SOLID GEOMETRY

In mathematics, solid geometry is the traditional name for the geometry of three-dimensional Euclidean
space. Stereometry deals with the measurements of volumes of various solid figures (three-dimensional
figures) including pyramids, prisms and other polyhedrons; cylinders; cones; truncated cones; and balls
bounded by spheres.
In geometry, a polyhedron is a solid in three dimensions with flat faces and straight edges.
Every edge has exactly two faces, and every vertex is surrounded by alternating faces and edges. The
smallest polyhedron is the tetrahedron (pyramid with a triangular base) with 4 triangular faces, 6 edges,
and 4 vertices.
Solids for which Volume = Area of base times Altitude

Solids in which V = Ab × h
This is a group of solids in which the volume is equal to the product of the area of the base and the altitude.
Two types of solids belong to this group namely, prisms and cylinders.

Prism and Cylinder

A solid is said to be prismatic or cylindrical if every cutting plane parallel to base are the same in both
shape and size. If the base is a closed polygon the solid is a prism, whereas, the solid is a cylinder if the
base is a closed loop of a curve line. The name of the prism and cylinder is according to the shape of its
base. A prism with a pentagon base is called a pentagonal prism and a cylinder of circular base is called
circular cylinder.

The Prism

Prism is a polyhedron in which two faces are equal polygons in parallel planes, and all other faces are
parallelograms. There are two types of prism; oblique prism and right prism. Oblique prism is when the
axis is not perpendicular to the base and right prism if the axis is parallel to the base. In right prism, all
lateral areas are rectangle.

Name of a Prism

The name of a prism is according to the shape its base and according to the orientation of the axis. The
naming according to orientation of the axis is specifically used for right prism. Example, if the base of the
prism is a pentagon like the figure above, it is called pentagonal prism. If the base is a regular pentagon,
then the name of the prism is regular pentagonal prism. If the shape of the base is a regular pentagon and
the axis of the prism is perpendicular to the base, the prism is called right regular pentagonal prism.
However, if the problem will just mention pentagonal prism without specifying regular pentagon or right, it is
most of the time a right regular pentagonal prism.
Elements of a Prism

Base
Prism has two equal parallel bases, the upper and lower base. The area of the base is denoted by Ab.

Altitude
The perpendicular distance distance between the upper and lower bases and is denoted by h.

Axis
The line that connects the centroid of upper and lower bases. The length of axis is equal to the length of the
lateral edge.

Lateral Edge
Lateral area or lateral side is a line that connects the corresponding vertices of the bases. Edge in general
is the line made by the intersection of two faces. Lateral edge is the line formed by the intersection of two
lateral faces.

Lateral Area
Area of the side of the prism, it is denoted by AL.

Right Section
Right section is the section made by a cutting plane that is perpendicular to the axis of the prism. The area
of the right section is denoted by AR.

Vertex
Vertex is a point formed by the intersection of three or more edges. Note that at least three edges must
intersect to define the vertex of a solid.
Common Prisms: Cube and Rectangular Parallelepiped

There are two very common prisms; the cube and rectangular parallelepiped. In non-mathematical term,
both are called box.
Cube
Cube is one of the Platonic solids and is called regular hexahedron . It is a
polyhedron whose six faces are all squares.
 Properties of a Cube

1. All edges of a cube are equal in length.

2. All faces of the cube are congruent squares.

Rectangular Parallelepiped (Cuboid)

All faces of rectangular parallelepiped are rectangles and two opposite
faces are equal rectangles.

Properties of a Rectangular Parallelepiped

1. Parallel edges of rectangular parallelepiped are equal in length.

2. Any two opposite faces of rectangular parallelepiped are equal and

parallel rectangles.

The Cylinder

Cylinder is a solid bounded by a closed cylindrical surface and two parallel planes.

Properties of a cylinder

1. The bounding cylindrical surface of a cylinder is called the lateral

surface, and the two bounding parallel planes are called
the bases. The area of the lateral surface is denoted by AL and the
area of the base is denoted by Ab.

2. The bases of a cylinder are equal.

3. The altitude of the cylinder is the perpendicular distance between

the bases. It is denoted by h.

4. Every section parallel to the base is equal to the base.

5. Any two parallel sections, neither of which cuts a base are congruent.

6. The right section is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The area of the right section is denoted as
AR.
7. Axis of the cylinder is the line that connects the centroids of bases. The length of the axis is equal to the
length of the element, it is denoted as L.

8. For right cylinder, the area of the right section is equal to the area of the base and the length of the axis is
equal to the altitude.
 Name of a Cylinder
The name of a cylinder is according to the shape of its base. If the base is ellipse, the cylinder is called
elliptical cylinder, and if circle, it is called circular cylinder. The most common type of cylinder is the right
circular cylinder.

The Right Circular Cylinder

A right circular cylinder is a cylinder whose base is a circle and elements are perpendicular to its base.

