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UNIT V NANOELECTRONIC DEVICES

ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS
METALLIC GLASSES
1 Introduction
2. Metallic glasses
2.1 Methods of preparation
2.2 Preparation of metallic glasses
2.3 Types of metallic glasses
2.4 Properties of metallic glasses
2.5 Applications of metallic glasses
3 Shape memory alloys
3.1 Shape memory alloys
3.2 Types of shape memory alloys
3.3 Characteristics of SMA
3.4 Commercial shape memory alloys
3.5 Advantages of shape memory alloys
3.6 Disadvantages of shape memory alloys
3.7 Applications of shape memory alloys
4 Nanotechnology
4.1 Nano materials
4.2 Comparison of different objects
4.3 Classification of nanomaterials
4.4 Top-down and bottom-up process
5 Synthesis techniques
5.1 Pulsed laser deposition
5.2 Chemical vapor deposition
6 Discuss the properties of nanophase materials
6.1 Physical properties
6.2 Magnetic properties
6.3 Mechanical properties
7 Applications of nanophase materials
8 Non-linear materials and bio-materials
8.1 Birefringence and Kerr effect
8.2 Non-linear properties and second harmonic generation
8.3 Non linear properties
8.4 Second harmonic generation
8.5 Biomaterials with their properties and applications
8.6 Classification of biomaterials
8.7 Applications
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8.8 Ceramic
1 INTRODUCTION
New engineering materials such as metallic glasses, shape memory alloys
etc. are the advanced materials, which are the integral part of our life. Both
scientists and technologists are searching for new materials, which can be used
for high technology research as well as applications.
In this chapter, we are going to discuss the new engineering materials like
metallic glasses, shpe memory alloys, etc., along with their properties and its wide
range of applications.
2 METALLIC GLASSES
The Metallic glasses are materials which have the properties of both metals and
glasses.
Metallic glass = Amorphous metal
In general, metallic glasses are strong, ductile, malleable, opaque and brittle.
They also have good magnetic properties and high corrosion resistance.
2.1METHODS OF PREPARATION Principle
The principle used in making metallic glasses is extreme rapid cooling of

the molten alloy. The technique is called as rapid quenching.
The cooled molten alloys are fed into highly conducting massive rollers at
high speeds to give ribbons of metallic glasses.
2.1PREPARATION OF METALLIC GLASSES
Principle
The principle used in making metallic glasses is extreme rapid cooling of the
molten metal alloy. This technique is called as rapid quenching.
Melt spinning system
A melt spinner consists of a copper roller over which a refractory tube with
fine nozzle is placed. The refractory tube is provided with induction heater as
shown in fig.
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The metal alloy is melted by induction heating under inert gas

atmosphere (helium or argon). The properly super heated molten alloy is ejected
through the fine nozzle at the bottom of the refractory tube.
The molten alloy falls on the copper roller which is rotated at high speed. Thus,
the alloy is suddenly cooled to form metallic glass. In this method a continuous
ribbon of metallic glass can be obtained.
2.3 TYPES OF METALLIC GLASSES.
Metallic glasses are classified into two types:
(i)Metal –Metal metallic glasses

They are combination of metals
Metals Metals
Examples: Nickel (Ni) - Niobium (Nb)
Magnesium (Mg) - Zinc (Zn)
Copper (Cu) - Zirconium (Zr)
(ii) Metal –Metalloid metallic glasses
These are combinations of metals and metalloids.
Examples: Metals Metalloids
Fe, Co, Ni - B, Si, C, P
2.4 PROPERTIES OF METALLIC GLASSES
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Structural properties
1. They do not have any crystal defects such as grain boundaries,

dislocation etc.
2. Metallic glasses have tetrahedral close packing (TCP).
Mechanical properties
1. Metallic glasses have extremely high strength, due to the absence of

point defects and dislocation.
2. They have high elasticity.
3. They are highly ductile.
4. Metallic glasses are not work-harden but they are work –soften. (work
harnening is a process of hardening a material by compressing it).
Electrical properties
1. Electrical resistivity of metallic glasses is high and it does not vary

much with temperature.
2. Due to high resistivity, the eddy current loss is very small.
3. The temperature coefficient is zero or negative.
Magnetic properties
1. Metallic glasses have both soft and hard magnetic properties.
2. They are magnetically soft due to their maximum permeabilities and

thus they can be magnetised and demagnetized very easily.
3. They exhibit high saturation magnetisation.
4. They have less core losses.
5. Most magnetically soft metallic glasses have very narrow hysteresis

loop with same crystal composition. This is shown in fig.
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Fig. Hysteresis loop of iron based alloy in crystalline and metallic

glassy phase.
Chemical properties
1. They are highly resistant to corrosion due to random ordering.
2. They are highly reactive and stable.
3. They can act as a catalyst. The amorphous state is more active than the
crystalline state from the catalytic point of view.
2.5APPLICATIONS OF METALLIC GLASSES
Metallic glasses also called as met glasses have found wide applications in
different fields.
Structural application
1. They posses high physical and tensile strength. They are superior to
common steels and thus they are very useful as reinforcing elements in
concrete, plastic and rubber.
2. Strong ribbons of metallic glasses are used for simple filament winding
to reinforce pressure vessels and to construct large fly wheels for energy
storage.
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3. Due to their good strength, high ductility, rollability and good corrosion
resistance, they are used to make razor blades and different kinds of
springs.
Electrical and Electronics
1. Since metallic glasses have soft magnetic properties, they are used in
tape recorder heads, cores of high-power transformers and magnetic
shields.
2. They use of metallic glasses in motors can reduce core loss very much
when compared with conventional crystalline magnets.
3. Superconducting metallic glasses are used to produce high magnetic

fields and magnetic levitation effect.
4. Since metallic glasses have high electrical resistance, they are used to
make accurate standard resistance, computer memories and magneto
resistance sensors.
Metallic glasses as transformer core material
5. Metallic glasses have excellent magnetic properties. When they are used
as transformer core, they give maximum magnetic flux linkage between
primary and secondary coils and thus reduce flux leakage losses.
In view of their features like small thickness, smaller area, light weight,
high resistivity, soft magnetic property and negligible hysteresis and
eddy current loss, metallic glasses are considered as suitable core
materials in different frequency transformers.
Nuclear reactor engineering
1. The magnetic properties of metallic glasses are not affected by irradiation and
so they are useful in preparing containers for nuclear waste disposal and magnets
for fusion reactors.
2. Chromium and phosphorous based (iron chromium, phosphorous-carbon
alloys) metallic glasses have high corrosion resistances and so they are used in
iner surfaces of reactor vessels, etc.
Bio-medical Industries
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1. Due to their high resistance to corrosion, metallic glasses are ideal

materials for making surgical instruments.
2. They are used as prosthetic materials for implantation in human body.
2 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

3.1 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
A group of metallic alloys which shows the ability to return to their original shape
or size (i.e., alloy appears to have memory) when they are subjected to heating
or cooling are called shape memory alloys.
Phase of shape memory alloys
Martensite and austenite are two solid phases in SMA as shown in fig.
Fig. Phases of SMA
Martensite is relatively soft and it is easily deformable phase which exists at low
temperature (monoclinic) (fig.)
(i) Austenite is a phase that occurs at high temperature having a crystal
structure and high degree of symmetry (cubic) (fig.).
3.2TYPES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
There are two types of shape memory alloys
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(i) One-way shape memory alloy
(ii) Two-way shape memory alloy
A material which exhibits shape memory effect only upon heating is

known as one-way shape memory. A material which shows a shape memory
effect during both heating and cooling is called two-way shape memory.
Examples of shape memory alloys
Generally, shape memory alloys are intermetallic compounds having super lattice
structures and metallic-ionic-covalent characteristics. Thus, they have the
properties of both metals and ceramics.
Ni –Ti alloy (Nitinol)
Cu –Al –Ni alloy
Cu –Zn –Al alloy
Au –Cd alloy
Ni –Mn –Ga and Fe based alloys
3.3CHARACTERISTICS OF SMAS
1. Shape memory effect

