conception of an efficiont desiga at mininiut conts. It is not possible, however, to have all the necessary information available at the moment when it is needed, regardless of the amount of intelligentforecasting that is applied, and problems of materials, processing, or continuing design development usually compel feconsideration of the methods used for reasons of time and cost Principles of Producbility Design oO) @ Fig. @ General configuration: ©” Rectangular vs, tapered wing sections, flaps and control surfaces ‘© Minimum number of major structures © Chindrical, straight, or conical surfaces vs. ‘compound curvatute (see Fig. 2.3.1) © Extend of fairing and filling required, see Fig2.32 Major breakdowns © Adequate access for assembly Fase of handling and transportation ‘Completeness of master breakdown units Assembly joints Effectiveness (see Fig, 2.3.3) 2.31 Requires no forming operations since te flat skin may be wrapped anto its supporting frames. Structure and equipment: Structure includes all primary and secondary” structure. Equipment Includes everything within the structural frame, ie. controls, furnishings, instruments, powerplant, accessories, and all functional installatior = Simplicity = Adequate access for fabrication and suby assembly — Avoid compound curvature — Fice body principles (see Fig, 2.3.4) = Alignment relations (see Fig. 2.3.5) — Minimum fabricating and processing opera- tions — Straight fine systems = Mechanical simplicity (avoid “Gadgetry") © Pants Multiple use and minimum number of different parts = Minimum total number of parts = Minimum amount and types of attachments — Effective use of standard parts, materials, and material sizes ‘+ Detail design lerchangeability, which applics to inter- changeable items that are manufactured with the aid of controlled media, and require only the application of att means for their installation, Interchange: able items shall be capable of being readily installed, removed, or replaced without iNcration, misaligiment, or damage to sms heing installed or to adjoining items orstructure — Adjustment and take-up (see Fig. 2.3.6) = Tolerance — Adequate clearances (see Fig. 2.5.6) — Rework margins = Adcquate fastener edge distance — Machining economy LL = Fig. 2.3.2 Fairings and fillets: imerchangeability is Ahificuit to achieve because ofthe tolerance accumulation at these points andl should be used only when essential a See SS Fig. 2.33 The degre of lveakdewn shonid be dictated solely onthe basis ofits overall eect pon producibiity, Improved producibally does not necessarily follow at increase in degree of breakitown. The effective breakdoron of the enter section in the lower view ts proerable tort shotew in the upper view Airframe Structural Design 13correct ‘ib design cconect Spar vertical stiffeners Tig. 2.34 Ribs parallel with the airplane of symmetry often result in acute angle of attachment to the spar or leading edge fas illustrated inthe lef ew. By ignoring related airplane datuns lines, improved producibility is uchieved. “Another example, as illustrated in right view, is that the lowwr tiew design results not only in saving fabricating operations, but the parts ean be Fig. 2.3.5. When iti impossible to avoid the location of suclr related parts im different assemblis, these fittings should not be mounted on surfaces parallel with or normal to the centerline, but means of adjustment should usually be provided. The lower view ilustrates the greater simplicity by using surfaces normal or paraliel to tte bearing 2.4 Maintainability ‘The proper outlook on maintenance must be instilled into everyone from the star. It is believed that in the ‘old-fashioned system of two or three years maintain ability raining must be in the works before going. into the drasing office. This period cannot be skipped if a person is 10 become a designer. It is very important 14 Airframe Steuctural De con the righ ana left hand side. Fonelage tame! Tate up ale Fig. 2.3.6 Ifone flange of 2 channel is to be installed against the under surface of a floor structure 4nd the other flange is to be against the upper surface ofa lower fuselage frame, difficulties would undoubtedly be ‘encountered, Therefore, one lage of the channel should ke replaced with a separate so-called take-up angle drilied for the channel at assembly lat designers and draftsmen should be in constant contact with the shops and service departments 0 that they can see the difficulties which occur in the paris that they have designed It is of the greatest importance that designers Id be in close touch with the engineering and maintenance department of the users for whou the airplane is being designed. It is not sufficient to ecly‘on some published book of requirements. A large Proportion of these are sure to be out of date ar do not refer to the problem in hand. Between military and civil transport aircraft, the first and most important difference isin the amount of flying done by the two types. A modern civil transport aircraft wil probably have to last for 15~20 years, and fly between 2000 and 3000 hours a year, that is a total life of 30,000 to 45,000 hours. ‘The average flying life of a fighter during peacetime will probably have a total of 4000 to 8000 hours. These times do not, of course, apply to transport command aircraft or to trainers, and probably not to most types used by coastal command, which do long periods of patrol. It is evident that the whole problem of design for main- tenance presents an entirely different aspect in the two classes of aircraft, In the case of transport aircraft, life of components and wear of the aircraft generally become very important. The aim will be to keep the airplane flying every day thus putting a premium on the ability 10 change components quickly. Military aircraft, how= ever, will spend long periods on the ground. Even in wartime a military aircraft would spend @ great deal of its time on the ground between relatively short periods of intense activity Facilities for maintenance in the case of military aircraft, especially under wartime conditions, are very ‘uch inferior to those available to the civil operator. It would seem logical, therefore, to cut down to the very minimum the amount of maintenance 10 be carried out by the squadrons of operational machines, With today’s types of fast military aircraft having very thin wings and slim fuselages, it may be quite im- possible to provide the same degree of accessibility (sce Fig. 2.4.1) for casy removal of components that it hhas been used (o in the past. Its suggested that much of this equipment can be builtin and, provided it properly developed and tested, should be capable of functioning satisfactorily between major overhauls Fig. 24.1 Accessable openings for F-16 maintenance. In general, a low-wing transport layout is better from a servicing standpoint than high wing since ‘engines and refuelling points are mare readily accessi- ble without the use of steps. The low-wing layout hss ‘considerable advantages {rom the point of view of installation of control cables, hydraulic pipes, electric cables and equipment, cte., all of which can be run under the cabin floor and reached for inspection and maintenance through doors in the underside of the fuselage without having to disturb cabin upholstery, and minimizes the need for maintenance personnel 10 work in the passenger cabin Position of service joints in the main structure can be of considerable importance to the operator, if possible, a fighter aircraft wing joint should be located at the side of the fuselage. This allows wings and fuse- lages to be transported more easily than the conven- tional stub wing which is more or less permanently attached to the fuselage. ‘A modern aitline technique is to change the com- ponent or items of equipment which have given trouble or have reached their service life, This ob- viously means providing good accessibility to items which may have to be changed. It is very desirable to separate routine maintenance and changing points, so that a number of men can work on the airplane at the same time without all being crowded into one small space In civil transport, Air Transport Association of America (ATA) specification number 100 titled “Specification for Manufacturer's Technical Data” was, devised by the aidline industry in order to standardize the treatment ofall subject matter and to simplify the user's problem in locating technical information for designing transport aircralt to meet maintainability re- quirements, 25 Tooling 30 years ago, manufacturing and interchangeability specifications were not taken too seriously” in the presentation of a tool estimate, but such cannot be the ‘ease toslay. ‘These increased customer requirements are supplemented by closer engineering tolerances dictated by higher performance requirements. All of this adds up to higher costs of tooling which ean be reduced only by a tempering of specitications oF by improved production engineering and tooling. Thus it is recognized that the closest coordination among sales, engineering and tooling is essemtal in order that allare traveling the same pth Lis of prime importance that the type of engincer- ing be determined at the beginning in order that the tooling and manufacturing plan be properly estab- lished. OF course, the type of engineering is hased on the requirements’ specified in the bid proposal. If the airplane is to be experimental with no. production, ‘engineering, the airplane will be fabricated in the experimental department with tooling of a type suitable for experimental manufacturing. If the Fe quitements specify by quantity or by quality that the ‘contract shall he on a production basis, the engineer= ing and tooling must be adapted to suit, This isthe all- important time when the pattern is made for all to fallow. The company makes or loses money on the ability fof each depariment 10 live up to its estimate Any Airframe Scructural Design 15Fig. 2.5.1 Precision forging products ‘changes in the original specifications or bid propos must eventually require renegotiation with all depart- ments concemed. Hf such decisions are made without this consideration, some department may stray from the agreed upon path of direction and an unbalanced operation results with an end result of possible Financial losses, In order to reduce the cost of tools and manufse- turing time, the design engineer must consider the nethod of manufacturing of each part individually and the quantity per airplane, plus a careful look at the specification. The evidence of the work that can bbe done in this field is the number of tools that must bbe macle in order t meet drawing requirements, ‘There are as many or more tools on nearly every con- tact than there are parts This means that all of these tools must be catalogued, cumbered, stored and con Cinually kept up-to-date to all changes. The savings resulting from the elimination of each unnecessary tool is very apparent Low cost production is only possible with an ‘engineering, drawing that has incorporated in it every possible manufacturing advantage. It is understood that the practicability of the extent to which this can bbe approached is dependent upon many factors which inevitably restrict the design engineer. I is noted that an objective altitude towards the engineer's problem by the Wol engineer, serving as anufacturing division's representative, should result in a more standard, consistent working. plan. This resultant standardization should enable the design engineer to become better acquainted with the “hest production design. While itis true that an airplane is ‘Rot built until it is designed, itis also a fact that an airplane isnot designed until itis bail, ‘An aircraft is conceived as a complete structure 1 obviously cannot be built as a single unit, The structure is divided into a number of main com- poncnis, which are further broken down into sub- assemblies that are finally resolved into individual Darts. Individusl parts may be Torged, east, extruded, press-formed or machined from solid or pre-forged 16 Airframe Structural Design shape. Today, two new provesses have been develop: ed, ic. precision forging as shown in Fig. 2.5.1 which requires litle or no further machining, and super plastic forming as shown in Fig. 25.2. Thesc two pro= ‘cesses have altracted great altention to reduce hoth cost and weight. The complexity of tooling and its durability and the degree of performance are deter