Properties of a Right Circular Cylinder

1. The axis of a right circular cylinder is the line joining the centers of the bases.

2. For any oblique or non-oblique sections which do not pass any one base, the center of which is at the
axis.

3. A right circular cylinder can be formed by revolving a rectangle about one side as axis of revolution.

4. Every section of a right circular cylinder made by a cutting plane containing two elements and parallel to
the axis is a rectangle.
Solids for which Volume = 1/3 Area of Base times Altitude

This is a group of solids in which the volume is equal to one-third of the product of base area and altitude.
There are two solids that belong to this group; the pyramid and the cone.

Like cylinder and prism, the name of pyramid and cone is according to the shape of the base. If the base is
pentagon, the pyramid is called pentagonal pyramid, and if the base is circle, the cone is called circular
cone.
 The Cone

Cone
The surface generated by a moving straight line (generator) which always passes through a fixed point
(vertex) and always intersects a fixed plane curve (directrix) is called conical surface. Cone is a solid
bounded by a conical surface whose directrix is a closed curve, and a plane which cuts all the elements.
The conical surface is the lateral area of the cone and the plane which cuts all the elements is the base of
the cone.
Like pyramids, cones are generally classified according to their bases.

Properties of a Cone

 An element of a cone is the generator in any particular position.

 The altitude of the cone is the perpendicular drop from vertex to the plane of the base. It is denoted as h.

 Every section of a cone made by a plane passing through its vertex and containing two points of the base
is a triangle. See section PQV, where V is the vertex and P and Q are two points on the base.

 The axis of the cone is the straight line joining the vertex with the centroid of the base. For right cone,
altitude and axis are equal in length.
 The right section of a cone is a section perpendicular to its axis and cutting all the elements. For right
cone, the right section is parallel and similar to the base. Right section is denoted by AR.
 A circular cone is cone whose right section is a circle.

The Pyramid

A pyramid is a polyhedron with a polygon base of any shape, and all other faces are triangles which have
common vertex.
 Properties of a Pyramid

1. The lateral faces are all triangles meeting at

the vertex of the pyramid
2. The altitude of the pyramid is shortest
distance between the vertex and the base. It is
the drop distance from the vertex perpendicular
to the base.
3. If a cutting plane parallel to the base will pass
through the pyramid, the smaller pyramid thus
formed is similar to the original pyramid.
4. If two pyramids have equal base area and equal altitude, any section made by a cutting plane parallel to
the base are equal.
5. The pyramid is said to be a right pyramid if the vertex is directly above the centroid of the base,
otherwise it is an oblique pyramid

Name of a Pyramid
The name of a pyramid is according to its base. If the base is square, it is called square pyramid, and if the
base is pentagon, it is called pentagonal pyramid. Triangular pyramid is also called tetrahedron.

Formulas for Pyramid

Area of the base, Ab
The area of the base is according to the shape of the base polygon. There is no specific formula for
this except for regular pyramids.

Lateral Area, AL
The lateral area of the pyramid is equal to the sum of the areas of lateral faces that are triangles.
There is no specific formula for this except for right regular pyramids.
Regular Pyramid

A regular pyramid is one whose base is a regular polygon whose center coincides with the foot of the
perpendicular dropped from the vertex to the base.

Properties of a Regular Pyramid

1. The edges of a regular pyramid are equal; it
is denoted by e.
2. The lateral faces of a regular pyramid are
congruent isosceles triangles (see figure).
3. The altitudes of the lateral faces of a regular
pyramid are equal. It is the slant height of
the regular pyramid and is denoted by L.
4. The altitude of the regular pyramid is
perpendicular to the base. It is equal to
length of the axis and is denoted by h.
5. The vertex of regular pyramid is directly
above the center of its base when the
 pyramid is oriented as shown in the figure.
6. If a cutting plane is passed parallel to the base of regular pyramid, the pyramid cut off is a regular pyramid
similar to the original pyramid.
The Regular Tetrahedron

Regular tetrahedron is one of the regular polyhedrons. It is a triangular pyramid whose faces are all
equilateral triangles.

Properties of a Regular Tetrahedron

1. There are four faces of regular tetrahedron, all of which are equilateral triangles.

2. There are a total of 6 edges in regular tetrahedron, all of which are equal in length.

3. There are four vertices of regular tetrahedron, 3 faces meets at any one vertex.

4. A regular tetrahedron can circumscribe a sphere that is tangent to all the faces of the tetrahedron.

5. A regular tetrahedron can be inscribed in a sphere that passes through all the vertices of tetrahedron.

6. The center of the inscribed sphere, the center of the circumscribing sphere, and the center of the regular
tetrahedron itself are coincidence.

Frustums

Frustum of a pyramid (or cone) is a portion of pyramid (or cone) included between the base and the
section parallel to the base not passing through the vertex.

Formula for Volume of a Frustum

The volume of a frustum is equal to one-third the product of the altitude and the sum of the upper base,
the lower base, and the mean proportional between the bases.
 Frustum of a Regular Pyramid

Frustum of a regular pyramid is a portion of right regular pyramid included between the base and a section
parallel to the base.

