BASIC OPERATI G PRI CIPALS A D PILOT PROTOTYPE
DEVELOPME T OF A MEDIUM SCALE I DUCTIO
HEATI G MACHI E
P. Fergadiotis1, A.G.Theodorakis1, G.A. Vokas2*
1
Piraeus University of Applied Sciences, Greece
2
Department of Electronic Engineering, Piraeus University of Applied Sciences, Egaleo, Greece
* gvokas@puas.gr
Keywords: Induction heating machine, resonant
converter topology, energy saving, asymmetric
thyristors, prototype development
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to develop, present and analyse
a pilot prototype of a medium scale 25kW induction
heating machine. After theoretical investigation of
various topologies, the Current Source Zero Current
Resonant topology was selected, optimized and adapted,
for the achievement of this pilot prototype.
Infrastructure limitations of the Power Electronics
Laboratory and power supply restrictions led to the
development of a 25kW pilot prototype, as a first step of
our on-going research on this field. Power Efficiency,
performance, long-term reliability of stressed
components, restrictions and side-effects of practical
implementation, expandability at higher frequencies,
and power levels, are the main parameters, which are
studied and taken into account for our prototype
implementation. This experimental induction machine is
designed, developed and operated successfully in the
Power Electronics Laboratory of Piraeus University of
Applied Sciences / Electronic Engineering Department.
1 Introduction
As known, induction heating is a non-contact heating
process. High frequency currents are used in order to
heat equipment, melt specimens, under the prerequisite
that they must be electrically conductive. This process is
very efficient since heat is generated inside the
workpiece in form of dyno-currents, compared to other
classical heating processes, where heat is generated by
flame or a resistive heating element, which is then
applied to the workpiece by conduction. Industry
heating processes seem to be the most attractive
applications of induction heating machines, for the
additional reason that through them excellent control in
thermal energy is achieved, providing significant energy
saving and increasing the competitiveness [1, 8, 29].
There are two main categories of induction heating (I.H.
in short) machines: The Medium Frequency (M.F in
short) and the High Frequency (H.F. in short). Each
method is used for specific applications, i.e. M.F.
converters are used for melting of conductive materials;
H.F.I.H. methods are used for tube welding, and some
1
experimental methods in chemical engineering. In this
research M.F.I.M. is used applying ASCRs as main
switching elements, in Zero Current Resonant converter.
The two following pilot prototypes are analyzed: (a)
Current Source Series Resonant Boosted Inverter, and
(b) Current Source Series Resonant Converter under
different supply conditions. The variation of the first,
with respect to the other is consisted in the frequency of
conversion and power level. More specifically, the first
pilot prototype is 7kW – 7kHz and the second pilot
prototype 25kW, 10KHz. In every High Power
Converter Circuit, probably the most demanding
characteristic is the high conversion efficiency, which
means minimization of the total power losses.
Especially, when the frequency and the power level are
increased, the losses minimization task is a major issue.
In the semiconductor inverter circuits another ultra-
critical problem is addressed: the rapid change of
voltage and current per time (di/dt & dv/dt in short) is
failuratic for the main switching element, when a
specific value is exceeded. In order to complete this
task, an efficient and robust topology must be chosen,
the right components of which must be wisely selected.
The Compound Impedance Adaptation (‘matching’ in
short) between the output of the converter and material
under heating are also taken into consideration, with the
converter frequency and the size and type of working
coil (in short) as parameters. The problem of reactive
power handling, when the machine is un-loaded
(without specimen into the work coil) will be studied
and solutions for overcoming all the above problems
will be proposed and presented.
In practical implementations, the ratio of the input
power of the converter to the mass of the processed
metal (melted, welded, or other), is a safe criterion, for
the total performance of the machine. For fast thermal
imparting of the specimen, appropriate matching is
necessary; this must be considered for the design of
working coil, taking also into account the power rating
of the I.H. Converter.
In the following paragraphs the major design
considerations, the proposed topologies of the pilot
induction machine and the main operational
characteristics of it will be presented, accompanied by
the necessary photographic verification material.