mined by the number of parts to be made, the rate of production called for, and the quality required in the part. If the result can be obtained only with expensive tooling, that method must be adopted even if the ‘number required is small, Fig. 2.5.2 Superplastic forming of alumina 1.030 inch tick Numerical Controt Numerically ‘controlled (NC) machining of targe integral“ componenis constitutes a considerable proportion of the NC: techniques employed in the Production of the modern airframe. Programming, the machining of a component is an extended process of lwanseribing the information that defines the shape of the finished part into the particular programming, Fanguage (or tapes) that has been used extensivelytoday. The need to speed up the programming of ma- chines and 10 develop procedures ess. prone 10 hhuman error has ted to the increased use of com- puters in the early stages of NC program preparation. ‘The computer-graphic programming of components, ‘or parts, isa technique for communicating with com puters by means of words and diagrams. In this way a picture of the shape oF part required can be created and its machining simulated on the screen of a display console linked 10 a computer in order to check the ‘operations involved. The principal objectives of these program develop- ments are to simplify part programming procedures, to diminish programming errors, to reduce the cost of producing accurate control tapes, to shorten the time taken 10 produce these tapes and, in so doing, to shorten the preproduction period. NC is 4 method of simulating functions of a machine operator through the use af a control tape. ‘The geometry of a part is mathematically described and related via the computer to the coordinate system ‘of an NC machine. When machining instructions are added, this new complete information, on tape, is "used 19 control the machining operation, Robots Robots are machines which are programmable and can be reassigned tasks by changing ity instructions Robots can improve the quality, productivity, safety and reliability of a manufacturing process. Robots have an arm that functions as a human arm; ie, the arm can pick up objects, move them around and put them down again, all with great preci sion and repeatability. A robot arm is able to move in at least three directions: in and out, up and down, and around. When a robot hand is added, another three ‘axes of motion are yaw, piteh and roll, as shown in Fig. 253. ‘eo Gaara Fig. 25.3 Robot movement capability Robots by functions. all into four basic categories: Pick and place (PNP): A PNP robot is the simplost ‘on, its function i to pick up an object and move i to another location. Typical applications inehade machine loading and unloading and general mate rials handling tasks. ‘© Point to point (PTP): Similar to PNP robots, 2 PTP unit moves from point to point, but it can move to literally hundreds of points in sequence. At each point, it stops and performs an action, such as spot welding, glueing, drilling, deburring, or similar tasks © Continuous path (CP): A CP robot also moves: from point to point, but the path it takes is eritical This is because it performs its task while it is moving. Paint spraying, seam welding, cutting and inspection are typical applications. # Robotic assembly (RA): The most sophisticated robot of all, a RA combine the path control of CP robots with the precision of machine tools. RA. often work fasier than PNP and perform smaller, smoother, and morc intricate motions than CP Robots. ‘Shot-peen Forming ‘An example illustrates the design of the long, narrow, and slightly contoured wing skins such as for the Bocing 747, Lockheed L-1011, DC-10 etc, which takes advaniage of shot-peen forming technique, and is much less expensive 10 produce than the eier “ereep-formed' airplane wing skins Fig 25.4 shows an integrally stiffened wing skin being pecned in a peenmatic gantry machine which has the necessary controls to compensate for v curvature requirements along the skin, varying thick: ness, cut-outs and reinforcements, as well as distor- tion caused by machining or heat treatment. No dies are sequited for peen-forming. However, for severe forming applications, stress-peen fixtures are some- times used. Peen-forming is effective on all metals. {In the same manner in which shot-peening. has been used to straighten parts, it can be used to form certain parts in production, integrally stiffened wing skins are an excellent application of shot-pecn- forming, as frequently ao other forming process can bre used to produce the required chordwise curvature Although peen-formed parts usually require shot- pening on one side only, both sides will have com- pressive stresses in the surface. Besides forming and Increasing fatigue strength, these compressive sUtesses serve to prevent stress corrosion Some parts should be shotspeened all over prior to ppeen-forming to further improve these characteristics. arts of this kind which have been cold formed are often shot-peened 10 overcome the harmful tensite sesses setup by bending Assembly Fixture Basically, all assembly tooling locates and clamps. individual workpieces or units while they are being, joined together. The resultant assembly is a larger section of the final airframe sturcture and, in the next lage, may isell be one of the units to be joined with fothers. Any assembly fixture must be sufficiently accurate and stable 10 guarantee that the assembly. built within it conforms (o design tolerances and will retain them after removal; it must be sufficiently rigid to withstand distortion by the assembly itself, Al ‘mating holes and pick-up points with other assemblies fot units must be accurately located and maintained; fin and tailplane fitings are fighter airplane examples of such pars whose inter Airframe Structural Desig (7cchangeability must be assured to meet military re- quirements. ‘A problem that arises in the design of large as- sembly fixtures is that of thermal expansion and contraction. With large airframes, movement can be considerable and it is essential to match the thermal distortion of the fixture to that of the airframe unit assembled in it, The method usually adopted is 10 match the coefficient of expansion of the airframe assembly with that of the fixture or, at least, to use ‘material for the locations on the fixture that have the same coefficient of expansion as the assembly. This, may not solve the problem entirely, because thermal inertia can cause the expansion of the fixture to Tag. behind that of the assembly. In these circumstances, may be necessary to incorporate some provisi free movement in the fixture location to aecor this differential, Fixture design is governed by the acc ‘of parts, rigidity of clamping, accessiil Fig. 254 Posse wh skin ng soar assem) (ing ane! assombly-atnne @~ tinhg sure A= Avembiyont Fig. 2.5.5 Tooting surface evamples 18 Airframe Structural Design and provision for rapid removat of the completed assembly. It is probably quite important to make every art of a component in its assembly fixture instantly and effortlessly accessible, Early in the design, surfaces on the structure are agreed upon by both manufacturing and engineering a tooling surface. The agreement is that manufac turing will ool to the designated surfaces where en neering agrecs never to change these surfaces. Fxam- piles are shown in Fig. 25.5 for reference. The advan- tages of establishing tooling surfaces are as follows: Tooling can pet started on design early. * Documentation of tooling surfaces early in the design (o reduce subsequent coordination effort. ‘© Structural component can be easily and cheaply changed for structural revisions or bect-up for future growth, In addition, designers should understand the manu- facturing and assembly sequence to have excess edge ‘margin in order to allow float as shown in Fig. 2.5.6, ¥ Shin Spar © + Cleaenallowances Fig. 2.5.6 Design for assembly tolerances2.6 Other Considerations (1) If liaison finds trouble with your design, don’t 0 on the defensive — find out if it is ® true ‘problem and fix teary. (2) Maxing of fastener materials and types in any ‘ne fastener patiern or area should be avoided. (3) Ends of rib and spar web stiffeners should be square-cut to allow saw cutting to length and 10 allow turning the stiffener end for end (see Fig. 2.344), thus using & common part on both the left and right hand. The outstanding ley should be chamfered to reduce weight (4) All deSions should consider supplier capability, particularly in sizes and kinds of raw materials fr standards, so that at least two sources are available, Competition for orders is thus main~ tained, and not dependent on a single source in case of emergency, (5) Tolerances less than 0.03 for length, depth and width, and 40.01 for machine: thickness should be coordinated with the manufacturing (6) Make ribs normal to the front or rear spars where practical to minimize tooling and master tooling template problems. (1) Craw holes through ribs and spars should be a minimum of 12 inches by 18 inches. Larger holes should be used where allowed by shear siress in minimum gage areas. Consideration should be given to hole locations in adjacent ribs for maintenance. Sharp comers and pro- trusions around craw! holes should be clime nated, (8) Structural stiffeners or plates should not_be incorporated across crawl holes unless a fail= safe condition exists in case they are inadver tently leit off during maintenance. Producibility will also be enhanced with an unencumbered hole, (°) Aluminum alloy upset head rivets o¢ pull-type lockbolts should be used for web and stiffener riveting wherever possible. Design should con sider aucomatic riveting. (10), Fage margins of rib cap to panel stringer attach bolts shal be standardized for each diameter of fastener. A standard tool ean then be used for duilling these holes in the wing assembiy fixe, (11) Web stitfeners on rips should be located to allow use of either bolts and nuts or pul-type fockbolts for rib cap 10 panel stringer attach iment a far as is practical, This should be kept in mind for all areas. Make room for lackbolt and Hi-Lok fastener equipment i possible. (12) Angle rib cap shoukt be Manged inboard when fever practical for ease of fabricating open angles (23) Skin and stringer dotal drawings should show Stations or some datum lines (elerenee) as well as ditection arrows such as FWD, INBD, UP for orientation of the part in relation 40 the airplane. (14) All length dimensions should originate from a machine reference plane. This should include step cuts and end trims. (15) On muchine parts consider commonality of tools. The mest important of these is cutter radius. Use-as few cilferent radii as possible consistent with the funetion of the part and ‘weight consideration (16) ‘All ecige trims should be dimensioned from a ‘machine reference plane on the straight tooling surface (see Fig, 25.5) side of the web. The reference plane surface should be maintained as fla plane whenever possible (27), Manufacturing recommends stringer tolerances a follows: Thickness 2001, width and length +£0.03, height 40.03. Special deviations may be rade on basic gage taper dimensions and cutter radii, All tolerances should be reviewed for ‘weight savings within the established economi Tims (18) All skin tolerances should be as follows: Thick- ress 0.005, edge trim and eritical location coordinates £0.03 (29) Thetminimum machine gage on stringers should be 0.08. ‘The maximum flange thickness-to- ‘wiih ratio may be T 10 15 when the Mange can be supported during machining. Otherwise, use 2 maximum 1 to 10 ratio unsupported, The maximum flange runout angle should be 13 The maximum thickness taper angle should be u (20) See Reference 2.17. Reference 21 Petonic, GProduciity in Design’ SAE paper No "788.0971, 22° Brooks Jr, BIT: ‘Designing for Preaerity: De- Sninivenced Production Cost Program” SAB paper No 310747,1971) Tenet, $1. "Produstulty Considerations in Pro tion Plannieg for New Aucra™ SAE) Puper No 1744 (199 24 ones, W. R land Harnaon, HM: Design Prod bay Serves the Industry, (Pat I} Aero Dig (Aue Tok) at. ‘Design Prudueiity Serves the lndusty, (pa ‘Aero Digs Sept, 108), aot 25. Green, EAS Simpicny — key to produaiiiy” ‘Machine Desig (Now, 1953), 112 26 ipstein, A. “Some Effects of Stegciutal Deformation in Airplane Design.’ Aero Dagess (Feb, 1949), 2.7 Goff, WE: ‘Design for Production’ Flight Faterne fuomal, (Oct. 25, 1973) 107 28 Dougherty, JE: "EAA Appraisal of Aircraft Design for Maintainability: SAK paper No. 710481, (1971). 29 Gilmaer, GAW. and Olson, BD: Maintenance — the designers Stepehild? ALAA Paper No. 8-210, (1968), 2.10 Adams, CW and Hinders, UA ‘Design-to-cost for the AT Close Ait Support Alerafi” AIAA paper No. 74-13, (1974), 241 Knowles, Je, GBs Material Thicknes Control ‘Through’ Manufaetanng Process Refinement! J. 0 Atreraf July 1976), 4657469 212 Anon: “Plements of Airset Production Desi Airframe Structural Design 19Engincering Training Morerale isued by Lockheed Airerst Corp. 2.13. Anon: ‘Lockheed Engineering Developments for Bette! Production Design’ sued by Lockheed Air craft Corp, (1958), 2.14 Foster, RBs An Approach to the Problem of Air- plane Production.” Aero Digest, (Ma. 1, 1944) 245 Anon; Vol. 2— Hear Treating Cleaning and Finish ‘ng, Vol. 3— Machining: Vor. 4 — Forming. Vel. 8 Forging and Casing American Society for Metals Metals Park, Ohio d073, 2.16 Anon Assembly Engincering, Hitchcock Publishing Company, Wheaton, llinois 60188, 20 Airframe Structural Design Anon: ATA Specification Air Transport Associ ‘of America, Washington, DC. 20016, ‘Anon: “Interchangeabilty and Replaceabilty uf Component Pars for Aerospace Vehicles’ Mig 8500 D. (Mar. 1980), Lermcr,” Et: “Unplugging CAD/CAM. fiom 1 Mainframes’ Aeropace America (Oct. 1986). Grand, KI: Munfacturing” Engincer’s » Marval, McGraw-Hill Book Co, New York, NY. 1971 Witt, RH, and Ferrer, AL: Titanium Near Ni Shape Components for Demanding Airframe Appt ‘ations: SAMPE Quarterly, (Apr, 1986), 58-61CHAPTER 3.0 AIRCRAFT LOADS 3.1. Introduction ‘Aiteraf loads are those forces and foadings applic to ihe airplane siructural components to establish thc Strength level ofthe complete sirpane. These loadings rmiy be caused. by ail pressure, inertia fore, or round reaction during fining. in more specaized Eses, design loadings maybe emposed during other Speraions such a8 catapulted take-off, arrested landing, or landings in wer “The determination of design lads involves study ofthe air presures nd inertia forces during eertaia prescribed maneuvers, cither inthe af or on the round: Sine the primary objective san siplane tra saisfciry strength level, the means by which this revat 1soBlaned is sometimes unimportant. Some ofthe preverbed maneuvers ae therefore ar trary and empncal whichis indicated by a corfu Cxamination of some ofthe enter Rational mane ‘ers and loadings are considered when the "sate-ok the-art” pemnits thir use. The increasing avalaiity of electronic computing eauipment will permit ne ‘esligations of srpane and loing Behavior a ea inva a canbe deseribed mathemialy. With the Scent of faster scr, the need fr sation nal ses isbecoming more mportant "The amount of analysis wed in derivation of raft loads ts dependent on the size, complex. and knowledge and data alae. The time deren iS"aso. important during a deygn, ‘The structural tespn i dependent on loads Therefore, the loads tnust be determined carly in the design to preclude the possibilty of delaying design work. The tine avail Abi olen governs the amount load analysis that fan be made, Another conpideraton in determing the extent ofthe foad analysis the amount of ste tural eight involved, Since neigh i always of peat importance, 2 refinement of the. methods sed to compute oaks aye paid. fly, desl analysis may be necessary wen Computing operating toads on such items ax movable Surfaces doors lang gears, ete. Proper operation of the system fequcs an accurate pret of the lous. Ka eines where toads are dcut to predic. recourse must be made to wind Wwnneh menromni The Tina baie Toads must be am acceptable comprise of all the considerations. - . "Areal loads is the science of determin loads that a airral structure su withsind. lange part ofthe frees thst make un design lace are te forces feeling fom the flow Sir Shout the rpms Skies the same foes that enable flight and control of the aircraft, The study Of the behavior of these forces is the subject of aera~ dynamics that can be found from any book of the fundamentals of aerodynamies and will not be dis ccussed in this Chapter. Load Factors In normal straight and level fight the wing lift supports the weight of the airplane. During maneuvers ‘or flight through turbulent (gusty) ais, however additional Toads are imposed which will increase oF decrease the net loads an the airplane structure, The amount of additional load depends on the severity of the maneuvers or the turbulence, and its magnitude is, measured in terms of foad factor. ‘Load factor is a multiplying luctor which defines load in terms of weight. This definition i illustrated in the accompanying diagram. In Fig. 3.1.1(a) the air plane isin straight and level flight. In Fig. 3.1.1(b) the airplane is im accelerated flight; the airplane is being subjected to an acceleration normal to its light path The accelerating force, 42, is an increment of lift which is caused either by encountering gust oF as a result of an intentional maneuver. ‘The additional force causes an acceleration, A., and equiibrivn provided hy the in Aaa At x (2) The maximum maneuvering load factor to which airplane is designed depends on its intended age. Fighters. which are expected to execute violent maneuvers, are designed to withstand Toads commensurate with the accelerations a pilot can_ physically withstand. Long range, heavily loaded bombers, on the other hand, ate des fo low load factors and must be handled a ingly. Fig. 3.1.2 shows the relative strength (in terms of design load factor) of various airplane types. Actual values of design mancuvering load factors are based on statistical data, Transports hhave low values of the order of 2 t0 3, while fighters are designed to higher values, such as 6 0 8. The magnitudes to be used for design are Specified by the licensing or procuring. A their specifications Lod factor, 1+ Airframe Structural Design 21Weight W (@) 1 Wease Lt AL= WHF case where = Wand & LF, Fig. 3.1.1 Airplane load factor, LLL SN WLI Baise nee wozzzrn ZESZZZZE™., Hosvy vombars Fig. 3 Design foad factor. Fig 3.1.3 shows the characteristic regions of and 1 combinations that are possible in flight (shore C= wing lit coefficient, = lied factor) and the Corresponding positions of the aircraft along its fight path in all these cases, # Case A is reaching large angles of attack corresponding, t0 C; au. while teaching a foal factor of 1, (steep elim), + Case Av is Teaching & toad factor of thay at ‘maximum permissible airspeed, V_,. (recovery froma dive at ough airy 22 Airframe Structural Design Laie Ye Septane went (a) Position ofthe airraft along its igh path corresponding sa the basic wing load cases (8) Basic wing load cases Fig. 3.1.3. Typical fighter wing manewcering fi 1s. ang load cases + Cave B iy reaching the mean load factor (0.5, igus) for maximum permissible airspeed with ailerons deflected (advanced aerobaties and roll maneuvers). = Case C is that of a mum airspeed when C, = 0 (dive). * Cases D and D’ correspond to entering a dive to the elements of aerobatic maneuvers with a negative Toad. factor, an descending current of roe Typical wing load eases are within the fimits of these regions: crons deflected at maxi Region) = aa, constant ‘naximm load factor) ay 2 2thRegion II 0 1 > Mag (here Maus inimnumn load factor) Region TV n= riya = constant (2) The gust load factors experienced by an airplane are caused by atmospheric disturbances and are beyond the control of the pilot. ‘the loads en gineer is faced with the problem of how to estab- lish criteria that will lead to the best compromise between an adequate strength level and an un- conservative design ‘The nature of atmospheric turbulence and its effects on the aireraft structure have becn ‘subjects of much research effort for a number of years, The turbulence characteristic of most interest relative to structural design loads is the intensity of turbulence likely to be encountered; in other words, the magnitude of gusts that the structure must be designed to withstand. Design {gust intensities used to determine design gust Toad factors are determined from statistical data ‘and are generally specified by the licensing, or procuring apencies. ‘The gust load factors on an airplane are ‘greater when the airplane is flying at the mini- mum flying weight than they are al the gross weight condition. While this is seldom eritical for the wings, since they have less weight to carry, it is critical for a structure such as the engine ‘mounts which carries the same weight at a higher Toad factor. It is therefore necessary to calculate faust load factors at the minimum weight at which the airplane with be flown (see Section 3.4 for further discussion). Limit and Ultimate Loads Limit loads are the maximum loads anticipated on the aircraft during its service life. The aircraft structure shall be capable of supporting the limit loads without suffering detrimental permanent deformation, For all ouds up to “limit” the deformation of the structure shall be such as not to interfere with the safe opera tion of the aircraft Ultimate loads (or design loads) are equal «0 the limit loads muiplied by a factor of safety, Ultimate loud = Limit load x Factor of safety In general the ulimate factor of safety is. 1.5. The requirements also specify that these ultimate loads be centred by the structure without failure, Ithough aircraft are not supposed to undergo ereater loads than the specified limit loads, a certain amount of reserve strength against complete structural failure of a unil is necessary in the design of practi cally any part of the structure, This is due to many factors such as: (I) The approximations involved in ierodynamic theory and also structural stress analysis theory; (2) Variation in physical properties of mate fials, (3) Variation in fabrication and inspection standards. Possibly the most important reason for the factors of safety for aircraft is due t© the fact that Prictically every aireraft ts limited to the maximum velocity it ean be flown and the maximum acceleration it can be subjected (o in flight or landing. Since these are under the control of the pilot it is possible in femergeney vondlitions that the init lod may. be slightly exceeded hut with 3 reserve factor of silety ‘against failure this exceeding of the limit foad should Ot prove serious from an aircraft safety standpoint, although it might cause permanent structural de formation that might require repair oF replacement of small units oF portions of the structure. Loads due to aireraft pusts are arbitrary in that the gust velocity is assumed. Although this gust velocity i, ‘based on years of experience in measuring and recording gust force in flight all over the world, itis quite possible that during the lifetime of an aircraft, turbulent conditions from storm ateas or over moun” tains or water areas might produce air gust velocities slightly greater than that specified in the load requir ‘ments; thus the factor of safety insures safety against failure if tis situation should arse Structural Design Criteria ‘The structural eriteria define the types of mancuvers, speeds, useful loads, and gross weights which are to be considered for structural design analysis, These are items which are under the control of the aizplane operator. In addition, the structural criteria must consider sueh items as inadvertent maneuvers, effects of turbulent air, and severity of ground contact during landing. The basic structural design criteria, from which the loadings are determined, are based largely ‘on the type of airplane and itsintended use The criteria which are under conteol of the air plane operator are hased on conditions for which the pitot will expect the airplane to be satisfactory. 