The change of shape of a material at low temperature by loading and regaining of
original shape by heating it, is known as shape memory effect.
The shape memory effect occurs in alloys due to the change in their crystalline
structure with the change in temperature and stress.
While loading, twinned martensite becomes deformed martensite at low

temperature.
On heating, deformed martensite becomes austenite (shape recovery) and upon

cooling it gets transformed to twinned martensite (fig.).
2. SMAs exhibit changes in electrical resistance, volume and length during the
transformation with temperature.
3. The mechanism involved in SMA is reversible (austenite to martensite and vice
versa.)
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4. Stress and temperature have a great influence on martensite transformation.
5. Pseudo elasticity
Pseudo –elasticity occurs in shape memory alloys when it is completely in

austenite phase (temperature is greater than Af austenite finish temperature).
Unlike the shape memory effect, Pseudo-elasticity occurs due to stress

induced phase transformation without a change in temperature. The load on the
shape memory alloy changes austenite phase into martensite (Fig.).
As soon as the loading decreases the martensite begins to transform to austenite.
This phenomenon of deformation of a SMA on application of large stress and

regaining of shape on removal of the load is known as pseudo elasticity.
This pseudo elasticity is also known as super elasticity
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6. Hysteresis
The temperature range for the martensite to austenite transformation which

takes place upon heating is somewhat higher than that for the reverse
transformation upon cooling.
The difference between the transition temperature upon heating and

cooling is called hysteresis. The hysteresis curve for SMAs is shown in fig.
The difiference of temperature is found to be 20-30oC,
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3.4 COMMERCIAL SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
The only two alloy systems that have achieved any level of commercial
exploitation are,
(i) Ni-Ti alloys, and

(ii) Copper base alloys.
Properties of the two systems are quite different.
1. Nickel-Titanium Alloys
The basis of the Nickel-Titanium alloy is the binary, equi-atomic inter-metallic

compound of Ti-Ni. The inter-metallic compound is extraordinary because it has
moderate solubility range for excess Nickel or Titanium, as well as most other
metallic elements. This solubility allows alloying with many of the elements to
modify both the mechanical properties and the transformation properties of the
system. Excess Nickel strongly depresses the transformation temperature and
increases the yield strength of the austenite. The contaminants such as Oxygen
and Carbon shift the transformation temperature and degrade the mechanical
properties. Therefore, it is also desirable to minimize the amount of such
elements.
Properties:
(i) The Ni-Ti alloys have greater shape memory strain upto 8.5% tend
to be much more thermally stable.
(ii) They have excellent corrosion resistance and susceptibility, and

have much higher ductility.
(iii) Machining by turning or milling is very difficult except with special

tools.
(iv) Welding, brazing or soldering the alloys is generally difficult.
(v) The material do respond well to abrasive removal such as grinding,

and shearing.
(vi) Punching can be done if thicknesses are kept small.
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3.5 ADVANTAGES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

They are simple, compact and high safe.
They have good bio –compatibility.
They have diverse applications and offer clean, silent and spark-free working
condition
They have good mechanical properties and are strong corrosion-resistant.
3.6DISADVANTAGES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
They have poor fatigue properties.

They are expensive.
They have low energy efficiency.
3.7 APPLICATIONS OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
1. Microvalve (Actuators)
One of the most common applications of SMAs is mocrovalves. Fig. shows a

microvalve made of Ni –Ti alloy actuator. Actuator is a microsensor that can
trigger the operation of a device. The electrical signal initiates an action.
Fig. Schematic of microvalves that open and close according to temperature
When an electrical current of 50 to 150 mA flows in Ni-Ti actuator, it

contracts and lifts the poppet from the orifice and opens the valve.
2. Toys and novelties
Shape memory alloys are used to make toys and ornamental goods.
A butterfly using SMA. Moves its wings in response to pulses of

electricity.
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3. Medical field Blood clot filters
(i) Blood clot filters are SMAs, properly shaped and inserted in veins
to stop the passing blood clots.
When the SMA is in contact with the clot at a lower temperature, it

expands and stops the clot and blood passes through the veins.
(ii) They are used in artificial hearts.
(iii) Orthodontic applications
NiTi wire holds the teeth tight with a constant stress irrespective of the strain
produced by the teeth movement. It resists permanent deformation even if it is
bent. NiTi is non-toxic and non-corrosive with body fluid.
(iv) SMAs (NiTi) are used to make eye glass frames and medical tools.
Sun-glasses made from superelastic Ni-Ti frames provide good
comfort and durability.
4. Antenna wires
The flexibility of superelastic Ni –Ti wire makes it ideal for use as

retractable antennas.
5. Thermostats
SMAs are used as thermostat to open and close the valves at required
temperature.
6. Cryofit hydraulic couplings
SMAs materials are used as couplings for metal pipes
7. Springs, shock absorbers, and valves
Due to the excellent elastic property of the SMAs, springs can be made which
have varied industrial applications. Some of them are listed here.
Engine micro valves
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Medical stents (Stents are internal inplant supports provided for body organs)
Firesafety valves and
Aerospace latching mechanisms
8. Stepping motors
Digital SMA stepping motors are used for robotic control.
9. Titanium-aluminium shape memory alloys offer excellent strength with less

weight and dominate inthe aircraft industry. They are high temperature SMAs,
for possible use in aircraft engines and other high temperature environments.
4 NANOTECHNOLOGY
4.1 NANO MATERIALS
Nanoparticles are the particles that have three dimensional nanoscale, the particle
is between 1 and 100 nm in each spatial dimension. A nanometer is a unit of
measure equal to one-billionth of a meter, or three to five atoms across.
Nanotechnology is the design, fabrication and use of nanostructured systems, and

the growing, assembling of such systems either mechanically, chemically or
biologically to form nanoscale architectures, systems and devices.
4.2COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT OBJECTS
1. Diameter of sun - 1,393,000km

2. Diameter of earth - 1,28,000km
3. Height of Himalaya mountain - 8,848km
4. Height of man - 1.65km
5. Virus - 20-250nm
6. Cadmium sulphide nanoparticle - 1-10nm
4.3CLASSIFICATION OF NANOMATERIALS
1. Clusters
A collection of atoms or reactive molecules up to about 50 units.
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2. Colloid
A stable liquid phase containing particles in 1 to 1000 nm range. A colloidal

particle is one such 1 to
1000 nm sized particle.
3. Nanoparticle
A solid particle in the 1 to 100 nm range that could be non-crystalline, an

aggregate of crystallites, or a single crystallite.
4. Nanocrystal
A solid particle that is a single crystal in the nanometer size.
5. Nanostructured or Nanoscale Material
Any solid materials has a nanometer dimension.
Three dimensions --- > Particles

Two dimensions --- > Thin films
One dimension --- > Thin wire
6. Quantum Dots
A particle that exhibits a size quantization effect in at least one dimension.
4.4 TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP PROCESSS

1. Top-down Process
In this processes, bulk materials are broken into nano sized particles as shown in
In to-down processes, the building of nanostructures starting with small

components like atoms and molecules that are removed from a bulk material so
as to obtain desired microstructure.
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2. Bottom-up Processes
In this processes, nano phase materials are produced by building of atom by atom
as shown in.
This processes building larger objects from smaller buildings blocks.

