2 INI ee ema IY Clearly mie ieee 100) Second Edition en tc ee ee rer na oe ec er eee design, development, and fulure analysis of components, structures, and vehicles eects Ren ee eee ee etree original while bringing i up to date with the latest developments in the fel. ee eee seen ete ee eee ee eet ee Renee eee eee eee eee eee eee eer | Beeterta esa cone nesta tiene mre vorked examples and hundreds of problems, references, and figures as well 5 | hapter summaries and “design do’ and dons” sections to help speed and rein- | eee ‘The Second Edition contains « vast amount of new information, including Pen eee een eae ee eee ee et eee er eer eerie Nonproportional loading and critical plane approaches for Scent tt ee ee etd td PYeo Tease or A eae eo cece ee Paeee Cen e ear va issn steer cme! Manufacturing Engineering at The University of Toledo in Ohio. ROBERT R. [STEPHENS is Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at The University Ren een US aN ee er eee fessor Emeritus, at Seanford University in Palo Alto, California Ralph |. Stephens Ali Fatemi Robert R. Stephe Henry OQ FuchsMETAL FATIGUE IN ENGINEERING Second Edition RALPH I, STEPHENS, Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department ‘The University of lowa ALI FATEMI Professor, Mechanical, Industrial, and Manufacturing Engineering Department The University of Toledo ROBERT R. STEPHENS Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department The University of Idaho HENRY O. FUCHS Formerly Emeritus Professor Mechanical Engineering Department Stanford University ‘A Wiley-Interscience Publication JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. New York / Chichester / Weinheim / Brisbane / Singapore / TorontoWe hope this book wil be wed in making decisions about the design and operation of ‘machines and structures. We have tied to sate the facts and opinions correctly leary. and vith their limitations. Bu Because of uncertainties inherent in the material andthe posblity ‘¢erors we cannot assume any laity. We uge the readers to spend effort in tests in ‘erication commensurate wih the risks they wil assume ‘his book is printed on acd-tee paper. @ Copyright © 2001 by John Wiley & Sons, In, All ights reserved, Published simultaneously in Canad ‘No pat ofthis publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transite in ‘any frm or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording, scanning or ‘otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 ofthe 1976 United States Copyright ‘Act, without either the prior writen peemission of the Publisher, or authorization through Dyment ofthe appropriate per-copy fe t the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (07850-8400, fax (97850-4744, Requests tothe Publisher for permission shold be addressed tothe Permissions Deparment, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 60 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, 212)80-601, fax 212}850-608, E-Mail: PERMREQ@WILEY.COM. ‘This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoistive information in regard to the Subjeet matter covered Is sol wit the understanding thatthe publisher isnot engaged in ‘enderng protesional serves. If profesional advice oF other expert assistance is required, ‘he services ofa competent professional person should be sought Library of Congress Cataloging-n-Publiction Data: ‘Metal fatigue in engincering /by Ralph I. Stephens... et al] —2nd ed Pm, Rev. ed. of Meta fatigue in engineering / H.O, Fuchs, RU. Stephens, e1980 “A Wily-Intescence publication.” Includes biographical references ISBN 0471510599 (doh al, papes) 1, Metals—Ftigu. 1 Stephens, RI (Ralph Ian) 1 1907—Metal fatigue in engncering. ‘Tadeo.§64s7 2000 i sxn1"66-—4e21 Printed in the Unitod States of America, Ces wos76saaa Dedication We sincerely appreciate the exceptional understanding our wives, Barbara, Shirin, and Marci, gave us while we wrote, along with our children Lili, Sarah, and Joelle, who sometimes did not get the attention they deserved. We thank aur colleagues on the SAE Fatigue Design ‘and Evaluation (SAEFDE) Committee and the ASTM Committee E-08 ‘on Fatigue and Fracture for many years of fruitful exchange of fatigue information,CONTENTS PREFACE xv BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES xix 1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 1 1.1 Mechanical Failure Modes / 1 1.2 Importance of Fatigue Considerations in Design / 3 13 Historical Overview of Fatigue / 5 14 Summary / 9 Dos and Don'ts in Design / 10 1.6 Biographical Sketches / 10 References / 16 Problems / 17 2 FATIGUE DESIGN METHODS 19 21 Strategies in Fatigue Design / 19 24.1 ‘The In-House Tool / 21 212 The New Model / 22 241.3. The New Product / 22 24.4 Design to Code / 22 Fatigue Design Criteria / 23, 22.1 Infinite-Life Design / 23 222 Safe-Life Design / 23contents 223. FailSate Design / 24 224 Damage-Tolerant Design / 24 23 Analysis and Testing / 25 24 Probabilistic Design and Reliability / 28 25 CAE and Digital Prototyping / 28 2.6 In-Service Inspection and Acquisition of Relevant Experience / 29 27 Summary / 30 28 Dos and Don'ts in Design / 30 References / 31 Problems / 31 MACRO/MICRO ASPECTS OF FATIGUE OF METALS. 