1d ings for these conditions are calculated from slatistical data on what pilots do with and expect from an ait plane. The strength provided in the airplane structure to meet these conditions must be adequate for th airplane to perform its intended mission, The com mercial airplane must be capable of performing its mission in a profitable as well a safe manner and is assumed to be operated by qualified personnel under ‘well regulated conditions. Military. types. do. not usually lend themselves as readily to a definition of strength level based on a mission, because the mission may not be well defined. Military airplanes are not always operated under well regulated conditions and thus necessitate a wider range of design limits, The latter group of criteria include those loadings cover which the pilot may have litle ar no control. The strength necessary for these conditions is. based almost entirely on statistical data. Statistics are com stantly being gathered and structural design con- ditions being, moditied or formulated from interpreta- tions of these data, These statistics can easily be used to design an aigplane simular to the one on which the Matisties were collected, Unfortunately, the data cannot always be successfully extrapolated 10-a new ‘and different design Regardless of airplane type, the eviteria are based primarily on previous experience and statistics. Occasionally, a condition is experienced which is ‘outside the satsties and failure nccurs, Therchore, a 100 percent safety level is difficult. f not impossible {0 obtain and sil have an economical aitplane When the type and use of the aigplane is defined, reference is made to the requirements of the customer involved and the requirements of the licensing agency The minimum structural requirements for aigplanes for the various agencies are presented inthe lollowing documents Airframe Structural Design 23Civil Aircraft 1. Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR), Volume II}, Part 23. — Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, and Acrobatic Category Airplanes FAR, Volume ill, Part 25 — Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category 3. British Civil Airworthiness Requirements Section D — Aeroplanes Mittary Aircraft The Military Specification MII.-A-8800 (ASG) Series y 3361 (ASG) — Flight Loads (6) MIL-A-8862 (ASG) — Landplane Landing and Ground Handling Loads (@) MIL-A-8863 (ASG) — Additional Loads for Carrier-Based Landplanes (@ MIU-A-H64 (ASC) — Water and Handing Loads for Seaplanes (0) MIL-A-8865 (ASG) — Miscellaneous Loads {@) MIL-A-8866 (ASG) ~ Reliability Requirements, Repeated Loads, and Fatigue (0) MIL-A-8867 (ASG) — Ground Tests (@) MIL-A-8868 (ASG) — Data and Reports G)_ MIL-A-8869 (ASG) — Special Weapons Effects (%) MIL-A-8870 (ASG) — Vibration, Flutter, and Divergence ‘The requirements are general in nature and do not always apply to a new type of aisplane. Consequently, interpretations af and deviations from the equ iments are necessary. These deviations and interpreta tions are then negotiated with the licensing or pro ‘curing agency. In some eases, special requirements may be necessary to cover unusual airplane configura- tions. The manufacturers requirements are usually the result of an unhappy experience or an advancement in the “state of the art” by that manufacturer. The trend fon commercial airplanes in recent years has be toward the establishment of specially designat Special Conditions foreach individual aieplane design. The FAA specifies these conditions with Some nego ation with the airfame and engine manufacturer Atmospheric Properties {As altitude increases the density of the air deercases as does the temperature. Other properties of the air change with these items, also. Ia order that all ae ‘namie calculations should be made on the same basis, f standard variation with altitude of the various par- meters has been established. (4) Dynamic Pressure Dynamic pressure is a measure of the kinetic ccnergy in moving gas or fluid, It is indicated by the symbol qand is defined as, 1 gal py uc airspeed in tUsec ass density ~ "in slugs/fe ee lensty in t/t 4@ (in knots) Guay 206 24 Airframe Structural Design q (Vin mph) G12) “301 (2) Equivatent Airspeed At altitude the difference in air density must be cone The equation for 4s ( pw ¥) where py, is air density at the altitude being considered, V, is true airspeed. Rather than considering different values of p, the concept of equivalent airspeed is introduced. The equivalent airspeed, V, is the true airspeed corrected for the difference Beeween sea level air density and the air density at the altitude being considered. At sea level ¥(= ¥, acaniute te = ¥, {2} mis desiy me ratio, Pig defined as a. Then Pas. 1.3) 1 al G4) (3) Compressibility Correction to Calibrated Air- speeds Starting withthe isentropic relationship ee (otal stagnation pressure p=static pressure ke = 1.4, ratio of specific heats Mf = Mach number Substituting k — 1.4 in the above equation and subtracting 1 from both sides ofthe equation, Po=P = 2 HL prneraffveafes | ‘The above equation is used to calibrate the air speed F, at sea level, measured in knots. ‘At oiher altitudes, & correction is needed as shown below: Aven Voth G8) whichis plotted on Fig. 2.14pete (4) Tables and Figures Fig. 3.1.6 is a plot of altitude versus equivalent Fig. 3.1.5 is a typical summary of atmospheric airspeed with families of constant Mach lines and properties useful in evaluating equivalent and constant calibrated uirspeeds, Fue airspeeds, etc ‘correction from calibrated ‘irspeed to obtain equivalent sirspeed (EAS) EAS ~CAS~ AY, Conecion = 6 ¥.— knots Calibrated oper CAS — tn Fig 51-4 Comprossituity correction to calibvated airspved Airframe Structural DesiAltimde Pressure Density ‘Temperature 4 e Press | P é Me e 2 eee ere Geom| sure | iy p fore | sx fo T me | % | Jo | 7 wf Efe | ce) | on | gp | eo a (eu ss, © | 0 ferie.20» of: ooo qa. a6 af .23zeH9— 2.0000. of1.0000+ of geo Toaaae| Esties 1000 | 1000 feoso.as fesasss- sfsze.ce [oesoie — fo.rior~ 1)s.e543~ | 25 104 ossote| is.9 ean | 200n |iser.ca fpoosne fsra.se [oseeoes foraars fa.zoar | cas so o.seeas} 1.038 000 | ao0s Jrave.er .sease fiser.s7 jo.irsis [esis fo-ssse | cera scm 9.057 000 | acon Janets o-cacer faro.ce fo-arsoss faceers |o.czae | cones srs] 7.017 000 | s000 Jaroo.sr |s.az08s izae.sr [o.zousir ja.sira fo.anon [sco.243] a.12e{ o.seses] 5.008 100 | 6000 | resc.oo f.o.eae finer.z0 |o-tocas —[a.asanfo.tean [sz 279] ar suel acere| a-ate a00 | 1000 |reas.oe fr-resse frase |a.ro2css |ecsore |s.coas J asa.r1s} a-ove|e asica} tase aoa | sooo [asrz.or frzssy furor fo.sesses fr-asos |s.se | coo 152] 30 use| sean | ~ ease woo | cone Jisiess .isont fioso.0s foeutss |r.ezas |a.z206 | 40s ste] astt| a sors] © aoace 1600 | 1000 1485.60 ofprene ]o18.az+ofo.rzssss- afr.anso~ ifs soer- af ans.c26| 23.2¢3]o-onis8| - reo | r00e |ran0.05 fseises joto.ae~sfo.rroriefrcasee |esan [era asa] 10783| panes |. room Jineoe foactss feeeses foscas fecansa |sazse [ars.een] aetsi|eanme| . o sauin | 3000 Jiaseaz fs.nasas rost.cc loisosio ecrist fecisus — farz.sso] ineeel creer] sie seco | tae frzia.ss fserore fros.ss fo.rsassi fe.soee |acoese [agezza] “ssos| arses ve seco} isooe risu.7sfs.ser foss.sa [o.neanis fecanee |r.asse | as.2ne s.aoeai} -re.sor reo0o | reon0 Fier sy s.e20urlenae.so Jo-tessee fesooer Ir-sose | ar acs weno | 16.675 sie0o | svo00 fron ze fszosia frniz.1e fotantos |sanes frrsree | ass ovsl- rarsfeenns| saneee sooo | aso0e | osr-a8 Ja.oorea [r02.8e Joaassaa|s.zom —[z.ssie|ase-saal stss|aersar| sae enn 1s000 | s0000 fioieer frou r1ea.sr fossiore |e-sias france | cs0-e7af- sesso une | ances aneco | 2000 | gr32.15~ as sonia~sfonz.oa~rJo-tesras~ af9.ant6 17-08 1fa47cns}-. cee ape | 24 ses 00 | aro0e | aasacs |itinmt psseae fencer o.tsoa fruarar [aasess|-aanafe ase | sosece 2eco| azo | asus.oo [azzrse fesz.an Jecmaaes acarae {7.0088 | ao.cor|- is ele mnve | concace seco | 2200» | ser2.ao |a-asote feooo.re Jo.snasaz |a-stos [e-sase |4s6.230) 22 si] e-sesns| -an ene cco] ace Jazns.zzf.cnsna fraa.cn Jo-ocss accesa |o-eiss [ss isiL-ae.steleceare| saz ace aso | soon Jraea.as tists ss04.st. octostae facanss |o.ourr [42s.czal- ocelo azssz| -au-art sence | 000 Jreaz.ty assess |s209.00 fo-tozsis |a.ssoe fo.stoe |azs-o6s|-22.s0%/ sauce] sanceer aco | aro00 |r202 68 cee [041.86 focsosis2~alacazsa fs.esas | az.coo|-ay-ieafy-arvce| ce an 2acoo | aeooe Jeneo.cc f.zssee lasts [esseois [acomas |o.sear |i osi{- ao 219{9-0ores| cap aon aeoo | ro0oe Jesezss arsen lacrsiz |oszseeo fs.ensa |e.2aes | 1s.395]-a1 275/o-soers] ~ a ane coo | sone | caso.o9~ 1.a784s~sfeuor.e8~ ifo.soooes~ afs.zera~ 1fe.2zi8~ tf anr.eso|-ar-asife raya ~au ast neo | siooe Jéoueis fecizaa feen.st osseure fa.outs |e.o0ss | c-2as|-si cer] ssevar| san ace 300 | saan |szas.asj-risis fanzz.10 jo.szreso |3.aras |.aans feos 72 =a. saeco | same fsets.sofpsseta faves forsesrz [asia |s.zesi faarana 000 | a4m06 fexse.se fearsee foecase fo-rooess fa.zzer |s.otoe J sarere Be Fig. 3.1.5. 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ofers.s7] a4e.co+ o esses | ores | s.roa [6.259 | a.as0 {030.20 |rata.t6 ses.sr Jori.se| 439.28 ozs | o.2rzas | a.sor [6.8 | 3.710 jrore.es J7250.96 |ros.a5) 94.89 fo0o.46] «20.08 o.s2509 | o.zeson | s.son [5.020 [a.sea faozs.se {ri0s.s0 eve silseaa — feoe.as] azs.ot oases fozssz3 | stro {5.186 |3.a79 |aezo.se fease.s7 |eosice| areas |eoa.si] «12.05 o.s2166 —fo.sois7 | 3.215 | 5.596 [3.568 016.10 {0805.56 |esz.e0so1.02 [eoz.oa| «03.22 esises [oso [ser |s.c37 | 3.260 frors.so |ecss.er —{ese.g2]4s3 98 [99.53] 30a 50 v.ait99—fo.sias0 3.10 | s.283 | a.ase {to07.ss Jesiz.ar fesz.oslaus.on |s97-02| 385. e.arsie —jeszeet | a.ece /s.is1 3.051 fioos.ce fesro.er ewa.refasacse 504.50] s2743 o.sizg0 | o.saess | 2.sss 4.982 | 2.950 | o99.t4 [229.14 Jesi.zslizura |s01.97| 369.07 9.31089 6 | o.sensz~ 3] 2.4674 3] 4.059+ 3] 2.852 6| 904.5 |6089.97~ ale78.s1]15. 23+ 0509.43] 360.82 0 @s087 | o.ssaas fares j4.to7 [2756 | os0.55 fsase.77 |ers.a7leas.e7 |s06.48) 352.69 30625 [o.sros | e.ner /a.ss | 266s | 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Fig. 3.1.5 (continued 28 Airframe Seructural DesignViscosity RN“K" Factory Speed of sound Kory Ker . G ” Ee RN RN Ky i G ¢ , | NE a 7 Slug fe Wis | they &] Glo |G) oye ee iwsee | ee 1 refi] #] a ae sd nres | ieee iach} sec | see | ™PRY mph 7 0.29951 fovansrs | 2ass | a.t60 | 2.398 | 973.14] s4zs.27 — [669.51}369.77 | st6.s71 321.32 0.20725 J o.araso [2.see [4.033 |a.aas | 968.75] soss.6r |s60-si}s61.07 [573.97] a13.75 o.206et -6| 9 azoae-s | 2.3763 | 4.01448 | 2.302+8 | 958.08 | sa7e,a7—1 /860.05}359,76-01573.57| 312.0240 2960 | o.aszgz [acer [30st | 2.211 | 968.08] si70.s7 ]660.05}252.53 [573.57] 306.36 eres | oases f2arr [3.674 |2.r07 | 968.08 | soes.oe |660-05fs4c.18 [573.57] 299.09 0.29601 | oaeigs J 2ors |.s0z j 2.009 | 968.08] vaze.e1 |660.05]s36.0¢ | 573.57) 292.01, .20601~ 6| o,soser a] 1.976+ 3] 8.3884 3] 1.0154 6] 969.08] aa12.01~ 1]66¢.05}s28,09%+ 0573.57] 285.104 0 o-2eesr | o.sseae [iets [8.192 [1.028 | 68.08] acon.r9 |660.csfsz0.a3 |srs.sa| 270.26, sssen [oosesr [ater [acne [iteo [asses |eeriay |66008}1225 |sr 9 anon ozsest | osesee [aris [aesz | 1.059 | cece] aeze.se |660.05f305.96 s7a.s7| 265.05 e-zset | ogize, | 1ess |2.ts7 | 1.ser | 968.08] gor2.6r |660.05f008.14 |s.s7| 259.07 ozo | o.crane | xser | 26c8 | s.sor | 908.08} a2c0.28 252.01 v.26 Jo srare | rene [2.505 [1.47 | 968.08 | arcs.se 26.97 o.zsest | orosna | ters |z.sse |1.s70 | 968.08 | 4oca.s0 aes a2s6ct Jo ryus | ae [2.278 | 1.206 | 968.08) 073.59 235.43 e261 |g azrie | eee |2a70 | 1.245 | 968.08| se79.57 0.86 ecaeeor~ 6] gguer= al 122e+] 2060+ 3] 17+ ¢f 968.08 ayer af600.0shseer~ dss.co]zeeas 0 o-zser | oassea [ase | 1arz [1.131 | 968.08 | sco5.46 s73.s7| 219.13 e296 |g sere fine [reso | 078 | 900.08] seni.o7 st3.57] 215 95 e261 | gore [1.082 | 1.792 | 1.028 | 968.08 | 3525.75 er3.s7 208.90 0.26661 | ogater [012 | 1.702 | $.8004 5] 968.08 | s442.45 13.5 200.96 v.28681 | o,roser~ 2} 9.650+ 2] 1-629 | 9.942 | 968.08) saen.as |660-05|229.17 |sza.sz 199.14 o.csée1 | oro [9.200 | 1.553] #906 | 964.08 | szei.ze [660-05]202.75 [515.57] 196.48 sees | otiuee Jarre | r4eo [8.450 | s60.08 sooces [éev.eslore a7 fss.szl 109.05 a.zsest otis [aac [aes |#08¢ | obe.ct| sizass jovo.csfois.as fszer] aas.36 arses gues [rm [ras |7.716 | 268.08 sesess 1686.05]20n-27 |sra sr] aa0.98 o.ze6e1- 6| o.rsigo- 2) 7.599+ 2| 1.2686 8] 7.256+ §] 968.08] 2o62.55~ 11860-0503.26 + qiza.s7| 176.71 0 0.20681 fois {720 | 4228 {7.018 | oce.oe| zot.ts (660.05 9¢ 35 graven 172.34 ores: | oiuese [oan | 1.166 [6686 | a6e.08 neus.39 |660.05]s92-07 |ors.en| ve8.e7 azosst foasis [esse [iam | 6.374 | oce.oe| 2rze27 |60.05lses.20 |zaar] seas e296: | otoese [5.277 | 1.058 | 076 | 968.06 2r40.7¢ [860.05]ise.so fora.s0| 180.61 e291 fo sen [soe | 100 [5-783 | o6s.08| 2646.26 [660.05|180.46 |sra.s7} 150.2 0.20691-5 | 9 y75422/ $.755+2| 8.70042 | #-585°S| 968, ce | ases.19 1 |860.05]178.94+ ra s7| 155.760 aziz lotsa jes fetss | 525 | ssa.e7| asas.se foco.sefiza.es [sree aaa.st erste | grass | sist | aoe [5.000 | 969.55] 2463.98 |661.05]i68.00 fora.a4) 5.98 amr loaner [ase fast fore faves |oueeer Hehsehetes fread was