Nanotechnology seeks to use atoms and molecules as those building blocks. This
is the opposite of the top-down approach. Instead of taking material away to make
structures, the bottom-up approach selectively adds atoms to create structures.
5 SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES
Nano materials are newly developed materials with grain size at the
nanometre range (10-9m)
i.e., in the order of 1 –100 nm. The particle size in a nano material is in the order
of nm.
5.1 PULSED LASER DEPOSITION
Priniciple
The laser pulse of high intensity and energy is used to evaporate carbon
from graphite. These evaporated carbon atoms are condensed to from nanotubes.
Description
The experimental arrangement of pulsed laser4 deposition is shown in fig. A

quartz tube which contains a graphite target is kept inside a high temperature
muffle furnace.
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Fig. Pulsed Laser Deposition CNT
This quartz tube is filled with argon gas and it is heated to 1473 K. A water
cooled copper collector is fitted at the other end of the tube. The target material
graphite contains small amount of nickel and cobalt as a catalyst to nucleate the
formation of nanotubes.
Working
When an intense pulse of laser beam is incident on the target, it evaporates

the carbon from the graphite. The evaporated carbon atoms are swept from the
higher temperature argon gas to the colder copper collector.
When the carbon atoms reach the colder copper collector, they condense into
nanotubes.
5.2CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION
The deposition of nano films from gaseous phase by chemical reaction on high
temperature is known as chemical vapour deposition.
This method is used to prepare nano-powder.
Principle
In this technique, initially the material is heated to gaseous state and then
it is deposited on a solid surface under vacuum condition to form nano powder
by chemical reaction with the substrate.
Description and Working
The CVD reactor built to perform CVD processes is shown in fig.
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Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) involves the flow of a gas with diffused
reactants (substances to be deposited in the vapour) over a hot substrate surface.
The gas that carries the reactants is called the carrier gas.
While the gas flows over the hot solid surface, the heat energy increases chemical
reactions of the reactants that form film during and after the reactions.
The byproduct of the chemical reactions are then removed. The thin film
of desired composition can thus be formed over the surface of the substrate.
6 PROPERTIES OF NANOPHASE MATERIALS.

Properties of Nanophase Particles
The mechanical, electrical, chemical, magnetic and structural properties of

nanophase materials change with the reduction in the particle size of the material.
6.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Variation of physical properties with geometry
Starting from the bulk, the first effect of reducing the particle size is to
create more surface sites. This in turn changes surface pressure and interparticle
spacing.
(i) Interparticle spacing decreases with decrease in grain size for metal
clusters.
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For example in copper, it decrease from 2.52 (cluster size –50A) to

2.23A (Cu dimer) fig.
The change in inter particle spacing and large surface to the volume ratio
in particles have a combined effect on material properties. Therefore, the
nanophase materials have very high strength and super hardness.
Because of the cluster of grains, the nano phase materials are mostly free from
dislocations and stronger than conventional metals.
Fig. Interatomic distance in Cun as a function of grain size.
(ii) Melting point reduces with decrease in cluster size.
The melting point of gold in nano phase (Aun) varies as a function of particle size
(fig.)
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Fig. Melting point of small Aun particles as a function of size
The melting point decreases from 1200 K to 800 K when the particle size
decreases from 300 A to 20 A.
(iii) Ionisation potential changes with cluster size of the nanograins.
The electronic bands in metals become narrower when the size is reduced from
bulk which changes the value of ionization potential.
Fig. shows the ionization potential and reactivity of Fen clusters as a function of
size. Ionisation potentials are higher at small sizes than that for the bulk and show
marked fluctuations as a function of size.
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Fig. Ionisation potential and reactivity of Fen clusters as a function of size

(iv) The large surface to volume ratio, the variations in geometry and the
electronic structure have a strong effect on catalytic properties.
As an example, the reactivity of small clusters is found to vary by higher

orders of magnitude when the cluster size is changed by only a few atoms.
6.2 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
Nanoparticles of non-magnetic solids also exhibit totally new type of

magnetic properties.
(i) Bulk magnetic moment increases with decrease in co-ordination

number
The change in magnetic moment on the nearest coordination number is shown in

fig.-0
Fig. Change in magnetic moment on the nearest coordination

number
As the coordination number decreases, the magnetic moment increases

with the atomic valuewhich means that small particles are more magnetic
than the bulk material.
The magnetic moment of iron (Fe) of nanoparticles is 30% more than that of
bulk. At smaller sizes, the clusters become spontaneously magnetic.
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(ii) The nano-materials shows variation in their magnetic property when

they change from bulk state to cluster (nano-particle) state.
(iii) Non-magnetic materials become magnetic when the cluster size

reduces to 80 atoms.
6.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(i) In nanophase materials, the elastic strength is low however, its

plastic behavior is high.
(ii) In some nanophase materials, it is noted that there is decrease in

hardness when the grain size is less than 10 nm.
However for many nanocrystalline, pure metals (10 nm), the

hardness is about 2 to 7 times greater than that of large-grained (>1
μ m) metals.
(iii)Higher hardness and mechanical strength (2-7 times) when grain

size reduces from 1 μ m to 10 nm.
(iv) It has very high ductility and superplastic behavior at low

temperatures.
7 APPLICATIONS OF NANOPHASE
MATERIALS.
1. Materials Technology
We can synthesis harder metals having hardness 5 times higher than normal
metals using nanoparticles.
Stronger, lighter, wear resistant, tougher and flame retardant polymers are
synthesized with nanoparticles as fillers. They are used in replacement of body
parts and metals (bio-materials).
We can produce unusual colour paints using nanoparticles since nanoparticles

exhibit entirely different optical properties.
Nanophase materials are used in annoelectronic devices such as nanotransistore,

ceramic capacitors for energy storage, noise filters and stabilizers. The special
features of these devices include smaller sizes and reduced power losses.
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ZnO thermistors are used in thermal –protection and current-controlling devices.
2. Information Technology
Nanoparticles are used for data storage.
Quantum electronic devices have started replacing bulk conventional devices.
Nano materials are used to produce very tiny permanent magnets of high energy
products. Hence, they are used in high-density magnetic recording.
Magnetic devices made of Cu-Fe alloy are used in RAM, READ / WRITE heads
and sensors.
Quantum dots, quantum wells and quantum wires are mainly produced from
semiconductor nanomaterials. Hence, they are used in computer storage
(memory) devices.
3. Biomedicals
Biosensitive nanoparticles are used for tagging of DNA and DNA chips.
Controlled drug delivery is possible using nanotechnology. Diffusion of medicine

through nanoporous polymer reservoir as per the requirement is very useful in
controlling the disease.
Nanostructured ceramics readily interact with bone cells and bence finds
applications as an implant material.
4. Energy storage
Since the hydrogen absorbing capability increases with decrese of size of

nanoparticles, nanoparticles of Ni, Pd and Pt are useful in hydrogen storage
devices.
Metal nanoparticles are very useful in fabrication of ionic batteries.
5. Optical devices
Nanomaterials are used in making effici
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Nanoparticulate zinc oxide is used to manufacture effective Sunscreens.
Nanoparticles are used in the coatings for eye glasses to protect from scratch or
breakage.
6. Transmission lines
Nanophase materials are used in the fabrication of signal processing

elements such as filters, delay lines, switches etc.
7. Nanomicro-Electro Mechanical Systems (Nano MEMS) have direct

implications onintegrated circuits, optical switches, pressure sensors and
mass sensors.
8. Molecular Nano-Technology (MNT) is aimed to develop robotic

machines, called assemblerson a molecular scale, molecular-size power
sources and batteries.
9. Underwater nanosensor networks are used to detect the movement of

ships in an efficientmanner with faster response. They can also detect
chemical, biological or radiological materials in cargo containers.
8 NON-LINEAR MATERIALS AND BIO-