2 Design considerations, study
constructive elements and topologies
2.1 ASCRs for Medium Frequency, High Power
Induction Heating Inverter
There are many types of PWM converters involved in
many topologies in the world bibliography [1, 12-16],
implementing Bipolar Transistors, MOSFETS, IGBTs,
Thyristors, and recently IGCTs. For a high output power
of an I.H. converter, and after extensive studies, we
figured out that (for the solid state converters) Resonant
Converter is best adapted, because switching losses are
minimized, and conduction losses are under control,
when the ASCR, as main switching element, is used
because of the following reasons:
(a) The latchable devices (various types of Thyristors)
is the only category with lower conduction losses
compared to all the rest types, due to the self-biased
mechanism of the two equivalent transistors PNP and
NPN at the high voltage levels appearing in power
inverters (Fig.1). Thyristors are not destroyed by large
current overloads. In our implemented pilot converter
repetitive peek current in excess of 2000Amps is
observed, carried by an 180Amps DC ASCR type
AD180S10KBF (Eupec), with no signs of wear of
switching element after 2 hours of continuous work,
with the heat diffuser keeping the base-plate
temperature under 60o C.
Fig. 1 Two Transistor Thyristor Model, Source:
Wikipedia
At lower voltages the power MOSFET is preferred than
IGBT in terms of conduction losses, however in PWM
mode the turn-off current-tail phenomenon appears
causing increased temperatures and high switching
losses [7, 13]. At high voltage level Power MOSFET is
un-optimized due to the higher conduction losses [8].
(b) The switching losses in power converters appear
when voltage and current are applied simultaneously
into the element, in every switching transition. When
the operating frequency of conversion is growing, the
switching losses also are growing. The size and
diameter of the material under heating and the need of
core-less working coil necessitate the increase of
converter frequency into the kHz range (1kHz-20kHz
for various M.F.I.H. machines). For maximum
throughout (Industrial use) the power levels are very
high (5kW up to 3MW, for M.F.I.H).
(c) The ASCR is a variation of the conversional Fast
turn-off Thyristor (FTO in short) introduced by R.C.A.
Solid State at 1975 and has inherent advantages versus
the FTO:
of - Lower Static Voltage Drop when in conductive state
(about 0.3-0.4 times than an Equivalent FTO) [1].
- The voltage after a specific small time period
(0.5µsec) of positive edge of trigger current is the
Dynamic Voltage Drop. This parameter is minimised
when commutation occurs from the off-state to
conductive state, as shown in Fig. 2. [Source: Dynex
Semiconductors, ACR44U datasheet (formerly
Marconi)].
Fig 2 Dynamic on state voltage in an ASCR, source:
ACR44U16LE Dynex datasheet
- High di/dt ability (in excess of 1000A/µsec)
- Shorter turn-off time (4-8µsec for small ASCR, and
10 to 25µsec for large ASCR)
- The turn-off time (tq – dv/dt) combination can be
further improved by the application of negative gate
bias (gate assisted turn off thyristor)
- It has no ability to withstand reverse voltages – this
explains the term Asymmetric.
(d) Lower Radiated Electromagnetic Interference. The
re-application of a fast rising voltage pulse (with large
dv/dt) just after turn-off, induces charges in the thyristor
disk, near the gate to cathode area, and a false triggering
can be occurred; the false commutation probably means
short circuit of the converter branch. So, for safe
commutation, more study on this issue is necessary.
2.2 Current Source and Voltage Source Converters
When the DC Power Source delivers continuous current
(with no interruptions) into the converter, the topology
is characterised as Current Source Converter (C.S.C.).
When the DC Power Source delivers continuous voltage
(with no interruptions) in the converter, the topology is
characterised as Voltage Source Converter (V.S.C.).
This discrimination is critical for the following analysis.
2.3 PWM and Resonant Converters Investigation
As mentioned in 2.1, resonant methods provide lower
switching losses versus the Square Wave Inverters (Fig.
3). It is implementation dependent to limit the RMS
current into reasonable levels, for further limitation of
conduction losses, in the case resonant converters.