Fig. 3.1.5 (continued) Airframe Structural Design 29e000] tose Ve = Vp 12000) can00 4000 o V2 40 WOO 18D 200 200 40 200 250 Soo HO UA ae SAD 400 400 AAD Vetciy ~ equoaten speed ~ KEAS Fig. 3.1.6 Constant ealibrated airspeeds ‘Summary of Primary De for Transport (1) Flight) Pilot induced maneuvers. and airplane system malfunctions + Combination stabilizer-elevator maneuvers Aileron and/or asymmetric spoiler maneuvers, © Rudder maneuvers Combinations of above three items + Engine failure (2) Flight: Aumospheric turbulence + Power spectral approach (8) Mission Analysis based on operational spectra (b) Design Envelope Analysis based on extremes of operational envelopes, Discrete Gust Approach (2) FAR gust load factor equation (b) Tuned discrete gusts (ce, one-minus. cosine shape gusts with varying wave- lengths) (3) Landing * FAR landing condition (ie, LLY. LL2, LL, bL * Rational landing time histories (based on FAR-designated sink speeds, wing lifts. pitch altitudes, and speeds) (4) Ground handling © FAR ground handiing (ie, BR2, BR3, turning, pivoting, unsymmetrical braking, towing) * Rational taxiing (ie, bump encountered dus “olf mins, rejected take-otis, landing taxiway taxiing) tal ground maneuvering ign Conditions (5) Falsate nd breakwway design 30 Airframe Structural Design 3.2 Aeroelasticity Acroclastic effects in loading calculations are those associated with structural deflection, When certain Parts of the structure deflect, significant changes may occur in the airplane stability and distribution of airloads. (Ref. 3.20 and 3.33). ‘The effects of aeroelasticty are usually not found without a large amount of calculations. These ealeula- tions must be based on estimated stiffness of the structure. Also, the effect of structural deflection on the aerodynamics is difficult 10 determine accurately. Consequently, wherever possible, the acroelastic effects are neglected or simple assumptions. made when the effects are significant. The simplest method is (0 estimate the angle of alluck change from struc tural deflection and calculate an increment of loading from this change, Unswept Wing An accurate method of determining wing-twist can be used where the loads are readily determined. Each increment of load caused by structural deflection pri duces another deflection as showa in Fig. 3.2.1 and requires an iteration to determine the final wing loads, ‘A reasonable assumption is that the iteration follows a geometric veries. Te final equilibrium incre- ment of angle of aitack a of the wing takes the form Sa=Aa[lt+R+R4..] where R Aa, ‘The lit of the sum of this series is,‘The lift distribution om the wing is a basic type of distribution, The change in angle of attack of the ‘complete wing to maintain constant lit is equal to the & (see Fig. 3.2.2) corrected by the iteration series, where Ty win orion and asses 0, 21a, winel dfectom and caus alicnaer at, a1 cows ay Bateaes 31 Fig. 32.1 Wing loads vs, structural deflections ¢ oA ~ Ria wing Fes wing Fig. .2.2 Wing lift comparision between a rigid and flexible wing From the value of © the change in lift curve can be . found for a exible wing as flows Gale ibe =Cialy Divergence of a wing or control surface occurs When the valuc of Aq: approaches Aa, in the iteration equation, When this situation exists, R= 1.0 and 4a * ©. The resull is rapid destruction of the wing or surfac ‘The largest source of torsion on a wing and, com sequently, the most serious. eroelastic problem is aileron deflection. Assuming & down aileron deflee tion, the wing is tisted nose down, The aileron effee- liveness is decreased and a down load occurs on the forward section of the wing, This down low further aggravates the situation 4s shown in Fig. 3.2.3. aes wing moment due to ‘Soigcted aaron Fig. 3.2.3 Ilustration of aieron reversal A considerate Joss in coll performance is experi- enced as shown in Fig, 3.2. igi wing Flow wine |\. \ Fig. 32.4 Roll preformance ofa wing. At the speed, V, the rolling moment caused by the Wing deflection is equat to that caused by the aileron, This speed is the aileron reversal and H;, is the airplane design speed which is smaller than Vy Swept Wing A swept wing of a control surface is especially impor {ant with respect to aetoelastic effects. In this case, the bending and torsion deflection contribute consider ably to the twist angle of the airfoil sections. Twist langle caused by these is shown in Fig. 3.2.5. The change in slope of the elastic curve between ny two points on the beam is equal to the area under M the 7 diagram between points as shown in Fig, 3.26, (a aE ay = modulus of elasticity (ratio of steess/steainy (©. 30 X 10" fivin® for steel; 10,5 % 10" livin! for some aluminum alloys) 1 = moment of inertia of wing box G = modulus of tee. 12 10" th Steck, 4% 10° alloys) J = torsion const for Airframe Structural Design 31() View looking inbd Fig. 325 Wing twist angle caused by swept o 7 i load Acentovered beam Fig. 32.6 Wing spanwise pure structural bending (no torsion). ‘The deflection of point A on the elastic curve of the beam from a zangent to the elastic curve at point B M is equal to the moment of the area under the qual 1 th of the area under the diagram betwoen points taken about point A. “My - [4 ou |e where j= distunee between centroid of ela toad {1} and point A oad |) and poi To consider the chordwise deflection (torsion oncept of the structural clastic axis (also called shear center) is introduced and shown in Fig. 3.2.7 32. Airframe Structural Design Fig. 3.2.7 Wing chordwise deflection. ‘The angular deflection due to torsion about the clastic axis between point A and B (see Fig, 32.8) is ‘The change in angle of attack on the strip duc t structural deflection is, Te Is obvious from the above equation that changes in airload due to structural deflection on a straight wing ate mainly due to torsional toads “nd Ura bending loads contribute more and more 3s the sweep)oe CLL Detietion song Fig. 3.2.8 Relation betoeen wing deflection and local streamwise angle of attack increases. Less obvious is the fact that the bending, induced deflection on an aft swept wing tends to decrease the bending moment on the wing (shifting the center of pressure inboard) and conversely the bending induced deflection on a swept forward wing tends {0 shift the loads outboard and increases the bending moment on the wing. Interpreted another way, the swept forward wings are more susceptible 10 divergence at high speeds, 3.3 Flight Maneuvers Flight mancuvers are those displacements, velocities, and accelerations resulting from a control surface ‘movernent, Maneuvers which create critical structural loadings are the resuits of a single or combined predetermined control surface movements. The control surface movements and the forces applied to the control systems are determined from statistical data. In most airplanes, however, restrictions on pilot ing techniques may be necessary in order to prevent stfuctural damage. Few aigplanes are designed (0 a strength level high enough to sustain loads resulting from the maximuns output of the pilot Pitching Maneuvers Pitching’ maneuvers are those maneuvers involving motion and equilibrium along the vertical axis bout the lateral axis. and motion shown in Fig. 3.3.1 Wing te sg Witt rut — Tait rai Weight Brag) nt (b) Pressure distributions Fig. 3.3.1 Typical airplane pitching manewoer Airframe Structural Design 33Steady level fight is a form of maneuver where the forces on the airplane are pat into equilibrium wit the airplane which is subject ‘ype of maneuver is Known as balanced fight, ‘The aerodynamic moments are balanced 10 zero about the center of gravity, This balancing, is accomplished by deflecting the elevators until a balancing tail Toad developed. In level flight the airplane is then consid. cred (rimmed, his type of equilibrium is also associated with accelerated flight when the loud factor is a value olen than one. The balanced flight conditions exist in a slow pullout or steady coordinated turn, In. these cases the angular motion about the lateral axis is so small that it can be considered zero except where gyroscopic moments are involved A force system on an airplane in balanced fight is shown in Fig. 3.3.2 ‘Another type maneuver exists where the aeco- dynamic moments are not balanced to 2er0 abwut the airplane center-of-gravity. This maneuver is asso- ciated with a rapid movement of the elevator and the ‘maneuver is for very short durations, Pitch mancuver ‘8 the term commonly used to describe this condition, ‘The time involved in this elevator motion is very short and the unbalanced aerodynamic moments are balanced by the airplane inertia. E (aerodynamic moments) = 16 where J. = airplane moment of inert = airplane pitching acceleration IF the elevator could be deflected instantaneously, the force is as shown in Fig, 3.3.3, wing rtaay — | so Ss th aa ft d= ring + hoes n,n + bode; moment Fig. 33.2. Airplane in balanced flight FT ezusod by 19 it { 1.09 tance W leng-10 Fig. 3.3.3. Force diagram due to deflected elevator 34 Airframe Structural Design Usually @ variation of the elevator motion with time is established and the airplane response can be readily computed. tn lieu of this ealeulation, some designers have established arbitrary pitching accclen, ations which give satisfactory strengih lovely, Rolling Rolling mancuvers are usually associated with aileron deflection. Rolling may be induced by rudder mene euvers and asymmetric engine thrust. Roll attitudes and. velocities are usually accompanied by: yawing ‘motion and often the two motions must he considered, simultaneously, Structurally, rolling is of importance since the following design conditions are encountered in roll maneuvers. (Q). Critical wing torsion caused by aileron loading (2) Vertical tail toads caused by induced yaw, (3) Centrifugal force on wing-mounted stores and internal fuel tanks, ‘Steady rolt is that part of the roll maneuver when the aerodynamic forces about the rolling axis are sev and the aitplane is no longer accelerating. The rolling velocity is reduced to a dimensionless quantity by measuring the roll as the wing tip helix angle, Th a angle in terms of toll velocity P. ~ toll velocity in radians/second b= wing span in feet ¥ = airplane velocity in feer/second Accelerated roll occurs immediately after the ailerons are deflected. While the velocity i building up the aerodynamic moments about the roll axis are ‘ot Zero and the forces are shown in Fig. 3.34 larsyaws Fig. 3.34 Forces due to deflected ailerons, “The increment of toed factor at any point, y,, om the wing is Several maneuvers involv seribed for structural analysis (1) Rapid movement ofthe rudder witha given pedal foree, (2) Oscillating rudder motion, ‘udder motion are pre-These conditions may result in critical vertical tail foads. The magnitude of the tail loads produced is proportional to the rudder mechanical advantage built Into the aimplane. In each case the subsequent aieplane motion mist be investigated to determine the tail loads. Inadvertent yawing maneuvers are. experienced ‘when a wing-mounted engine fails or a gust strikes the ‘ertical tal. These conditions are not under the pilot's control, ‘but may cause considerable yawing and produce ential vertical tail loads. Equations of Motion “The previous sections define the various maneuvers requited to establish a strength level. Tn order (0 determine loads on various structural components, the motion of the aigplane must be studied. This section presents an approach 10 the subject of air~ plan dams s related fo sural onding, The foundation of airplane dynamics lies inthe studies of dynamic stability and control. “The six degrees of freedom and the positive senses of forces, moments and airplane velocities along and about the various axes are shown in Fig. 33.5. The body axes are used as reference and all subsequent motion equations are referred to these axes, Note that the positive sense of the axes are apposite those normally used and moments and rotations are deter- mined from the right hand rule. “The yawing. maneuver considered here is, asso ciated with rudder deflection. Two degiees of feee- ‘dom (sidesip and yaw) are used. A third degree of freedom, roll, may be necessary. The ailerons ate con- sidered to be neutral or deflected sufficiently to main- tain a level coll attitude, If the ailerons create asym- metric drag these terms must be included in the equ- ations, ‘Because a moving set of axes is used, the