MATERIALS
8.1 BIREFRINGENCE AND KERR EFFECT.
The appearance of double refraction under the influence of an external

agent is known as artificial double refraction or induced birefringence.
Optical Kerr Effect
Anisotropy induced in an isotropic medium under the influence of an electric field

is known as Kerr effect.
A sealed glass cell known as Kerr cell filled with a liquid comprising of
asymmetric molecules is used to study the Kerr effect.
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Two plane electrodes are placed in parallel to each other. When a voltage
is applied to there electrodes, a uniform electric field is produced in the cell.
The Kerr cell is placed between a crossed polarizer system (Fig), When the
electric field is applied, the molecules of the liquid tend to align along the field
direction.
As the molecules are asymmetric, the alignment causes anisotropy and the
liquid becomes double refracting. The induced birefringence is proportional to
the square of the applied electric
field Eand to the wavelength λ of incident light.
Fig. Kerr effect –Birefringence is induced in a liquid subjected to an electric

field
The change in refractive influx is given by

∆μ= K λE2
Where K is known as the Kerr constant
8.2 EXPLAIN NON-LINEAR PROPERTIES AND SECOND HARMONIC

GENERATION. Basic Principle of Non Linear Properties
We know that a light wave is electromagnetic in nature ie., it consists of

electric and magnetic fields. When the light propagates through a material, it
changes the properties of the medium, such as the refractive index. It depends on
the electric and magnetic fields associated with the light.
For example, we could not observe nonlinear effects with the ordinary light beam
of low intensity, since the electric and magnetic fields associated with the light
beams is very weak.
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With the invention of laser, it is now possible to have electric fields which
are strong enough to observe interesting non linear effects.
Thus if electric and magnetic fields are strong enough, the properties of the
medium will be affected which in turn will affect the propagation of the light
beam.
8.3NON LINEAR PROPERTIES
Few of the nonlinear phenomena observed are
1. Second harmonic generation
2. Optical mixing
3. Optical phase conjugation
4. Soliton
8.4SECOND HARMONIC GENERATION
In a linear medium, polarization P is directly proportional to the electric field E

P ∝E
P = εoχE
Whereo ε- Permittivity of free space
χ - electrical susceptibility
In nonlinear medium for higher fields ie., higher intensities of light the non
linear effects are observed.
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In the above equation, 1st term gives rise to dc field across the medium, the
second term gives external polarization and is called first or fundamental
harmonic polarisability.
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The third term which oscillates at a frequency 2w is called second

harmonic of polarization and other terms are referred as higher harmonic
polarization.
Both first term (dc field) and third term (second harmonic of polarization)
added together is called optical rectification.
The second harmonic generation is possible only the crystals lacking

inversion symmetry. SHG crystals are quartz, potassium dihydrogen phosphate
(KDP), Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP), Barium titante (BaTiO3) and
Lithium lodate (LiIO3)
The observation of second harmonic generation by KDP is shown in figure.
Fig. Arrangement for observing second harmonic generation
When the fundamental radiation (1.064 m) from Nd: YAG laser is sent
through SHG crystal like KDP, conversion takes place to double the frequency.
i.e., half the wavelength (0.532 m) takes place.
8.5 BIOMATERIALS WITH THEIR PROPERTIES AND

APPLICATIONS.
The materials which are used for structural applications in the field of
medicine are known as Biomaterials.
In the recent years, new biomaterials like nanobiomaterials are emerging

up due to the requirements in the medical field for different applications.
8.6 CLASSIFICATION OF BIOMATERIALS
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Based on the applications in the field of medicine, biomaterials are

classified as
1. Metals and alloys biomaterials
2. Ceramics biomaterials.
3. Polymer biomaterials.
4. Composite biomaterials
Sometimes, a single material mentioned above cannot fulfill the complete

requirements imposed for specific applications. In such case, combinations of
more than one material are required.
Metals and Alloys
Metals and alloys are used as biomaterials due to their excellent electrical
and thermal conductivity and mechanical properties.
TYPES OF BIOMATERIALS USING METALS AND ALLOYS
1. Cobalt based alloys

2. Titanium
3. Stainless steel
4. Protosal from cast alloy
5. Conducting metals such as Platinum
8.7APPLICATIONS
The metals and alloys biomaterials are used in implant and orthopedic
applications.
1. Stainless steel is the predominant implant alloy. This is mainly due

to its ease of fabrication and desirable mechanical properties and
corrosion resistant.
2. Proposal from cast alloy of Co –Cr –Mo is used to make stem and used
for implant hip endoprosthesis.
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3. The advanced version of protosal –10 from Co –Ni –Cr –Mo alloy is
widely used in Hipjoints, Ankle joints, Knee joints, leg lengthening
spaceas.
4. ASTMF –136 (composition of Ti –6A1 –4V, EL1 alloy, forged) due to

its high strength / weight ratio, high corrosion resistance and high bio
compatibility, this alloy is used in dental applications for making
screws, wires and artificial teeth.
5. Ni –Ti shape memory alloy is used in dental arch wires, micro surgical
instruments, blood clot filters, guide wires etc.
8.8CERAMICS
Ceramics are used as biomaterials due to their high mechanical strength

and biocompatibility.
Types of Bio-Ceramic materials.
1. Tricalcium phosphate
2. Metal oxides such as Al2O3 and SiO2
3. Apatite ceramics
4. Porous ceramics
5. Carbons and Alumina
Applications
1. Ceramic implants such as Al2O3 and with some SiO2 and alkali metals
are used to make femoral head. This is made from powder metallurgical
process.
2. Tricalcium phosphate is used in bone repairs.
3. Orthopedic uses of alumina consists of hip and knee joints, tibical plate,
femur shaft, shoulders, radius, vectebra, leg lengthening spaces and
ankle joint prosthesis. Porous alumina is also used in teeth roots.
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4. Apatite ceramics are new bio active ceramics. They are regarded as
synthetic bone, readily allows bone ingrowth, better than currently used
alumina Al2O3.
5. Carbon has good biocompatibility with bone and other tissues. It has
high strengths and an elastic molecules close to that of bone.
6. Carbon coatings find wide applications in heart valves, blood vessel

grafts, percutaneous devices because of exceptional compatibility with
soft tissues and blood.
7. Percutaneous carbon devices containing high density electrical

connectors have been used for the chronic stimulation of the cochlea for
artificial hearing and stimulation of the visual cortex to aid the blind.
Bio Polymers
Biopolymers are macromolecules (protein, nucleic acids and

polysachacides) formed in
nature during the growth cycles of all organisms.
Biopolymers find variety of applications as biomaterials. The most

prominent among them are collagens, muco-polysaccharides –chitin, collagens
and its derivatives.
Collagnes which are major animal structural proteins are widely used in a
variety of forms such as solution, gel, fibers, membranes, sponge and tubing for
large number of biomedical applications including drug delivery system, vessels,
valves corneal prosthesis, wound dressing, cartilage substitute and dental
applications.
Biomaterials in Opthamology
Biomaterials find important applications in opthalmology. They are used to

improve and maintain vision. Eye implants are used to restore functionality of
cornea, lens, etc, when they are damaged or diseased.
The biomaterials include viscoelastic solutions intraocular lenses, contact
lenses, eye shields, artificial tears, vitreous replacements, correction of corneal
curvature.
Dental Materials
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Polymers, composites, ceramic materials and metal alloys are four main
groups of materials used for dental applications.
A large number of materials are tested for porous dental implants, which include
stainless steel,Co –Cr –Mo alloy, PMMA, proplast and Daceon, velour coated
metallic implants, porous calcium aluminate single crystal alumina, bioglass,
vitreous and pyrolytic carbons.
The dental applications include impression materials, dentine base and ceorons,
bridges, inlays and repair or cavities, artificial teeth, repair of alveolar bone,
support for mandible .
Modern Engineering Materials