2

Fig 3. Current, Voltage, & Power switching losses, in
the Square Wave, and Resonant Converter, source: [2]
Another problem related to the M.F.I.H. is the ability of
the converter to handle the reactive power, especially in
the case that no specimen exists into the working coil.
In any case (Resonant or Square Wave Converter) this
parameter must be considered.
From the above analysis Asymmetric Thyristor
Resonant Converters seem to be the most efficient and
reliable configurations for Induction Heating machines.
2.4 PWM and Resonant Converters Investigation
As known, Resonant Converters are classified as two
main categories: The Zero Voltage Resonant & the Zero
Current Resonant (ZVR and ZCR in short). When the
voltage input is continuous, converter is operating in
voltage mode or voltage source. When the current input
is continuous, converter is operating in current mode or
current source. Various sub-topologies can be
implemented (Full of Half Bridge, Push – Pull Center
Taped or others). As explained below, every switching
element is optimized for specific mode of conversion.
According to references, ZV is optimized for operation
with Power MOSFET, and ZC is optimized for use with
FTOs, and ASCR [13-16, 19-28].
IGBTs can also operate in ZC, however a complicated
driving circuit is needed. These topologies produce near
sine waveforms as output, while they do not need
additional active components for turn-off commutation.
The Reactive part of the converter (Resonant capacitor
and inductance) are zeroing the current or the voltage on
the main switching element (ZC or ZV), and the losses
tends to zero as well. It is known, that the SCR is
turned off by the zeroing of current, and can accept
forward voltage, when tq time is elapsed. This is known
as commutation time or turn-off time. Otherwise,
commutation fault will appear. This is a very critical
parameter, which is depended by re-applied dV/dt. The
component specs provide tq with dV/dt as parameter,
while the restriction of the upper frequency of converter
is estimated by the following formula (1):
t q < Tresonant / 2, t q < π ⋅ LC (1)
2.5 Series & Parallel Resonant Topologies
When Resonant Reactive components are in series, a
Series Resonant Converter is formed and when they are
in parallel, then a parallel Resonant Converter is
formed. The two topologies have major differences in
their behavior, when applied to resonant or PWM
converters [1-6].
3
3 Design constrains - respective solutions
3.1 The catastrophic effect of di/dt rate, higher
than specified by the thyristor manufacturer
At the start of conduction (just after the triggering of the
thyristor), only a small area of semiconductor disk is
supporting the conduction of anode current. If this
(anode current) has high di/dt rate, and high value then,
at the instant of starting of conduction, a small area near
the gate electrode in the semiconductor disk caries the
whole anode current. The rest part of disk is not
conductive yet. So, the current density in the area near
the gate is extremely high. A hot spotting or even
plasma effect is appeared in this small area. This small
part of semiconductor is cracked or melted, and the
whole device failure is sure. To avoid this situation,
semiconductor manufacturing companies have
developed some solutions:
Firstly, the gate electrode has been set in the centre of
semiconductor disk (Center Gate Thyristors) and so, the
distribution time of gate charges in the whole thyristor
disk area is minimized. The di/dt is up to 50A/µsec.
Secondly, various power semiconductor companies
apply the “Ring amplification technology” with small
improvements of di/dt rating (Fig 4a, 4b). With this
method, a pilot thyristor provides a high gate current to
the whole thyristor area, while high enough trigger
current is delivered to the whole thyristor disk due to
amplification effect of pilot thyristor, and finally turn-on
losses are decreased, improving the di/dt to 200A/µsec.
a b
Fig 4. Ring amplification thyristor
a. Thyristor equivalent
b. Form of a Ring Amplification Thyristor
Thirdly, Westcode and ABB Semiconductors provided a
significant improvement (patented by [9] and others) by
applying the Distributed Gate technique at Thyristors
for Induction Heating inverters. The gate-to-cathode
geometry is modified for fast distribution of conductive
area. More semiconductor manufacturers followed
successfully this method and expanded this technique in
other latch-able components such as GTO, and IGCT.