curvature of the flight path introduces another inertia term in the sideslip equation, : ‘Sideslip acceleration = + Vip Rolling acceleration, §= 0 Aerodynamic. stability derivatives used in the equations are defined as follows: 1G range in side force with sidesip angle B (negative) 4G. change in yawing moment with sidetipe ‘angle (positive) dc, ‘= damping moment in yaw caused by yawing velocity (negative) £6 — cpange in yawing, moment with redder tangle (negative) For EF,-0 (e+ Vy t BE ou Fig. 3.3.5 Notations used ur airplane motions (see appensiaf the end of this chapter? Airframe Structural Design 35where b= IV an, 8 ON Cub ay” 2 an. 8 = CypSe (Side force caused by sidestip) 4g,5.b (damping moment caused by yaw velocity) ~C yap S.b (yawing moment caused by sieslip) ax Wc, gyScb- (sawing moment caused by rudder) 55, Cone Sb_(vaing by rudder) Equations of motion then become For EF,=0 aro acy |-o ForEN=0 Cub qySeb 4Sub | ue [= 1 ole. 1 sinc. t%] ‘The vertical tail lol is determined from the following Sab wal ecu] se [ocat 1] where A Coy, May be put in terms of vertical tal lift curve slope: ‘The previous equations assume linear stability derivatives through the range of sidestip. and rudder angles which will be experienced. Rudder effective- ness and yaw stability curves should be examined to determine the linear ranges. Where nonlinearities are encountered, assumptions can usually be made 10 linearize the derivatives. No general pracedure can be adopted since the method of handling each set of data will be different. The method chosen will depend on the accuracy of the data, the accuracy desired of the results, and the characteristics ofthe particukar data. 3.4 Basic Data “The primary sources of havie data te the Fads analy sisare: 36 Airframe Structural Design Airplane geometry © Acrodynamie data ‘¢ Weight data and design speeds © Stiffness data © Miscellaneous systems data Operational data © P= ndiagrams ‘Much of the basic data is expressed in matrix format in which unit distribution data (unit airloads, weights, stifinesses, etc) are represented over the entire airplane on’ defined grid ‘systems. The term “unit distribution” is very common in loads work and this manner of expressing data has been, and stil is, fundamental 0 almost any loads analysis. These distributions can be vatious toad quantities such as panel loads, shears, bending moments, orsions, hinge ‘moments, total empennage loads, etc. Basiealy, these load quantities are defined for unit changes in key variables such as airplane angle of attack (.e, 4 aq, = 1), unit control surtace deflections, unit changes in velocities and accelerations, etc. 1 follows that, in general, total loads can be obtained by multiplying teach unit distribution by the variable appropriate (0 the maneuver being analyzed and adding these (ie. superposition appropriate to linear analysis), Airplane Geometry ‘The airplane yeometry must be established in order to start the analysis. This includes such items as the planform, the inboard profile, the camber and twist distributions on the wing (see Fig. 3.4.1) and hon zontal and vertical tail, the wing and tail incidence with the fuselage, contro! surfices locations and geometry, etc In order to clarify the concepts involved, a sim- plified grid system is shown in Fig, 3.4.2 with far fewer points than would be used on an actual airplane model. A further simplification is that the loads, stress, SIC (Structural Influence Coefficients), an ‘control points will be considered coincident ‘Typical grid system established include as follows: (2) The basie loads grid on which basic weight airload unit distributions are established (2) The previous mentioned SIC grid system at which the structural deflections are defined and at which the external panel loads are defined on computer tapes as input to the redundant struc: {ural “finite element.” (3) ‘The control point grid defining the collocation points used in the lifting surface aerodynamic theories. The theoretical airloads over the air plane are expressed as functions of unit changes Im angle of attack at each of these collocation points (4) The wind tunnel pressure model orifice locations, (3) Other miscellaneous grids which are_ generally established by reducing (lumping) the above systems. These reduced order systems are ustally selected to minimize the size of the computation fon the computers or because of computer pro: gram limitations Acrodynamic Data Aerodynamic data is of primary impos loads analysis. ‘The typical pes of a under aerodynamic data include! ndwien Iregence & ‘Nonewited wing nl Fight reference line (FR Fig. 34.1 Twisted wing vs non-twisted wing Aesone =] Y | t o\o\o cece ene o\o\o cae © — fens 4 o\o\olo GB = convo! sacs oo \o anaes o\olole ‘e ele ig. 34.2 Simple gid system ofan ainplne + Wind tunnel or fight measured aerodynamic force Grol = ? rag; CG. = pitch + Wind tunnel or fight measured surface pressure Cxsdetore, — Cayaw edicted flight profiles for optimum performance. Control. surface requirements for stability and conttal (Ref. 3.33). ‘© Limitations due to stall, utter (Ref. 3.41), buffet- ing, and stability and control (Ref. 3.33) ‘© Predicted aerodynamic force and pressure data based on theoretical methods (e4, lifting surface theory per Ref. 3.9, 3.10 and 3.11). Wind Tunnel Data Basic wind tunnel force data is usually measured on seale models along and about the wind axis. The forces and moments are reduced to coefficient form by dividing by reference areas and references. dis inees. The evefficients measured usially melade: Complete ranges of angle of attack (ajq,) and sideslip (ff) are measured for most operational con fi flaps extended, high di ground effect, ete. In ad lion, selected v ‘control surface deflections such as aileron (8,), rudder (4,),clevator (8,), etc. are measured in combination with variation in @ and The above combinations can constitute « substantial amount of wind tunnel data especially when Mach hhumiber effects must be considered. Certain basic data are measured on a model build up hasis. These might include such combinations as body, body-wing, body-wing-nacelles, airpl fail, and aieplane. “These component built-ups 4 aid in estimating component load distributions as wel gear doy Airframe Structural Design 37as performance effects. It should be kept in. mind, however, that the presence of each component usually induces interference effects on other components and vice versa, Therefore, incremental measured forces Cannot always he added exclusively t0 the component that caused the increment. The application of a plane-ess tai and airplane data to aid in estimating ‘empennage loads is discused further in later sections Strain gages are often used to measure hinge moments ‘and pylon loads The airplane derivatives duc to airplane transla and I vl Pete ana ional and rotational vetocics (ie, 20, 7% a 3) Me usually not obtained from wind tunnel meas twrements but are estimated from theory or from extrapolations from past airplanes. "The data acqusiion aod feduction problems with wind tunnel force data are less complex than the problems associated with wind cunnel pressure model data. A typical pressure model contains hundreds of orifices which measure surface pressures over the entire airplane, This type of data provides much useful loads information. In addition to local surface design pressures, the integrated pressures. provide fccuratedistibutions and overall force data on cach :major component of the airplane. This type of data is essential for complex configurations, and/or for designs that are weight critical, and/or for configura tions designed to operate in the transonic mixed flow environment where theoretical potential flow lifting surface theories are inadequate Chordwise pressure distributions have been dis: cussed previously in connection with various struc tural components. Methods are available for calcula- tion of these pressure distributions. However, reports such as Ref. 3.34, 3.36 & 3.37 the theoretical pressure distributions are aiready calculated for a large number of airfil sections. The references listed in these repotts may be used for further caleulations, In the transonic speed range, estimations of chord- wise pressure distribution should be based on exp mental data Pig. 34.3 Subsonic churdres ith deflected flap pressure distribution 38 Airframe Structural Design Chofdwise pressure distributions are of consider- able importance in the study of the loads on lean il tating edge flaps. With flaps in the. neu position, the leading edge Map experiences maximum foading at high angles of attack im subsonic speed ranges. Trailing edge Maps are most highly loaded in transonic and supersonic ranges, Leading edges will have pressures of 10 t0 12 ps, while tating edges of high speed airplanes wil ave presures of 3 to $ ps Leading edge flaps are used on thin wings to delay the flow breakdown asthe angle of attack fyincreased Consequently, the high pressures mentioned wil bs ‘onthe ap even when tis depressed or S dewrces. When studying tailing edge flaps, two increments of prossute are considered. First is the base pressure cn the wag with undetced ap Second tener iment caused by the fap which is superposed on the hasic pressure distribution, (Sec Fig. 34.3) Airplane Weight Data Design loads are detctmined in the early stages of airplane desig; design Inds affect the weight ofthe airframe strdeture; the weight of the airplane ‘nfs ences the magnitude of design loads. “This int Gependence suggests that a judicious selection of pr liminary design weights is mandatory tothe economic cal design ofan airframe. Airplane wight and detailed distribution of weight both have a large influence on structural desizm boas Obviously, the iting air loads onan aitplane wing must be as eat a the weight in order to support the alsplane in fight as shown in Fig 34.4. Another effect of weight on design loads is the vertical ad imposed ton the Tanding gear when it contacts the ground a fen sink spec Ling air one Fig. 34.4 Airplane weight and lifting air loads Airplane weight to be used for structural design are determined from the mission requirements of the airplane as mentioned previously in Section 3.1 Mission requirements and/or design criteria spell out maximum and minimum amounts of fuel and payload to be considered al various stages of airplane opera tion. Typical design weights are: © Maximum take-off weight (MTOW): wi perform the specified mission, The airplane is generally considered as containing capacity fucl and maximum payload, ‘This is varied ia som instances to suit the particular needs ofthe desir if weight {considered for ta 1d Might conditions, but the airplane neednot be designed for landing at this weight. Maximum landing weight (MLW): weight for the landing operation: It's teasonable wo expect that a predetermined amount of fuel is used up before the aizplane is expected to land. It would be un- necessirly. penalizing the airplane structure 0 ‘esign itt loads imposed during a landing at gross weights above the Design Landing Weight. In many instances fuel dump provisions are installed in a airplane so that gross weight may be reduced to the Design Landing Weight in emergency landings. Zero fuel weight (ZEW): weight with zero fuel aboard. This somewhat confusing tle for a weight is very popular in structures because i is deserip- tive. It defines the summation of weight of empty ainplane, items necessary for operation (crew, ‘engine oi, ec), and cargo and/or passengers. Operation empty weight (OW): weight with no payload on board. Fuel considered is 2 predeter- mined or specified minimum, generally something © ~ Chita conan for BR BR © Si tiemimeand a = Of poraecend sinking specd condition © ~Chikatforpiatconfibe = ; ‘ or (ont veo 5 poston of MAC) between 0 and 10% of total fuel. Flight maneuvers at this weight can produce some critical loadings. All design gross weights are negotiated du formulation of design eviteria. Using past exp an alempy is made to establish the design weights devel that will include the natural growth Of gross weights betwoen proliminary and final design, and yet not be so excessive as to penalize the design, See Chapter 16.0 for more detailed discussion, (1) Center of gravity envelope The combination of gross weight and airplane center-ofgravity location are of considerable importance. A plot is made ofthe variation ofc with differen airplane weight. An envelope enclosing all