Elements of a Frustum of Regular Pyramid

a = upper base edge, b = lower base edge, e = lateral edge, h = altitude, L = slant height, A1 = area of
lower base, A2 = area of upper base, n = number of lower base edges

Properties of a Frustum of Regular Pyramid

 The slant height of a frustum of a regular pyramid is the altitude of the face.
 The lateral edges of a frustum of a regular pyramid are equal, and the faces are equal isosceles
trapezoids.
 The bases of a frustum of a regular pyramid are similar regular polygons. If these polygons become
equal, the frustum will become prism.

Frustum of a Right Circular Cone

Frustum of a right circular cone is that portion of right circular cone included between the base and a
section parallel to the base not passing through the vertex.

Properties of Frustum of Right Circular Cone

 The altitude of a frustum of a right circular cone is the perpendicular distance between the two bases. It
is denoted by h.
 All elements of a frustum of a right circular cone are equal. It is denoted by L.
Lateral Area, AL
The lateral area of the frustum of a right circular cone is equal to one-half the sum of the circumference of
the bases multiplied by slant height.
 Volume, V
The volume of a frustum of any cone is equal to one-third of the product of the altitude and the sum of the
upper base, the lower base, and the mean proportional between the two bases.

The Sphere

Sphere is a solid bounded by closed surface every point of which is equidistant from a fixed point called the
center.

Properties of a Sphere
 Every section in the sphere made by a cutting plane is a circle. If the cutting plane passes through the
center of the sphere, the section made is a great circle; otherwise the section is a small circle.
 For a particular circle of a sphere, the axis is the diameter of the sphere perpendicular to the plane of the
circle.
 The ends of the axis of the circle of a sphere are called poles.
 The nearer the circle to the center of the sphere, the greater is its area.
 The largest circle in the sphere is the great circle.
 The radius (diameter) of the great circle is the radius (diameter) of the sphere.
 All great circles of a sphere are equal.
 Every great circle divides the sphere into two equal parts
called hemispheres.
 The intersection of two spherical surfaces is a circle whose plane is
perpendicular to the line joining the centers of the spheres and whose
center is on that line. (See figure to the right.)
 A plane perpendicular to a radius at its extremity is tangent to the sphere.

Formulas for a Sphere

Surface Area, A
The surface area of a sphere is equal to the area of four great circles.

Spherical Sector
A spherical sector is a solid generated by revolving a sector of a circle about an axis which passes
through the center of the circle but which contains no point inside the sector. If the axis of revolution is one
of the radial sides, the sector thus formed is spherical cone; otherwise, it is open spherical sector.
 Properties of Spherical Sector
 Spherical sector is bounded by a zone and one or two conical surfaces.
 The spherical sector having only one conical surface is called a spherical cone, otherwise it is
called open spherical sector.
 The base of spherical sector is its zone.

Formulas for Spherical Sector

Total surface area, A
The total surface area of a spherical sector is equal to the area of the zone plus the sum of the lateral areas
of the bounding cones.
Total surface area = Zone + Lateral area of bounding cones
Volume, V
The volume of spherical sector, either open spherical sector or spherical cone, is equal to one-third of the
product of the area of the zone and the radius of the sphere. This is similar to the volume of a cone which is
Vcone = 1/3 Abh. In spherical sector, replace Ab with Azone and h with R.

Spherical Segment
Spherical segment is a solid bounded by two parallel planes through a sphere. In terms of spherical zone,
spherical segment is a solid bounded by a zone and the planes of a zone's bases.

Properties of Spherical Segment

 The bases of a spherical segment are the sections made by the parallel planes. The radii of the lower and
upper sections are denoted by a and b, respectively. If either a or b is zero, the segment is of one base. If
both a and b are zero, the solid is the whole sphere.
 If one of the parallel planes is tangent to the sphere, the solid thus formed is a spherical segment of one
base.
 The spherical segment of one base is also called spherical cap and the two bases is also called spherical
frustum.
 The altitude of the spherical segment is the perpendicular distance between the bases. It is denoted by h.

Total Area, A
The total area of segment of a sphere is equal to area of the zone plus the sum of the areas of the bases.

Spherical Wedge and Spherical Lune

A spherical wedge is a solid formed by revolving a semi-circle about its diameter by less than
360°. Spherical lune is the curve surface of the wedge, it is a surface formed by revolving a semi-circular
arc about its diameter by less than 360°.

Formula for Spherical Wedge and Lune

The formula for spherical wedge and Lune can be found by ratio and proportion, meaning, spherical wedge
is similar to the sphere and spherical Lune is similar to spherical surface.

Spherical Zone
Zone
A zone is that portion of the surface of the sphere included between two parallel planes.

Properties of Spherical Zone

 The bases of the zone are the circumference of the sections made by the two parallel planes.
 The altitude of the zone is the perpendicular distance between these two parallel planes.
 If one of the bounding parallel planes is tangent to the sphere, the surface bounded is a zone of one base.
Area of the Zone
The area of any zone (one base or two bases) is equal to the product of its altitude h and the circumference
of the great circle of the sphere.

References:
 Solid Geometry. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_geometry
 1001 Solved Problems in Engineering Mathematics by Jaime R. Tiong and Romeo A. Rojas, Jr.
 Solid Mensuration. Retrieved from https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/solid-mensuration/solid-mensuration