1 Introduction
2 Metallic Glasses
2.1 Glass transition temperature
2.2 Methods of production of Metallic Glasses
2.3 Types of Metallic Glasses
2.4 Properties of Metallic glasses
2.5 Applications of Metallic glasses
3 Shape Memory Alloys
3.1 Definition
3.2 Working Principle of SMA
3.4 Properties of Ni – Ti alloy
3.5 Advantages of SMA’s
3.6 Disadvantages of SMA’s
3.7 Applications of SMA’s
4 Nano Materials
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Definitions
4.3 Synthesis of Nanomaterials
4.4 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
5 Properties of Nanoparticles
6 Applications of Nanoparticles
7 Non linear materials (NLO materials)
7.1 Higher Harmonic Generation
7.2 Experimental Proof
7.3 Optical mixing
8 Biomaterials
8.1 Biomaterials Classifications
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8.2 Conventional implant devices

8.3 Biomaterials Properties
8.4 Modern Engineering MaterialsBiomaterials Applications
1 INTRODUCTION
There have been a number of science fields which have helps to producing
new engineering materials. Some of the fields are the nano engineering and the
forensic engineering. Hundreds and hundreds of scientists and inventors are
working and experimenting continuously to make this world a better place to live.
These new inventions have gradually changed the course of living of people,
these New engineering materials are not a result of single engineering technology
but these are obtained or produced from a blend of different technologies.
Some of the Modern Engineering Materials like Metallic glasses, Shape

memory alloys, Nano materials are discussed here.
2 METALLIC GLASSES
Metallic glasses are the amorphous metallic solids which have high strength,
good metallic properties and between corrosion resistance and will possess both
the properties of metals and glasses.
Example: Alloys of Fe, Ni, Al, Mn, Cu.
2.1 Glass transition temperature
It is an important parameter for the preparation of metallic glasses. It is

defined as a temperature at which the liquid like atomic structure is
obtained into a solid.
The value of glass transition temperature for metallic alloys is about 20OC to
30OC.
2.2 Methods of production of Metallic Glasses
Metallic glasses are manufactured by the following methods. They are,
Twin roller technique
Melt extraction technique
Melt spinning technique
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Twin roller system
In this technique, the molten alloy is passed through two rollers rotating in
opposite directions.
2. Melt extraction technique
In this technique, the fast moving roller sweeps off molten droplet into a
strip from a solid rod.
3. Melt spinning technique
Principle
Quenching is a technique used to from metallic glasses. Quenching means

Rapid Cooling. Due to rapid cooling, atoms are arranged irregularly and from
metallic glasses.
Construction
It consists of a refractory tube with fine nozzle at the bottom. The refractory tube
is placed over the rotating roller. The roller is rotated at a higher speed to generate
a velocity of more than 50 ms 1 . An induction heater is wounded over the
refractory tube to heat the alloy to very high temperature.
Fig. 5.1 Melt spinning technique

Working
The alloy is put into the refractory tube and induction heater is switched on.
This heats the alloy to very high temperature, hence the super heated molten alloy
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ejected through the nozzle on the rotating roller and is suddenly made to cool.
The ejection rate may be increased by increasing the inert helium gas pressure
inside the refractory tube. Thus due to rapid quenching a glassy alloy ribbon
called metallic glass is formed over the rotating roller.
2.3 Types of Metallic Glasses
The metallic glasses are classified into two types.
Metal – Metalloid Glasses
Example: Fe, Co, Ni – Ge, Si, B, C.
Metal – Metal Glasses Example: Ni, Mg, Cu – Zn, Zr.
Metal – Metalloid Glasses
The first class of metallic glasses is from transition metals (Fe, Co, Ni)
Metalloid (B, Si, C & P) so they are called metal – metalloid glasses.
2. Metal – Metalloid Glasses
Nickel – Niobium (Ni – Nb)
Magnesium – Zinc (Mg – Zn)
Copper – Zirconium (Cu – Zr)
Hafnium – Vanadium (Hf – V) alloys
2.4 Properties of Metallic glasses
Metallic glasses have very high strength and are stronger than metals
because the absence of grain boundaries and dislocations.
The structure of metallic glass is Tetrahedral Close Packing (TCP).
These are having very high corrosion resistance.
They have high workability and ductility.
The electrical resistivity is found to be high (greater than 100)/ due to this
eddy current loss is very small.
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Metallic glasses have both soft and hard magnetic properties.
These are highly reactive and stable.
It can also act as a catalyst.
Structural Properties
They do not have any crystal defects such as grain boundaries and
dislocations.
They have tetrahedral packed structure. These materials do not passes

long range anisotropy
Mechanical Properties
Metallic glasses are stronger than metals and alloyes because they are free
from defects and dislocations.
They have high corrosion resistance due to random ordering.
They have high elasticity and ductility.
Electrical Properties
Electrical resistivity of metallic glasses is high and it does not vary with
temperature.
Eddy current loss is very small due to high resistivity.
The Hall co-efficient of metallic glasses is found to have both positive

and negtive signs.
Magnetic Properties
It obeys both soft and hard magnetic properties.
The core losses of metallic glasses are very small.
Chemical Properties
They have high corrosion reistance.
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They have catalytic properties.
They are highly reactive and stable.
2.5 Applications of Metallic glasses
Metallic glasses are used as reinforcing elements in concrete, plastic and

rubber.
Metallic glasses are used to make pressure vessels and to construct larger
fly wheels for energy storage.
They are used to make accurate standard resistors, Magnetic resistance

sensors and computer memories.
These are used in tape recorder heads, cores of high power transformers
and magnetic shields.
Metallic glasses are used as core in motors.
These are used to make razor blades and different kinds of springs.
Metallic glasses can be used as superconductor for producing high

magnetic fields and magnetic levitation effect.
Metallic glasses are used to make containers for nuclear waste disposal
and magnets for fusion reactors.
Metallic glasses are used in marine cables, chemical filters, inner surfaces
of reactor vessels, etc.,
10.Metallic glasses are very useful to make surgical instruments.
11.Superconducting mettalic glasses are used to produce high magnetic

fields and magnetic levitation effect.
Appendix
The reasons for choosing metallic glasses are transformer core
Metallic glasses are available in thin sheets therefore the size and weight of
the transformer is reduced. Hysteresis loss is directly proportional to the area of
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the hysteresis loop. The loop area of the metallic glasses is very small and also
has high initial permeability. So, the hysteresis loss is almost zero… The eddy
current in the core is inversely proportional to the resistivity of the core material
and directly proportional to the thickness of the lamination of the core.
Since the resistivity of the metallic glasses is high and the thickness of the core
laminated core material due to small thickness, smaller area, less weight, high
resistivity, soft magnet with low hysteresis and eddy current losses.
3 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

Share memory alloys (SMA’s) are metals, which exhibit two very unique
properties, pseudo-elasticity and the shape memory effect. Arne Olander first
observed these unusual properties in 1938 (Oksuta and Wayman 1998), but not
until the 1960’s were any serious research advances made in the field of shape
memory alloys. The most effective and widely used alloys include NiTi (Nickel
– Titanium), CuZnA1 and CuA1Ni.
3.1 Definition
The ability of the metallic alloys to retain to their original shape when heating
or cooling is called as Shape Memory Alloys (SMA).
These metallic alloys exhibit plastic nature when they are cooled to very low
temperature and they return to their original nature when they are heated. This
effect is known as Shape Memory Effect.
It is also called as smart materials or intelligent materials or Active materials.