extremes of the variation is dete mined for design. An attempt is made to set the eg. limits such that it will include the extremes that can result from changes that occur as the design progresses. A typical example for a com- ‘mercial transpot is shown in Fig. 345. = Mox ramp weight = Max Takeoff weight 6 = Man landing weight | Stuctrl reserve fue wait — Zero uel weight @ Passenger tossing (reset ont = Operation emery weight Fig. 3.4.5 Typical cg. envelope of a commercial transport Airframe Structural Design 39(2) Weight distribution Guce the critical loadings are determined, a distribution of the dead weight is necessary. An accurate disinbution of weight is important because the dead weight of fusclage, wing, cargo, etc, contribute a targe part of the loading. The effect of distribution of weight ean be realised by ‘considering the distribution of muss. items of cargo within a fuselage, Whether these large masses are condensed about the center body oF placed at extreme forward or aft location will influence greatly the magnitude of downbending ‘experienced by the fuselage forehody or attbody during a hard landing ‘The amount and disposition of fuel weight in the wing i particularly important in that it can be utilized to provide bending relief during flight, ‘This is easily explained in terms of wing bending, considering. an airplane containing fuel in wing cells. The Fig. 3.4.6 illustrates how the weight of fue in the wing acts to relieve the bending caused by airload. The illustration points out that placing fuel as far outboard as possible and using fuel from the most outboard tanks last provides the ‘optimum arrangement for wing bending during Tight () Inboard fuel expended. Airload reduced because of ‘reduced gross weight. Outboard fue! providing rele. (0) Outboard fue! nearlvexpended. Bending relief decaying faster than arload bending: therefore, net bending “increasing slighty Fig. 34.6 Illustration ofthe effect of fuel weight in wing 40 Airframe Structural Design However, thinking in terms of the large inertia effects in a dowabending direction during a hard landing points out that this extreme arrangement of wing fucl is not necessarily the best solution, The illustration does make it apparent that fuel manage: ‘ment (Sequence of usage) should be given consider able attention in order that the final design be the best ‘compromise, Design Speeds Structural design speeds must be chosen such that they are compatible with the airplane performance ‘and operational requirements. ‘These irspeeds are generally chosen by the contractor, but must meet the design requirements of the certifying or procutis agency. The speeds are generally Selected as low as possible to avoid penalizing airplane weight. Basic design speeds generally considered ate: ign Cruising Speed, VA minimum value of the maximum speed (0 be considered for straight and level flight. The speed is determined empirically (based on statistics), but need not exceed the maxi- wailable in straight and level flight. Speed, V, “The maximem speed for design. A statistically determined speed sufficiently greater than ¥, t0 provide for safe recovery from inadvertant upsets. Design Flap Speed, ¥, The maximum speed tor design during flaps- extended flight; generally arrived atempiricaly, ‘The above speeds are named and defined per FAA. Regulations. Similar design speeds with similar defn tions are presented in each of the military specifics tions, Fig, 3.4.7 shows altitude vs airplane cruise speed, live speed and maximum pow Speeds for extension and retraction of flaps, landing gears, ete, are dependent on the operational requirements of the airplane. Minimum values are found in the specifications of the licensing and pro curing agencies, Stiffness Data ‘The stiffness data is provided in the form of Siruetural Influence Coefficients (SIC), in terms of deiteetions Per unit load. Two matrices ure usually provided: (1) for unit loads applica symmetrically on both the left and tight side of the airplane; and (2) for nit loads applied anti-symmetricaly (in opposite directions) on right and left sides. In addition, it is sometimes neves- sary to oblain sets of stiffness data appropriate to low load levels, such as minor excursions from 10 g flight and also stif ness data appropriate to limit load levels (eg, buckled skin), For supersonie airplanes it is also revessary to establish stiffaess changes due to tem perature. ‘The SIC format is supplemented by plots of Ll and GJ on components of the airplane such as the fuselage, horizontal tail, vertical tail, control surfa ete, (See Ref, 3.20, Miscellaneous Systems Data Systems which can strongly interact with the primary structure inelude the following: snutomat © environmental contratAetaleuise, treed Ateiude Design eve Speed Equine srpecd ealgn dive spoed Fig. 34.7 Design speed ws, altitude. = fuel ‘© hydraulic, and ‘© brake anti-skid systems, Knowledge of both the normal operating character: istics and failure modes and effects of system mal- functions are required in order to assure the desired level of over-all system/airframe integrity. Some of the above items will be discussed in more detail in further sections, Operational Data cis necessary to gather detailed data on anticipated ‘operational usage of the airplane being designed. This data is needed to establish realistic load spectra for fatigue analysis, and also w provide necess to the dynamic gust mussion analysis mination, This includes such items as statistical data fon landing sinking speeds, gusts, and maneuvering They also" include anticipated operational runway oughnesses and typical pilot yround maneuvers, An important part of the data are the mission profiles which predict typical mixes (includiag the percentage ‘of time) of payloads and ranges, Vea (or V-g) Diagrams ‘The operating Hight strength limitation of an airplane are presented in the form of a V-n or V-g diagram. A. typical V-n diagram is shown in Fig. 3.48. Each aitplane type has its own particular Ver diagram with specific Vs and ns. The flight operating strength of an airplane is presented ona graph whose horizontal scale is airspeed (V) and vertical scale is load factor (7). The presentation of the airplane strength is con- {ingent on four factors being known: (1) the aireraft gross weight; (2) the configuration of the aircraft (clean, external stores, flaps and landing gear position, etc): (3) symmetry of loading (since a rolling pullout at high speed can reduce the structural limits to approximately two-thirds of the symmetrical. lo Timits); and (4) the applicable altitude. A change any one of these four factory can changes in operating limits. The limit airspeed is a design reference point for the airplane and an airplane in Might above the limit airspeed may encounter: (4) critical gust, (b) destructive flutter, (c) aileron reversal (a) wing oF sutface divergence, (€) critical compressi such as stability and control problems wg hatfets, etc Airframe Structural Design 41Load factory Negate Mas ox adfacior Mor. ee deer ‘ada 42 Airframe Structural Design Max Posie Lit apabey Mas. ceaaive it ‘spat (Uist Structural eameoe ove ‘damage or felure {Lire sepeed Indiated sped ‘Siete damage wea Cimid ‘Svociurl flute wee Ome) Fig. 34.8 Significance of the V-n diagram, Sa Iaeclorsted Highs) Pa Py i es hha i 7 Nia = Nefame fow oe fans 1 a Fig. 34.9 Typical Vin Diagraut for Manewver(2) Construction of Diagrams: Maneuver envelope ‘A typical diagram is shown in Fig. 34.9. ‘The stall line indicates. the maximum load factor that can be obtained because of the in ability of the airplane to produce any more lift at ‘particular speed. Ves 296 L = WH Cig, so, (all speeds will be con- sidered in knots) G41) In accelerated Aight and assuming that any velocity along stall line higher than V4 15 Vg; 42) 1 Cigy is (4) the following procedure can be used ealeuating ordinates of the stall fine 1. Assume At 2, Determine C,,, a8) 3. Calculate ¥, tom Mat altude being considered 296 5, From equation for accelerated flight 4qe 2) Construction of Diagrams — Gustenvelope The preceding section shorss the construction of the maneuvering V-n diagram, which presents the limits to which the airframe must be desizned for adequate strength to withstand all maneuvers to which the airplane may by subjected. Before proceeding with loads analyses, a similar diagram ust be constructed to provide an envelope of velocities and load factors that might be encoun- {ered in-flight through turbulent air. This en- velope is referred to as the gust envelope or the gust Hen diagram, In the final analysis the aie frame strength must be based on both the maney ver and pust envelopes oF a componite diagram representing both To better understand the meaning of the gust envelope it will be of value to discuss the gust loads problem, The problem resolves itself inte investzating the source of loads, the seplane’s tetavior during. pplication of ihe foe anal concltionsTikely (0 lead to citcal loads (loads affecting structural design), “The problem of » loads change when en countering a gust stems from the very rapid change in direction of relative wind, This angle of lly no change in forward ly resulls in a change in wing lit. A. simple idealization of the problem lends itsell readily 10 representing the load change with a. simple equation. ‘The concept simply pictures the ng along, ata constant velocity, Vand suddenly encountering a sharp-edged gust, The ust velocity, U,, shown below is assumed to act ally, normal to the Aight path and is of uniform ‘intensity across the wing span. The steady flow relation betwoen lift and angle of attack is assumed 0 hold (see Fig, 34.10 for design gust velocities vs. altitude). Angle of attack chang u, =F! For Uyand Vin feet per secon aante feet p i!) Us Lose, where ¥,= equiva ei airspeed in knots a AL (caused by gusty= Ba [ Cp : ( 396 Note that Gy must he per radian when the ‘equation isin this form, an= ay Airframe Steuctural Design 43° » }— Highspeed gust’ ough af gum Abie 000 0 4 Fauna Cu Veli ©, als (From FAR-25, Aiworthiness Standards — Transport caegor alan per Ff. 3.2) Fig, 34.10 Design gust velocities vs, altitude By use of this simple formula, measured ccelerations and velocities can be converted {0 gust velocities for use in design. Because of the fextreme simplicity of the equation, a gust inten: Sity determined in this manner would not be a velocity, but rather, an effective gust ue velocity Note that from the simple equation for 7 (sce Fig. 34.11) that the only parameter used for transferring these measured sharp-edged-gust intensities from one airplane design to another is the wing loading, This assumes that all aicplanes ‘of a given wing loading will have the same dy- rami response and the same lag in lift increment due to 4a, and that all gusts encountered are sharpredged eather than possessing a velocity gradient, No serious effects of this simplication were noticed in earlier designs when most air- planes were of similar size and design; however. With the high speed of airplane types and sizes of today. a connection for the unaccounted for properties inorder. This iy accomplished by the introduction of the gust alleviation factor. K, 44. Airframe Sructural Design thus: ye RaW a= 44) 498 ‘The factor K, has taken several forms ducing the development of the gust equation. Recent investigations show it to be related to wing Touding, lift-curve slope, air density, and a repre sentative airplane dimension such as wing chord The alleviation factor K, is given as an empirical function of the so-called mass parameter, O88, bate (3) BOC a9 kK (4s)“The above K, factor is an attempr to account for: (1) gust gradient; (2) airplane response; (3) Ign lift increment caused by 2. “The inertia factor or total airload factor on the ieplane is determined by using C4 inthe equation, whereas the airload factor an the wing is determined by using Cay that can be esti mated from Ret. 3.5 by using C, = Cy For ‘convenience, curves trom Rel. 3.5 are shown in Fig. 34.12—Fig. 34.14, Determination of C,4y from these curves is ‘quite accurate for thin aiffoils. The curves correct a theoretical two-dimensional flaw value of 227 for the effects of three-dimensional flow and for compressibility effects. The effects of threc dimensional flow are accounted for by consider: ing wing geometry: aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweep. Definitions for the various symbols ap- pearing on the curves areas follows: compressibility parameter = / (Ret Eouaton 3.46) Exam Gon — Chay 528 B= aK ren The ann C..lifecurve slope The previous discussion of gust load formula was developed from Ref. 3.48 that the derived ust velocities are based on a righ igplane However, due 10 its simplicity, this formula is good enough for the preliminary loads, The ecent dynamic gust analysis of 2 flexible frame, discrete gust analysis ancl power spectral density (PSD) analysis, will he discussed in more {etals in Section 35. Gust Envelope (see Fig. 3. 