The form of semiconductor disk is as in Fig. 5; the gate-
to-cathode pattern is designed with such a way for best
surface distribution of gate current in the wall area of
thyristor disk. It is actually a fractal form pattern. With
this method, di/dt exceeded 1000A/µsec. After the
introduction of ASCR by RCA in 1975 a small number
of semiconductor manufactures produced ASCR
(Philips BTW63-800RK, Thomson TSD835, and
EUPEC A438S-A931S). For over 25 years (1990 upto
2005), ACSR was a very rare component. After 2005,
ASCR is produced again by some manufactures with
very exceptional characteristics (Infineon, Westcode,
Dynex, etc). Recently, Westcode make a combination of
Distributed Gate Thyristor and Asymmetrical structure,
in a single high power disk press-pack type.
Fig. 5 Cathode/gate pattern of distributed gate thyristor
3.2 Failuratic turn-on of thyristor when dV/dt rate
exceeds specified values
After the full turn-off of thyristor, a forward voltage is
developed, with a specific rate (forward dv/dt). Due to
the parasitic capacitance of the center P-N junction of
PNPN thyristor (which supports the forward voltage) a
gate current is developed as in equation (2):
dV forward
i gate = C parasitic ⋅ (2)
dt
If this value of parasitic gate current is exceeded, a
failuratic turn-on is appeared, with its inherent
catastrophic results. The parasitic gate current is
developed not only when forward dV/dt is developed,
but also, when high frequency ringing is appeared after
the full turn-of of the thyristor. During the impleme-
ntation of our prototype, parasitic ringing at 30MHz was
experienced, a fact considered as very dangerous.
3.3 Effect of forward applied dv/dt to the thyristor
turn-off time tq
After the complete disappearing of the anode current
Ianode, in order to achieve safe commutation, time more
than tq must be elapsed, with no anode current; this time
is necessary, for the complete removal of internal
thyristor charges, a process which is necessary to set the
element into the off-state. If just after removal of
internal charges, a high dV/dt is applied, then new
internal charges are generated, and element goes into
conductive state again, with catastrophic results. For
this reason manufacturers provide the tq value with
combination of re-applied dV/dt, i.e. for 200V/µsec re-
applied dV/dt typical value of tq is 20 µsec, but for the
same specific device for a 1000V/µsec reapplied dV/dt,
a value of tq>35µsec is necessary.
3.4 The positive effects of a Snubber Circuit
When high currents are interrupted by the switching
element, an overvoltage is appeared across it; if this
switching element is a semiconductor, this overvoltage
4
value must be lower than the element voltage handling
ability (plus a safety margin). Because in power
electronics high current is interrupted by semiconductor
elements, the transient overvoltage is very high, and in
any case the voltage rating of the element must not be
exceeded. In order to absorb this overvoltage transient
(and set it into the voltage rating margins as defined by
manufacturer), special circuit is connected in parallel to
the element (snubber circuit). In high frequency power
electronics, the snubber circuit design is a difficult task,
because high power at ultra-short time must be handled;
cable length connection of snubber circuit with the
switching element is highly critical; large lengths
practically cancel any absorption ability of the snubber;
the reactive components of the snubber must be with
ultra-low parasitic values; the rectifier diodes of the
snubber must be ultra-fast. If the repetition rate of
switching is high (i.e. here 10kHz), a fully regenerative
snubber is a good solution; otherwise a dissipative
snubber must be designed and applied with care.
A snubber must also limit the dV/dt rate across the
switching element; commutation fault is occurred, when
dV/dt – tq combinational parameters are exceeded, with
catastrophic results. In Figures 6a, 6b real oscillograms
are obtained, where the disappearance of overvoltage
transients by the successful application of snubber
circuit is obvious, while dV/dt slope is also reduced.
a b
Fig. 6 Oscilllograms for the snubber circuit effect
a. dV/dt high peak on switching element
b. Peak deterioration using snubber circuit
Further on, in order to avoid catastrophic high values of
di/dt, a di/dt snubber is connected in series.