There are two types of shape memory alloys,
One way shape memory – It returns to its memory only when heating
Two way shape memory – It returns to its memory on both heating and
Cooling.
Classification
Piezo electric SMA materials.
Electrostrictive SMA materials.
Magnetostrictive SMA materials.
Thermo elastic SMA materials.
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Examples : Ni-Ti (Nickel – Titanium), Cu Zn A1, Cu A1 Ni, Au – Cd, Ni-Mn-

Ga and Fe based alloys.
3.2 Working Principle of SMA
The shape memory effect occurs in alloys due to change in the crystalline
structure of the materials with the change in temperature and stress.
The shape memory effect occurs between two temperature states known as
Martensite and Austenite. The Martensite structure is a low temperature phase
and is relatively soft, It has platelet structure the Austenite is a high temperature
phase and is hard it has needle like structure.
Martensite is the relatively soft and easily deformed phase of shape memory
alloys which exists at lower temperatures. It has two molecular structures namely,
twinned Martensite and deformed Martensite. Austenite is the stronger phase of
shape memory alloys which occurs at higher temperatures, the shape of the
Austenite structure is cubic.
When we apply a constant load on a shape memory alloy and cool it, its
shape changes due to produced strain. During the deformation, the resistivity,
thermal conductivity, Young’s modulus and yield strength are decreased by more
than 40%.
Twinned Martensite state alloy becomes deformed Martensite when it is loaded.

The deformed Martensite becomes Austenite when it is heated, the Austenite
transformed to original twinned Martensite state when it is cooled.
Fig.5.2 Material crystalline arrangement during shape memory effect
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1. Hysteresis
Hysteresis of a SMA is defined as the difference between the temperatures

at which the material is 50% transformed to austenite when heating and 50%
transformed to martensite when cooling.
When the temperature is decreased in a metallic material, the phase

transformation takes place from austenite to martensite. This transformation takes
place not only at a single temperature, but over a range of temperatures.
The hysteresis curve for a shape memory alloy is shown below.
Fig.5.3 Hysteresis curve for SMA’s
2. Pseudo elasticity
When a metallic material is cooled from a temperature T to a lower

temperature TC it deforms and changes its shape. On reheating the material to
Temperature (T) the shape change is received so that the material returns to its
original state. This effect is known as pseudo elasticity or thermo elastic property.
3. Super elasticity
Super elasticity is a property of SMA. When a material is deformed at a

temperature slightly greater than its transformation temperature super elasticity
property appears (Rubber like property).
3.4 Properties of Ni – Ti alloy
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Ni – Ti is a compound of Nickel and Titanium and it finds many applications

in the field of engineering due to the following properties.
It has greater shape memory strain.
It has more thermal stability and excellent corrosion resistance.
It has higher ductility and more stable transformation temperatures.
It has better bio-compatibility and it can be electrically heated.
3.5 Advantages of SMA’s
They ahve good bio-Compatibility.
They have simplicity, Compactness and high safety mechanism.
They have good mechanical properties and strong corrosion-resistance.
They have high power and weigh ratio.
3.6 Disadvantages of SMA’s
They have poor fatigue properties.
They are expensive and difficult to preparing in a machine.
They have low energy efficiency.
They have limited band with due to heating (or) cooling.
3.7 Applications of SMA’s
Eye glass frames : We know that the recently manufactured eye glass
frames can be bent back and forth and can retain its original shape within
fraction of time.
Toys : We might have seen toys such as butterflies, snakes etc., which
are movable and flexible.
Helicopter blades: The life time of helicopter blades depends on

vibrations and their return to its original shape. Hence shape memory
alloys are used in helicopter blades.
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Coffee Valves : Used to release the hot milk and the ingredients at a
certain temperature
Medical Applications of SMA’s
It is used as Micro – Surgical instruments.
It is used as dental arch wires.
It is used as flow control devices.
It is used as ortho – dentil implants.
It is used for repairing of bones.
They are used to correct the irregularities in teeth.
Engineering Applications of SMA’s
It is used as a thermostat valve in cooling system.
It is used as a sealing plug for high pressure.
It is used as a fire safety valve.
It is used for cryofit hydraulic pipe couplings.
It is used for eye glass frame, toys, liquid safety valve.
It is used to make microsurgical instruments, orthopedic implants.
It is used as blood clot filter and for fracture pulling.
It is used to make antenna wires in cell phones.
It can be used as circuit edge connector.
4 NANO MATERIALS
4.1 Introduction
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Nanomaterials (nanocrystalline materials) are materials possessing grain sizes of

the order of a billionth of a meter. They manifest extremely fascinating and useful
properties, which can be exploited for a variety of structural and non structural
applications.
All materials are composed of grains, which in turn comprise many atoms.
These grains are usually invisible to the naked eye, depending on their size.
Conventional materials have grains varying in size anywhere from 100’s of
microns ( m ) to millimeters (mm). A micron ( m ) is a micrometer or a millionth
(10–6) of a meter. An average human hair is about 100 m in diameter. A nanometer
(nm) is even smaller a dimension than a m and is a billionth (10–9) of a meter. A
nanocrystalline material has grains on the order of 1-100 nm. The average size of
an atom is on the order of 1 to angstroms ( Ao ) in radius.
nanometer comprises 10 Ao , and hence in one nm, there may be 3-5 atoms,
depending on the atomic radii. Nanocrystalline materials are exceptionally strong,
hard, and ductile at high temperatures, wear-resistant, corrosion-resistant, and
chemically very active. Nanocrystalline materials, or Nanomaterials, are also
much more formable than their conventional, commercially available
counterparts.
4.2 Definitions
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is a field of applied science and technology which deals with

the matter on the atomic and molecular scale, normally 1 to 100 nanometers,
and the fabrication of devices with critical dimensions that lie within that size
range.
Nanomaterials
Nano materials are the materials with grain sizes of the order of nano meter (10 9 m)
i.e., (1-100 nm). It may be a metal, alloy, inter metallic (or) ceramic.
Nanomaterials are the materials with atoms arranged in nano sized clusters
which become the building block of the material. Any Material with a size
between 1 and 100 nm [ 10 9 m to 10 7 m] is also called
Nanomaterials.
4.3 Synthesis of Nanomaterials
The Nano mateirals can be synthesized by two processes, they are
Top – down approach
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Bottom – up approach
1. Top – down approach
The removal or division of bulk material or the miniaturization of bulk fabrication

processes to produce the desired nanostructure is known as top-down approach.
It is the process of breaking down bulk material to Nano size.
Fig.5.4 Synthesis of Nanomaterials for Top – down approach
Types of Top – down Methods
Milling
Lithographic
Machining
Bottom – up approach
Molecules and even nano particles can be used as the building block for
producing complex nanostructures. This is known as Bottom – up approach. The
Nano particles are made by building atom by atom.
Fig.5.5 Synthesis of Nanomaterials for Bottom – up approach
Types of Bottom up Methods
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Vapour phase deposition Method
Molecular beam epitaxy Method
Plasma assisted deposition Method
Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy [MOVPE]
Liquid phase process [Colloidal method and Sol – Gel method]
4.4 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
It is method in which the reaction or thermal decomposition of gas phase

species at higher temperatures [500 – 1000OC] and then deposition on a substrate
takes place, in CVD method carbon nanotubes are grown from the decomposition
of hydrocarbons at temperature range of 500 to 1200OC. In this process, the
substrate is placed inside a reactor to which a number of gases are supplied. The
fundamental principle of the process is that a chemical reaction takes place
between the source gases. The produce of that reaction is a solid material with
condenses on all surfaces inside the reactor.
Fig.5.6 CVD method
Example of CVD technique
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An aerosol spray pyrolysis (Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of