1"The stall fine is cons {or the maneuver envelope 2. Gust lines, radiating from n= 1.0 at V= 0 are constructed using the equation 3.44 and the gust intensities given by equation 3.4.5 (Note that design gust intensitiey reduce as velocity increases, It is intended that the airplane will be own according Jy, te, that as intensity of wrbulence increases the pilot will reduce speed) SI: tel ao of ee : a L (uso eguvaant Fig. 34.11 Gust foad factor nomogram Airframe Structural Design 45a, —— Ode Odd! C00) [=bp => << aK OC: OO0l D>by 2-a> KKK KK? LOU 2») 2» KK (KE is LWT - 4G > oS) : 3) this It aand its distribution varies directly with angle of attack, ‘The basic loading is that distribution of air load on the wing when the total lifts zero, This type of loading is caused by wing twist. The distribution of the addivional fife will take the {allowing farm: ©, is the section or two dimensional lit coeti cient The distribution of the additional section lift coelficient may be readily estimated from Rel. 3.5 (Gre curves in Fig. 3.4,12—Fig. 34.14) The distri tion is usually carried fo the airplane center fine. The Airframe Structural Design 53Pox. toad fector Nee ond factor Manowverenelope ewselope lisrtines Fig. 34.16 Combined flight envelope (V-n diagram) ~ fighter. fox wig gee ge fia wig G 0g Sema Tig. 35.1 Wing additional if aistedution. 54 Airframe Structural Design-——— Teetord the = Root erating Fig. 35.2. Basic lift distritution fusclage is assumed to carry the same amount of fit that would be on the blanketed wing area. Subscript | fie. Cys) denotes the distribution for a wing Kit coefficient (C,) oF 19. “The concept of basi lift distibuton is ilustrated by Fig. 3.5.2 which i an end view ofthe wing withthe tip section iwisted down relative to the root (wash: fou), Assuming the angles of attack shown result in zero lft on the wing, the lit curve slopes are shown in Fig 333 ator Fig. 3.5.3. Lift curve slopes on zera lift wing. The root section is producing positive lift and the tip section is producing negative lift. The section lit coefficient, Cia. distribution across the span for this cease will appet 2s Fig, 3.5.4 The distribution of the basic lift for both sym: metrical or antisymmetsical twists can be estimated from Ref. 3.6. The symmetrical distribution of the lift ces the form of Cue tH 8 [Ome 6 saat ao Gs) wa where 2 chord of wing lof twist, deyree oe Wing e samt spn Fig. 3.5.4 Section lift coefficient distribution of basic lift of twist in, degree @ = three dimensional lift slope per degree «~—4 [= a li) +2 os A (oF Cg similar to that of Fig. 3.5.3 A aspect ratio Co, = section lilt coeff or additional Ke (Ref. 3.5) distabation at a wang it oat of unity b wing span y= spanwise coordinate A= sweep angle of wing quarterchord line, degrees 6 = edge-velocity factor for symmetrical V For deuiled discussion on the basie fill, see Ret 36, Airframe Structural Design 55Fuselage, Nacelle and Wing Stores Effect ‘on Wing Loads Effects of these items are not readily determined as ‘quantitative values. Ovalitatively, the effects appear as shown in Fig. 35.5 2 Fig. 35.5 Additional lit distribution due to nacelle or stores. Stores located near the wing tip or large protuber ances on the fuselage, such as radomes, have the greatest effect on wing loads. Both tend to move the center-of pressure outboard. The tip tank will effec- tively increase the aspect ratio. The radome will interfere with the lift near the fuselage causing the airplane to fly at a higher angle of attack and result in higher loads on the outboard sections of the wing In the stress analysis of a conventional wing, it will be necessary 10 investigate each cross section for cach fof the four conditions shown in Fig. 3.5.6. Each stringer or spar flange will then be designed for the maximum tension and the maximum compression obtained in any of the conditions. Dynamic Gust Loads ‘The advent of high speed, structurally efficient, flexible airplanes has made necessary the determina™ tion of the dynamic response of these airplanes to Tension Gstaay Compression (“HAA He) atmosphere turbulence Early teshniques fr evaluat ing he aynante coe of tiene ele pre Sehting the gust as discrete phenomenon (Rel 8.5) And calling the ste espouse of the plane t0 this dseretefanton Characteristic the gust shape wed in the dis crete analy was chose to be 1 cot (ay), here asa funtion of chord length. The ampude of the ust (Le 50 fps) is asumed invartant withthe waves Kenge andthe wavelength i varied to tne (rune meant Tet the stpane natural frequency inching amping «match the maximum ust frequen) the slplanes reponse to achieve 4 maximum oy namie ‘overravel Fig. 357 represen a Wpical Tesponse curve, showing the envelope of the peak Ioad asa function of gust wavelength, fe ‘progam was developed inthe 1950 oerauate the siplane’s response in two degrees of freedom Nera wansation snd wing bending (serete plunge: bending. type) Varontpiestony suche oe shown ta Ret, 3.26 indetted these to be the mor response fesoms in siplnes, a indtion that was probably ovtect for rebtively sti sighting Eiplanes. is, agan, was a’ ume hoe” solution Constering the response to a dscrele gut 0 hiase us ‘ein, Gis mavens chords Fig. 35.7 Typicatdiserete gust. (etna Compression +.AAY Senmon "(28a Tension HAA) Compression CURA —— fern HAA ~Highengleofatach 1a ef onack Fig. 35.6 Critical conditions for aoing box structure 56. Airframe Structural Design“The technology in loads has advanced considerably since the 1950s Such that the disereted plange-bend- ig ype of analysis has lost its applicability. Lifting- surface aerodynamics combined with panel weight and slifiness presentations are much more amenable {0 power-spectral analysis (Ref, 343) such that to perform the discrete analysis today requires use of a note sophisticated and less direct approach, Previous discussion showed that the discrete gust approach loads ate less critical than the design loads ‘which are due to other conditions including gust loads ‘obtained on a power-spectral basis as shown in Ref 343. ‘The industry has recognized for many years that turbulence isa continuous phenomenon, not discrete as assumed in the diserete gust analysis. Accordingly, the dynamic gust analysis methods accommodate the continuous nature of turbulence in the powerspectral approach, In this approach the gust is represented as a continuous function in the frequency domain rather than the time domain, Briefly, the criteria are defined in two forms, aame- ly mission analysis and design envelope (refer (0 Section 3.4), The mission analysis considers normal or typical expected utilization of the airplane during its He. The design envelope ignores anticipated utiiza- tion and considers instead the actual design envelope Df weigh, speed, alttude, and eg. location. Ref. 3.43 escries in depih the development af hath forms of the power-spectral gust Toads criteria. Airplanes that have been analyzed using. power- spectral methods have gernerally been eriical for loads based on mission analysis criteria, so major emphasis is placed on application of this mission analysis. ‘AS noted before, the critical design envelope « quites consideration of the airplane's actual design fat Toad petor envelope of weight, cg, speed, and altitude. The ‘complete design envelope analysis can require consi eration of as many analysis conditions as the mission, ‘analysis, particulsily when various combinations of fuel and payload are included to insure adequate ‘coverage of the envelope. Engineering judgement and experience must be relied upon to guide the analyst and to limit (0 a reasonable number the conditions to be investigated. For example, the vertical gust loads have been found to be most critical for high gross weights at forward cg and low weights at alt cy. Wing loads appear to be critical for high payloads, low fuel cases, while the fusclage loads seem to be critical for high fuel, low payload. Therefore, the loads were generally less than as calculated by missi analysis procedures, of, in the few locations where they exceeded the mission analysis values, some other conditions being designe Detailed discussion and development of the powerspectral criteria are found in Ref. 3.20 and 3.43, and are not covered in depth here Landing and Taxi Landing wing loads are of importance because of the down loads experienced and because of the large concentrated loads applied to the wing if the gear is located on the wing ‘Taxiing must be accomplished at maximum take: off weights when the load in the wing is a maximum ‘and wing stores ure most ikely 10 be installed. Rough runways will cause fairly large load factors on the plane (in the vicinity of 1.7 to 2.0). Because of the flexibility of the wing, a whipping of the wing will ‘occur and & considerable magnification of this load factor will be experienced at the wing tip. This magni- fication is a function of the wing weight and stiffness Variation in load factor along the wing as shown in Fig. 35.8 (otsice of setae) sng span Fig. 35.8 Dynamic taxiing load factors. reing span Airframe Seructueal Design 57‘Additional landing and ground handling con that are of particular importance to the st the wing and wing-mounted stores are the dynamic conditions; particularly, consideration of the effect of large masses Focated in an elastic wing structure Rolland yaw Btfet and misalignment cannot be deter mined analytically and are taken” into. account biter. Roll induces damping load on the til which can be determined from the same method used ona wing YYawing will induce a toting moment on the hoczontal til which is_diffoull to. estimate because of fselnge interference, The solling moment caused by yaw is particularly sensitive 0 dinedral on the horizontal tai () Gust “The gust load on the Horizont ili similar to the gust load on the wing or vertical tal However, the horizontal tail operating in the ‘ving. downseash, "The coreection factor tar his ct takes the f ot (L eS fhe te effect takes the form of (1 = 46, where © i the rate of change of downvash ange with angle Of attack, This value may vary from O50 U.S “The gust load equation becomes approximately) KUiV Un Crag Saf | aan Et! (3.638) 398 AP, where Can be estimated the same as for the ‘wing and = 081009 Lateral gust velocities and speeds are similar to those for vertical load factors. The lateral gust load on the vertical til is shown below. KUM IC 7 28 for Vinknotsand K,=alleviation factor 2M(Cypdis lift curve lope of tal nd Se 369) Vertical Tail Loads The loads imposed by rudder deflection are a direct function of the rudder power. The rudder power con sists of the mechanical advantage built in the control system between the pilot and the surface. ‘The rudder effectiveness. must also be included in considering udder power The’ rudder hinge moment for boosted rudder system and a simple unboosted system are as shown in Fig. 3.66, ‘The 300 Ih pedal force isthe maximum pedal force considered for structural design. The boost cut-olf is usually in the vicinity of 160—I80 1b. The hinge moment coefficient of the rudder versus rudder angle will appear as shown in Fig. 3.6.7 é z ' ; ; mee i ae ‘i Hinge morrent cut ‘fuaaar defected anne Fig. 3.6.7 Ruditer hinge moment cots. reader angle The non-linearity at high rudder angles ust cannot be neglected. Any non-linearity at low rudder angles is usually small and can, in general, be ncgles ced. From these curves the rudder angle at any speed may be determined from HM. Cy 186, (3.6.10) where Cy, is slope of Cvs 6, curve rudder acea The other important paramenter that must be con- sidered is the variation of rudder hinge moment duc to sideslip (Cy,)- The hinge moment will be C= Gy B+G, 8, (oy ‘The rudder deflection induces loads on the fin as well as the rudder. However, the primary loading on the vertical tail i caused by the resulting sicle ship angle when the rudder is deflected, ‘The sike sip angle Airframe Structural Design 63