3.5 Handling of reactive power under various loads
The inherent property of series ZC resonant converter is
well adapted to the application of I.H. because it is very
di-sensitive to the variation of load power factor. Load
power factor is dependent from the coil geometry (value
of Lw) and coupling factor k. As presented later in the
oscillograms of Fig. 13, 14, a zero coupling factor
(heavily inductive power factor) creates approximately
square wave voltage pulses at the thyristor; the small
slope in the waveform is due to no load losses in the
resonant circuit; with no specimen into the work coil,
we have no energy absorption. So, all the energy which
is stored to the resonant capacitor, is returned on it at the
end of resonant state, and recharges it at about the same
voltage level. When specimen exists into the working
coil, (resistive - inductive power factor) energy
absorption is developed on it, and the resonant capacitor
has less voltage at the end of every resonant state. The
more coupling factor, the more energy absorption exists,
explaining the triangulate voltage shape oscillogram.
3.6 Converter to working coil matching, with
frequency and size as parameters
The working coil is constructed to withstand the high
current that it flows into it. Because of the various size
of material under heating, hardening, braising, or
melting the working coil can take suitable forms. Water
cooling, is sometimes necessary, and a closed
circulation of cooling medium (water) is used. In
Induction Heating Method, the combination of working
coil and material under heating (specimen) forms a
core-less transformer, with voltage ratio of N1/1 (N1 is
the number of turns of working coil). We assume that
the specimen forms one short circuit current path, or
more precise, a low resistance current path, in which the
secondary current runs into the specimen heating it. For
fast temperature imparting, the current that flows into
the specimen must be high as in equation (3):
2
(3)
Pheating = i ⋅ R path
That means the voltage per turn must be as high as
possible. When the available converter voltage is given,
and in order to achieve maximum volts per turn, the
number of working coil turns must be reduced, but di/dt,
into the coil and converter is growing, following the
peek current analogy shown in equation (4):
C res
I peak = Vcr ⋅
Lres
When the frequency is growing, the converter di/dt, is
also increased, as understood by equations (5):
di (t )
i (t ) = I o ⋅ sin(ω ⋅ t ) , = I o ⋅ ω ⋅ cos(ω ⋅ t ) (5)
dt
So, when high power output is demanded at elevated
working frequencies, switching element di/dt limit must
be taken into consideration. Practically, in the high
power level di/dt is the absolute limit; nowadays
semiconductor manufacturers produce high power
thyristors in press-pack case, but di/dt limit is difficult
to be overcome. In the H.F.I.M. converters the
compound output impedance Zout is high, so an RF
matching network is necessary in order to maximize the
energy transfer. In M.F.I.H. converters the compound
output impedance Zout is very low; however in order to
achieve fast heating of the element, the coupling of the
working coil to the material under heat must be as tight
as possible, for better energy transfer.
Series Resonant Converter (S.R.C. in short) is
inherently non-sensitive to the variation of coupling, but
if very strong coupling is achieved, as for example
heating of an iron pipe of large diameter (heavy
loading) the boosted type converter (our case) generates
an additional voltage overshoot at the end of the
inductive discharging period. In the case of loose
coupling, or no specimen at all, no overshooting
problem is observed. The specimen near the working
coil adds an R element into equivalent circuit.
The variation of load R slightly affects the resonant
frequency. Because the penetration depth inside the
material is a function of frequency and material µ, as
shown in Fig. 7 for steel specimen, the value of circular
running R is affected.
Fig 7 Current penetration depth in steel. Current is
shown in blue (Source: Inductotherm)
4 Presentation of the main Induction
heating machine topology
Our implementation task takes place in the following
two circuit variations as shown in Figures 8, 9.
In Fig. 8, the main topology of the 7kW/7kHz induction
heating machine prototype is presented. After its
successful operation, an improved topology in terms of
power and energy efficiency is developed as shown in
Fig. 9. More specifically, the main topology of a 25kW
at 10kHz induction heating machine is implemented,
integrating a 3-phase ac/dc rectifier and an improved
(4) snubber circuit. The two topologies are similar to each
other according to the known bibliography. The
topology in Fig. 8, has as innovation the use of an
ASCR (asymmetric thyristor) for reasons explained in
previous analysis. The snubber circuit is actually an R-C
snubber properly calculated.