organic materials by heating in the absence of oxygen or any other reagents) is
the example of CVD technique, in which high aqueous metal salts are sprayed in
the form of fine mist and then passed into a hot flow tube. In the hot flow tube
pyrolysis converts the salts into the final products on the substrate, in this method
the materials are mixed in a solution, homogeneous mixing is obtained to the
atomic level. They pyrolysis at low temperature gives the particles in the size
range 5 – 500 nm, in this CVD method catalysts are used for better chemical
reactions, when the catalyst is in nanosize, dispersion of particles is happened due
to templating effect. In the Production of carbon nanotubes using the
decomposition of ethane with hydrogen, Fe, Co or Ni based catalysts are used.
The size and distribution of the catalyst particles determine the internal diameter
of the nanotubes.
5 PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES
A Bulk materials is reduced to a nano size, the following changes are
occurred
Large fraction of surface atoms
High surface energy
Spatial confinement
Reduced imperfections
The surface area effects, quantum effects can begin to dominate the
properties of matter as size is reduced to the nano scale. These can affect the
optical, electrical and magnetic behavior of materials.
Due to their small dimensions, nano materials have extremely large surface
area to volume ratio, which makes a large fraction of atoms of the materials to be
the surface or interfacial atoms, resulting in more “surface” dependent material
properties.
When the size of their structural components decreases, there is much

greater interface area within the material this can greatly affect both mechanical
and electrical properties, ie., the interface area within the material greatly
increases, which increases its strength. Reduced imperfections are also an
important factor in determination of the properties of the nano materials
1. Electrical Properties of Nanomaterials
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Nanomaterials can store more electrical energy than the bulk material,
because of their large grain boundary (surface) area.
The energy band structure and charge carried density in the nano materials
can be modified quite differently form their bulk size in turn will modify the
electronic properties of the materials.
In nano size an optical absorption band can be introduced, or an existing

band can be altered by the passage of current or by the application of an electric
field.
2. Optical Properties of Nanomaterials
The quantum confinement of electrical carriers within nanoparticles makes

efficient energy and charge transfer over nanoscale distances in nano devices.
The linear and nonlinear optical properties of nanomaterials can be finely

modified by controlling the crystal dimensions
The color of nanomaterials is changed when the surface plasmon size is reduced.
A surface plasmon is a natural oscillation of the electron gas inside a given nano
sphere.
3. Chemical Properties of Nanomaterials
The increased surface area of nano particle increases the chemical activity
of the material. Metallic nanoparticles can be used as very active catalysts.
Chemical sensors from nanoparticles and nano wires enhanced the sensitivity and
sensor selectivity
4. Mechanical Properties of Nanomaterials
The mechanical properties such as hardness and elastic modulus, fracture

toughness, scratch resistance, fatigue strength, tensile strength, strain-to-failure,
Young’s modulus, impact strength and increased at the nanometer scale
Energy dissipation, mechanical coupling and mechanical nonlinearities are

also influenced at the nanometer scale.
The strength of the material at nanosize approaching the theoretical limit due
to the absence of internal Structural imperfections such as dislocations, micro
twins, and impurities.
5. Magnetic Properties of Nanomaterials
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The strength of a magnet is measured in terms of coercivity and saturation

magnetization values. These values increase with a decrease in the grain size and
an increase in the specific surface area (surface area per unit volume) of the
grains.
6. Thermal Properties of Nanomaterials
Photon transport within the materials will be changed significantly due the
photon confinement and quantization of photon transport, resulting in modified
thermal properties. For example, nano wires from silicon have a much smaller
thermal conductivities compared to bulk silicon.
The nanomaterials structures with high interfaces densities would reduce the
thermal conductivity of the materials. There are several effects being considered
for the reduction of thermal conductivities: interfacial roughness, phonon band
gaps, dispersion mismatch, doping, structural defects, processing conditions, etc.
6 APPLICATIONS OF NANOPARTICLES
Though nano – particles are very small, they are the important materials to
built future world. They have applications almost in all engineering fields as
follows Mechanical Engineering
Since they are stronger, lighter etc., they are used to make hard metals.
Smart magnetic fluids are used in vacuum seals, magnetic separators etc.
They are also used in Giant Magneto Resistant (GMR) spin valves.
Nano- MEMS (Micro-Electro Mechanical Systems) are used in ICs,

optical switches, pressure sensors, mass sensors etc.
Electrical, Electronics and Communication Engineering
Orderly assembled nanomaterials are used as quantum electronic devices

and photonic crystals.
Some of the nanomaterials are used as sensing elements. Especially the
molecular nanomaterials are used to design the robots, assemblers etc.
They are used in energy storage devices such as hydrogen storage devices,
magnetic refrigeration and in ionic batteries.
Dispersed nanomaterials are used in magnetic recording devices, rocket
propellant, solar cells, fuel cells, etc.
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Recently nano-robots were designed, which are used to remove the

damaged cancer cells and also to modify the neutron network in human
body.
Computer Science Engineering and IT
Nano-materials are used to make CD’s and semiconductor laser.
These materials are used to store the information in smaller chips.
They are used in mobiles, lap – tops etc
Further they are used in chemical / Optical computers.
Nano – dimensional photonic crystals and quantum electronic devices

plays a vital role in the recently developed computers.
Bio–Medical and Chemical Engineering
Consolidated state nanoparticles are used as catalyst, electrodes in solar

and fuel cells.
Bio-sensitive nanoparticles are used in the production of DNA –chips,
bio-sensors etc.
Nano-structed ceramic materials are used in synthetic bones.
Few nanomaterials are also used in adsorbents, self –cleaning glass, fuel
additives, drugs, ferrofluids, paints etc.
Nano –metallic colloids are used as film precursors.
7 NON LINEAR MATERIALS (NLO MATERIALS)

The change in optical properties due to electrical and magnetic field
associated with light is called non linear effects and those materials which possess
these effects are those materials possess these effects are called non-linear
materials.
Example:
Lithium tantalate
Lithium iodate (LiO3)
Barium Sodum niobate
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Ammonium-dihydrophosphate (ADO)
Potassium-dyhydrophosphate (KDP)
7.1 Higher Harmonic Generation
Higher (second) Harmonic generation represents the generation of new

frequencies with the help of the crystals such as quartz, LiO3, etc.
Explanation
In a linear medium, Polarization (P) is proportional to the electric field E

that induces it
When light of higher intensity is passed through dielectric medium, the electric
field has larges amplitude and the oscillation of dipoles are distorted. Therefore,
some nonlinearity is observed beteen P and E and hence the higher fields are
written as
with increase of higher order terms come into play. Let us assume that the field
is strong enough to give rise to χ2.
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This non linear polarization shows that it contains the second harmonic of (III
term) as well as an average term (I term) called optical rectification. It can be
shown that only in the crystals lacking inversion symmetry, second harmonic
generation (SHG) is possible.
7.2 Experimental Proof
When the fundamental radiation from a laser is sent through SHG crystal, due to
SHG, conversion to double the frequency ie. half the wave length takes place. For
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example 1.064 m radiation from Nd-YAG laser gets converted to 0.532 m on

passing through crystals like KDP, ADP, etc.
Fig. 5.7 Experiment arrangement for SHG
If the incident radiation from the laser is intense enough such that the polarization
needs to be represented by three terms.
The last term in the above equation represents third harmonic generation at
frequency 3ω . Likewise one can account for higher harmonic generation.
7.3 Optical mixing
We are familiar with ariving at a new colour by mixing of two colours in

paints using non linear phenomena, called optical mixing, generation new
frequencies are possible. Suppose two coherent waves of unequal
frequencies 1 and 2 are traversing the material, then
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8 BIOMATERIALS
Biomaterials are used to make devices to replace a part or a function of the
body in safe, reliably economically, and physiologically acceptable manner. A
variety of devices and materials are used in the treatment of disease or injury.
Commonplace examples include suture needles, plates, teeth fillings, etc. (or)
A biomaterial is a synthetic material used to replace part of a living system or to

function in intimate contact with living tissue of a human body. Alone or as part
of a complex system, is used to direct, by control of interactions with components
of living systems, the course of any therapeutic or diagnostic procedure.
8.1 Biomaterials Classifications
When a synthetic material is placed within the human body, tissue reacts
towards the implant in a variety of ways depending on the material type. The
mechanism of tissue interaction depends on the tissue response to the implant
surface. In general, there are three terms in which a biomaterial may be described
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in or classified into representing the tissues responses. These are bioinert,