33 3.1 Fatigue Fracture Surfaces and Macroscopic Features / 34 3.2 Fatigue Mechanisms and Microscopic Features / 43, 33. Summary / $5 34 Dos and Don'ts in Design / 56 References / 56 Problems / 57 FATIGUE TESTS AND THE STRESS-LIFE (S-N) APPROACH 59 4.1 Fatigue Loading, Test Machines, and Specimens / 59 4.1 Fatigue Loading / 59 4.1.2 Patigue Test Machines / 62 4.13. Fatigue Test Specimens / 65 Stress-Life (S-N) Curves / 67 42.1 General S-N Behavior / 67 42.2 Fatigue Limit Under Fully Reversed Uniaxial Stressing / 70 43° Mean Stress Effects on $-N Behavior / 74 44 Factors Influencing $-N Behavior / 79 441° Microstructure / 79 442. Size Effects | 80 443° Surface Finish / 80 444 Frequency / 82 45 S-N Curve Representation and Approximations / 83 46 Example of Life Estimation Using the S-N Approach / 86 conrenrs ix 47 Summary / 88 48 Dos and Don'ts in Design / 89 References / 89 Problems / 90 CYCLIC DEFORMATION AND THE STRAIN-LIFE (e-N) APPROACH. 93 5.1 Monotonic Tension Test and Stress-Strain Behavior / 93 52 Strain-Controlled Test Methods / 98 53. Cycle-Dependent Material Deformation and Cyclic Stress-Strain Behavior / 98 54 Strain-Based (e-N) Approach to Life Estimation / 105 55 Determination of Strain-Life Fatigue Properties / 111 5.6 Mean Stress Effects / 113, 5.7. Surface Finish and Other Factors Influencing Strain-Life Behavior / 115 58 Summary / 116 5.9. Dos and Don'ts in Design | 117 References | 118 Problems / 119 FUNDAMENTALS OF LEFM AND APPLICATIONS TO. FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH 122 6. LEFM Concepts / 123, 6.1.1 Loading Modes / 123 6.12 Stress Intensity Factor, K / 124 6.13 _K Expressions for Common Cracked Members / 126 6.1.4 Superposition for Combined Mode I Loading / 132 62 Crack Tip Plastic Zone / 133, 63. Fracture Toughness—K,, Ky. / 136 64 Fatigue Crack Growth, da/dN-AK / 142 64.1 Sigmoidal da/dN-AK Curve | 144 642 Constant Amplitude Fatigue Crack Growth Test Methods / 146 643° da/dN-AK for R= 0/147 644 Crack Growth Life Integration Example with No Mean Stress Effects / 151 65 Mean Stress Effects / 15566 Cyclic Plastic Zone Size / 160 67 Crack Closure J 162 68 Small Fatigue Cracks and LEFM Limitations / 165 69 Plasticity Extension of LEFM and Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics / 170 640. Summary 174 611 Dos and Don'ts in Design / 175 References J 176 Problems / 180 NOTCHES AND THEIR EFFECTS 7.1 Concentrations and Gradients of Stress and Strain / 187 12. S-N Approach for Notched Members / 196 21 Notch Sensitivity and the Fatigue Notch Factor, K; 1 196 72.2. Effects of Stress Level on Notch Factor / 199 723. Mean Stress Effects and Haigh Diagrams / 200 724 Example of Life Estimation with the S-N Approach / 206 7.3. Notch Strain Analysis and the Strain-Life Approach / 209 73.1 Notch Stresses and Strains / 210 732. Neuber's Rule / 212 733 Strain Energy Density or Glinka’s Rule / 215 734 Plane Stress versus Plane Strain / 217 735 Example of Life Estimation Using the Strain-Life Approach / 218 74 Applications of Fracture Mechanics to Crack Growth at Notches / 226 75 The Two-Stage Approach to Fatigue Life Estimation | 231 7.6 Summary / 234 7.7 Dos and Don'ts in Design | 236 References / 237 Problems / 239 RESIDUAL STRESSES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON. FATIGUE RESISTANCE 81 Examples / 243, 82. Production of Residual Stresses and Fatigue Resistance / 245 82.1 Mechanical Methods / 245 82.2. Thermal Methods / 252 186 83 84 85 86 87 contents xi 823. Plating / 254 82.4 Machining / 256 Relaxation of Residual Stresses / 257 Measurement of Residual Stresses / 259 Stress Intensity Factors for Residual Stresses / 261 Summary | 264 Dos and Don’ts in Design / 265 References / 266 Problems / 267 FATIGUE FROM VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING 270 9.1 Spectrum Loads and Cumulative Damage / 270 9.2 Damage Quantification and the Concepts of Damage Fraction and Accumulation 274 93 Cumulative Damage Theories | 274 93.1 Palmgren-Miner Linear Damage Rule / 274 932 Nonlinear Damage Theories / 277 94 Load Interaction and Sequence Effects / 277 95 Cycle Counting Methods / 281 951 Rainflow Method / 282 95.2 Other Cycle Counting Methods / 286 9.6 Life Estimation Using the Stress-Life Approach / 291 9.7 Life Estimation Using the Strain-Life Approach | 295 98 Crack Growth and Life Estimation Models / 299 9.9 Simulating Service Histories in the Laboratory and Digital Prototyping / 308 9.9.1 Laboratory Test Methods / 308 9.92 Digital Prototyping / 310 910 Summary / 311 911 Dos and Don'ts in Design / 312 References / 313 Problems / 315 MULTIAXIAL STRESSES 318 101 102 103 States of Stress and Strain and Proportional versus Nonproportional Loading / 319 Yielding and Plasticity in Multiaxial Fatigue / 320 Stress-Based Criteria / 323 103.4. Equivalent Stress Approaches / 323 1032 Sines Method / 325 103.3 Examples Using the Stress-Life Approach / 326