The topology of Fig. 9 implements a 3-phase ac/dc
rectifier, a larger ASCR and an improved two-stage
snubber circuit, which is actually a DLRC one,
composed of 2 power diodes in series, 2 Resistances, 2
Capacitors and one coil (L). Snubber circuits improve
the dV/dt rise and the voltage waveform ripple after the
deteriorated voltage peak.
Important photos of the developed pilot prototype parts
are presented in Figures 10 and 11. More specifically,
ASCR & antiparallel FRD, with low geometric area
between them and the composed Capacitor bank
(14pieces * 2.2 µF = 30.8 µF) are presented.
A shunt resistance is used in order to be able to measure
the current that flows into the working coil, in which the
specimen is included. The used shunt resistance is
100A-75mV, so given that the voltage from the
oscilloscope is 1,5V, the peak current is almost 2kA and
is calculated as shown in equation (6):
1,5V × 100 A
I peak = ⇒ I peak = 2.000 A (6)
0,075V
5
Fig. 8 Topology of the 7kW - 7kHz induction heating machine prototype

Fig. 9 Topology of the 25kW - 10kHz induction heating machine prototype

Fig. 10 ASCR & antiparallel FRD, with low geometric area Fig. 11 Developed capacitor bank of 30,8µF
in-between & Westcode R3968F Distributed Gate Thyristor

6
5 Experimental results
The proposed topology was implemented in the pilot
prototype induction heating machine, developed in the
Power Electronics Laboratory of Piraeus University of
Applied Sciences (TEI Piraeus) of the Electronic
Engineering Department. In Fig. 12 a rapid Red-
calcination of an inox 316L steel pipe of 112mm
diameter was achieved in less than 100 seconds.
Fig. 12 Red-calcination of an inox 316L steel pipe of
112mm diameter
The energy needed for this achievement was about
0,22kWh (=8kW*100sec/3600sec), significantly less
than conventional heating methods. It is obvious that the
steel pipe was red-calcinated ONLY at the target desired
place. This means huge energy saving, especially in
industrial applications, as no need for heating of the
whole steel pipe is necessary.
The pilot induction heating machine worked properly,
reaching operational characteristics as clearly shown in
the oscillograms of Figures 13, 14.
a
b high current stresses them, occurring to an un-
Fig. 13 Oscillogram of the 1st topology:
a. Voltage waveform 20V/div, 50 µsec/div
b. Current waveform of the working coil 1V/div,
50µsec/div
In Fig. 14 the oscillogram of the second topology with
the 3-phase power supply and higher load conditions
(iron steel pipe, and reduced working frequency),
Voltage waveform 100volt/div, 50µsec/div is presented.
7
Fig. 14 Voltage oscillogram across the thyristors of the
second topology
6 Conclusions
In this paper two variations of the selected topology of
resonant converters are used for an induction heating
pilot machine implementation and experimental
verification at the Power Electronics Laboratory of TEI
Piraeus. Resolving implementation problems and
defining operating limitations on them was one of the
main targets of this research. Solutions of the problems
and overcoming of limitations are presented and
justified. The whole task is expanded in order to achieve
the construction of an industrial scale high performance
medium frequency induction machine.
The pilot prototype operated perfectly as a rapid red-
calcination of an inox 316L steel pipe of 112mm
diameter was achieved in less than 100 seconds, with
very low energy consumption (about 0,22kWh). All the
photos and oscillograms are original. The various parts
of the experimental models are handmade, by the
authors of this paper. A large amount of experience is
retrieved from the practical implementation, necessary
for the on-going and future research on this issue.
Moreover, the circular current stresses the switching
element when the converter is unloaded, because in this
case the Q (Quality factor of series resonant circuit) is
higher and because the circular current practically is
multiplied by Q. The resonant current is practically the
switching element current, so in the unloaded case this
favourable condition for this type of converters.
On the other hand Zero Current Series Resonant
Converters have the inherent property of large circular
current for relatively small conversion power, are very
flexible to various load and specimen conditions, while
they do not demand complicated firing circuit for its
switching elements.
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