bioresorbable, and bioactive.
1. Bioinert Biomaterials
The term bioinert refers to any material that once placed in the human body
has minimal interaction with its surrounding tissue. Examples of these are
stainless steel, titanium, alumina, partially stabilised zirconia, and ultra high
molecular weight polyethylene. Generally a fibrous capsule might form around
bioinert implants hence its bio functionality relies on tissue integration through
the implant.
2. Bioactive Biomaterials
Bioactive refers to a material, which upon being placed within the human
body interacts with the surrounding bone and in some cases, even soft tissue. This
occurs through a time - dependent kinetic modification of the surface, triggered
by their implantation within the living bone. An ion - exchange reaction between
the bioactive implant and surrounding body fluids - results in the formation of a
biologically active carbonate apatite (CHAp) layer on the implant that is
chemically and crystallographically equivalent to the mineral phase in bone.
Prime examples of these materials are synthetic hydroxyapatite
[Ca10 (PO4)6(OH)2], glass ceramic A-W and bioglass.
3. Bioresorbable Biomaterials
Bioresorbable refers to a material that upon placement within the human

body starts to dissolve (resorbed) and slowly replaced by advancing tissue (such
as bone). Common examples of bioresorbable materials are tricalcium phosphate
[Ca3 (PO4)2] and polylactic-polyglycolic acid copolymers. Calcium oxide,
calcium carbonate and gypsum are other common materials that have been
utilised during the last three decades.
8.2 Conventional implant devices
1. Ceramics
Inorganic compounds that contain metallic and non-metallic elements, for

which inter-atomic bonding is ionic or covalent, and which are generally formed
at high temperatures.
Example: aluminum oxide, zirconia, calcium phosphates.

Uses of Ceramics
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Structural components
Joint replacements, hip and knee
Spinal fusion devices
Dental crowns, bridges, implants, ect
Other applications
Inner ear and cochlear implants
Tissue engineering
Coatings for heart valves
Metals
Materials containing only metallic atoms either as single elements or in

combination in a closely packed crystal structure.
Example: stainless steel, cobalt alloys, titanium alloys.
Uses of Metals
Structural components
Joint replacements
Bone fracture pins, plates
Dental implants
Other applications
Leads, wires, tubing
Cardiac devices
Polymers
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From Greek - 'poly' meaning many and 'mer' meaning unit or part Low
density structures of non-metallic elements Often in the form of macromolecules
- chains, branched chains or cross linked networks Poor thermal and electrical
conductors due to the affinity of the elements to attract or share valence electrons
Example: Silicones, poly (ethylene), poly (vinyl chloride),

polyurethanes, polylactides
Uses of Polymers
Many applications
Valves, ducts, catheters
Joint replacement
Coatings, encapsulates
Tissue engineering scaffolds
8.3 Biomaterials Properties
Mechanical properties of the various tissues in the human body are well
established, and it is important that the in-vivo environment of an implant
be considered during implant design. Mechanical performance of an
implanted device is influenced by the inherent properties of the chosen
biomaterial grades and by the processing method used to convert them
into their finished forms.
Degradation properties of chosen biomaterials can play a pivotal role in

determining tissue healing dynamics and thus clinical outcome.
Timescales involved in the tissue regeneration process are increasingly
well understood. Through transferring functional requirement back to the
native tissue during its regeneration, clinically superior results may be
achieved. Furthermore, resorption of the implant can reduce both
lifetime procedural cost and incidence of post-operative complications.
Surface properties of a biomaterial, determined by both its chemical

composition and conversion processes, affect the local tissue response at
the biomaterial-tissue interface on a cellular level. Consideration is
therefore given to the desired cellular response to a biomaterial surface,
during medical implant design.
8.4 Biomaterials Applications
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Drug delivery
Cancer detection, therapy and prevention.
Biomaterial-cell interactions in applications such as tissue engineering,

advanced stem-cell culture, biosensors, and targeted drug delivery via
the blood.
Advanced drug delivery, ranging from polymeric aerosols that carry life-
saving drugs to cationic polymer/DNA self-assembled nanocomplexes
that deliver DNA to specific tissues for in vivo gene therapy.
Genetically-engineered polymers for tissue engineering and drug

delivery applications.
Cellular biopolymers and their role in cell migration and cancer

metastasis.
Other important applications
Heart- pacemaker, artificial valve, artificial heart
Eye -contact lens, intraocular lens
Ear -artificial stapes, cochlea implant
Bone -bone plate, intramedullary rod, joint prosthesis, bone cement, bone
defect repair
Kidney- dialysis machine
Bladder- catheter and stent
Muscle sutures- muscle stimulator
Circulation- artificial blood vessels
Skin burn- dressings, artificial skin
Endocrine -encapsulated pancreatic islet cells.
www.BrainKart.com

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UNIT V NANOELECTRONIC DEVICES

2.1METHODS OF PREPARATION Principle

The principle used in making metallic glasses is extreme rapid cooling of

2.1PREPARATION OF METALLIC GLASSES

Melt spinning system

The metal alloy is melted by induction heating under inert gas

2.3 TYPES OF METALLIC GLASSES.

Metallic glasses are classified into two types:

(i)Metal –Metal metallic glasses

(ii) Metal –Metalloid metallic glasses

These are combinations of metals and metalloids.

Examples: Metals Metalloids

Fe, Co, Ni - B, Si, C, P

2.4 PROPERTIES OF METALLIC GLASSES

1. They do not have any crystal defects such as grain boundaries,

2. Metallic glasses have tetrahedral close packing (TCP).

1. Metallic glasses have extremely high strength, due to the absence of

2. They have high elasticity.

3. They are highly ductile.

1. Electrical resistivity of metallic glasses is high and it does not vary

2. Due to high resistivity, the eddy current loss is very small.

3. The temperature coefficient is zero or negative.

1. Metallic glasses have both soft and hard magnetic properties.

2. They are magnetically soft due to their maximum permeabilities and

3. They exhibit high saturation magnetisation.

4. They have less core losses.

5. Most magnetically soft metallic glasses have very narrow hysteresis

Fig. Hysteresis loop of iron based alloy in crystalline and metallic

1. They are highly resistant to corrosion due to random ordering.

2. They are highly reactive and stable.

2.5APPLICATIONS OF METALLIC GLASSES

Electrical and Electronics

3. Superconducting metallic glasses are used to produce high magnetic

Metallic glasses as transformer core material

Nuclear reactor engineering

1. Due to their high resistance to corrosion, metallic glasses are ideal

2. They are used as prosthetic materials for implantation in human body.

2 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

Phase of shape memory alloys

Fig. Phases of SMA

3.2TYPES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

There are two types of shape memory alloys

(i) One-way shape memory alloy

(ii) Two-way shape memory alloy

A material which exhibits shape memory effect only upon heating is

Examples of shape memory alloys

Cu –Al –Ni alloy

Cu –Zn –Al alloy

Ni –Mn –Ga and Fe based alloys

1. Shape memory effect

While loading, twinned martensite becomes deformed martensite at low

On heating, deformed martensite becomes austenite (shape recovery) and upon

4. Stress and temperature have a great influence on martensite transformation.

Pseudo –elasticity occurs in shape memory alloys when it is completely in

Unlike the shape memory effect, Pseudo-elasticity occurs due to stress

As soon as the loading decreases the martensite begins to transform to austenite.

This phenomenon of deformation of a SMA on application of large stress and

This pseudo elasticity is also known as super elasticity

The temperature range for the martensite to austenite transformation which

The difference between the transition temperature upon heating and

The difiference of temperature is found to be 20-30oC,

3.4 COMMERCIAL SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS