EU Pioneers

The following visionary leaders inspired the creation of the European Union we live in today.
Without their energy and motivation, we would not be living in the sphere of peace and
stability that we take for granted.
From resistance fighters to lawyers and parliamentarians, the EU pioneers were a diverse
group of people who held the same ideals: a peaceful, united and prosperous Europe.
Beyond the pioneers described below, many others have worked tirelessly towards and
inspired the European project. This section on the EU’s pioneers is therefore a work in
progress.
1945 - 1959
A peaceful Europe – the beginnings of cooperation
The European Union is set up with the aim of ending the frequent and bloody wars between
neighbors, which culminated in the Second World War. As of 1950, the European Coal and
Steel Community begins to unite European countries economically and politically in order to
secure lasting peace. The six founding countries are Belgium, France, Germany, Italy,
Luxembourg and the Netherlands. The 1950s are dominated by a cold war between east
and west. Protests in Hungary against the Communist regime are put down by Soviet tanks
in 1956. In 1957, the Treaty of Rome creates the European Economic Community (EEC), or
‘Common Market’.
1960 - 1969
A period of economic growth
The 1960s is a good period for the economy, helped by the fact that EU countries stop
charging custom duties when they trade with each other. They also agree joint control over
food production, so that everybody now has enough to eat - and soon there is even surplus
agricultural produce. May 1968 becomes famous for student riots in Paris, and many
changes in society and behavior become associated with the so-called ‘68 generations’.
1970 - 1979
A growing Community – the first enlargement
Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom join the European Union on 1 January 1973,
raising the number of Member States to nine. The short, yet brutal, Arab-Israeli war of
October 1973 results in an energy crisis and economic problems in Europe. The last right-
wing dictatorships in Europe come to an end with the overthrow of the Salazar regime in
Portugal in 1974 and the death of General Franco of Spain in 1975. The EU regional policy
starts to transfer huge sums of money to create jobs and infrastructure in poorer areas. The
European Parliament increases its influence in EU affairs and in 1979 all citizens can, for the
first time, elect their members directly. The fight against pollution intensifies in the 1970s.
The EU adopts laws to protect the environment, introducing the notion of ‘the polluter pays’
for the first time.
1980 - 1989
The changing face of Europe - the fall of the Berlin Wall
The Polish trade union, Solidarność, and its leader Lech Walesa, become household names
across Europe and the world following the Gdansk shipyard strikes in the summer of 1980.
In 1981, Greece becomes the 10th member of the EU, and Spain and Portugal follow five
years later. In 1986 the Single European Act is signed. This is a treaty which provides the
basis for a vast six-year programme aimed at sorting out the problems with the free flow of
trade across EU borders and thus creates the ‘Single Market’. There is major political
upheaval when, on 9 November 1989, the Berlin Wall is pulled down and the border
between East and West Germany is opened for the first time in 28 years. This leads to the
reunification of Germany, when both East and West Germany are united in October 1990.
1990 - 1999
A Europe without frontiers
With the collapse of communism across central and eastern Europe, Europeans become
closer neighbors. In 1993 the Single Market is completed with the 'four freedoms' of:
movement of goods, services, people and money. The 1990s is also the decade of two
treaties: the ‘Maastricht’ Treaty on European Union in 1993 and the Treaty of Amsterdam in
1999. People are concerned about how to protect the environment and also how Europeans
can act together when it comes to security and defense matters. In 1995 the EU gains three
more new members: Austria, Finland and Sweden. A small village in Luxembourg gives its
name to the ‘Schengen’ agreements that gradually allow people to travel without having
their passports checked at the borders. Millions of young people study in other countries
with EU support. Communication is made easier as more and more people start using
mobile phones and the internet.
2000 – 2009
Further expansion
The euro is now the new currency for many Europeans. During the decade more and more
countries adopt the euro. 11 September 2001 becomes synonymous with the 'War on
Terror' after hijacked airliners are flown into buildings in New York and Washington. EU
countries begin to work much more closely together to fight crime. The political divisions
between east and west Europe are finally declared healed when no fewer than 10 new
countries join the EU in 2004, followed by Bulgaria and Romania in 2007. A financial crisis
hits the global economy in September 2008. The Treaty of Lisbon is ratified by all EU
countries before entering into force in 2009. It provides the EU with modern institutions and
more efficient working methods.
2010-Today
A challenging decade
The global economic crisis strikes hard in Europe. The EU helps several countries to confront
their difficulties and establishes the 'Banking Union' to ensure safer and more reliable
banks. In 2012, the European Union is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Croatia becomes the
28th member of the EU in 2013. Climate change is still high on the agenda and leaders agree
to reduce harmful emissions. European elections are held in 2014 and more Eurosceptics
 are elected into the European Parliament. A new security policy is established in the wake of
the annexation of Crimea by Russia. Religious extremism increases in the Middle East and
various countries and regions around the world, leading to unrest and wars which result in
many people fleeing their homes and seeking refuge in Europe. The EU is not only faced
with the dilemma of how to take care of them, but also finds itself the target of several
terrorist attacks.
EUROPEAN COUNCIL:

 Role: Defines the general political direction and priorities of the European Union
 Members: Heads of state or government of EU countries, European Council President,
European Commission President
 President: Charles Michel
 Established in: 1974 (informal forum), 1992 (formal status), 2009 (official EU
institution)
 Location: Brussels (Belgium)
 Website: European Council

The European Council brings together EU leaders to set the EU's political agenda. It
represents the highest level of political cooperation between EU countries.
One of the EU's 7 official institutions, the Council takes the form of (usually
quarterly) summit meetings between EU leaders, chaired by a permanent president.
What does the European Council do?

 Decides on the EU's overall direction and political priorities – but does not pass laws.

 Deals with complex or sensitive issues that cannot be resolved at lower levels of
intergovernmental cooperation
 Sets the EU's common foreign & security policy, taking into account EU strategic
interests and defence implications
 Nominates and appoints candidates to certain high profile EU level roles, such as the
ECB and the Commission
On each issue, the European Council can:

 ask the European Commission to make a proposal to address it.

 pass it on to the Council of the EU to deal with
Composition
The European Council is made up of the heads of state or government of all EU countries,
the European Council President, and the European Commission President.
 It is convened and chaired by its President, who is elected by the European Council itself for
a once-renewable two-and-a-half-year term. The President represents the EU to
the outside world.
How does the European Council work?
It usually meets 4 times a year – but the President can convene additional meetings to
address urgent issues.
It generally decides issues by consensus – but by unanimity or qualified majority in some
cases. Only the heads of state/government can vote.
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT:

 Role: Directly-elected EU body with legislative, supervisory, and budgetary

responsibilities
 Members: 705 MEPs (Members of the European Parliament)
 President: David-Maria Sassoli
 Established in: 1952 as Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel
Community, 1962 as European Parliament, first direct elections in 1979
 Location: Strasbourg (France), Brussels (Belgium), Luxembourg
 Website: European Parliament

The European Parliament is the EU's law-making body. It is directly elected by EU

voters every 5 years. The last elections were in May 2019.
Elections
The European elections took place between 23-26 May 2019.
More about the 2019 European elections results
What does the Parliament do?
The Parliament has 3 main roles:
Legislative

 Passing EU laws, together with the Council of the EU, based on European

Commission proposals
 Deciding on international agreements
 Deciding on enlargements
 Reviewing the Commission's work programme and asking it to propose legislation
Supervisory

 Democratic scrutiny of all EU institutions

 Electing the Commission President and approving the Commission as a body.
Possibility of voting a motion of censure, obliging the Commission to resign
 Granting discharge, i.e. approving the way EU budgets have been spent
 Examining citizens' petitions and setting up inquiries
 Discussing monetary policy with the European Central Bank
 Questioning Commission and Council
 Election observations
Budgetary

 Establishing the EU budget, together with the Council

 Approving the EU's long-term budget, the "Multiannual Financial Framework"
Composition
The number of MEPs for each country is roughly proportionate to its population, but this is
by degressive proportionality: no country can have fewer than 6 or more than 96 MEPs and
the total number cannot exceed 705 (704 plus the President). MEPs are grouped by political
affiliation, not by nationality.
The President represents Parliament to other EU institutions and the outside world and
gives the final go-ahead to the EU budget.
How does the Parliament work?
Parliament's work comprises two main stages:

 Committees - to prepare legislation.

The Parliament numbers 20 committees and two subcommittees, each handling a particular
policy area. The committees examine proposals for legislation, and MEPs and political
groups can put forward amendments or propose to reject a bill. These issues are also
debated within the political groups.
 Plenary sessions – to pass legislation.
This is when all the MEPs gather in the chamber to give a final vote on the proposed
legislation and the proposed amendments. Normally held in Strasbourg for four days a
month, but sometimes there are additional sessions in Brussels.
The Parliament and you
If you want to ask the Parliament to act on a certain issue, you can petition it (either by post
or online).
Petitions can cover any subject which comes under the EU's remit.
To submit a petition, you must be a citizen of an EU member state or be resident in the EU.
Companies or other organisations must be based here.
Other ways of getting in touch with Parliament include contacting your local MEP or
the European Parliament Information Office in your country.
 COUNCIL OF THE EU:

 Role: Voice of EU member governments, adopting EU laws and coordinating EU

policies
 Members: Government ministers from each EU country, according to the policy area
to be discussed
 President: Each EU country holds the presidency on a 6-month rotating basis
 Established in: 1958 (as Council of the European Economic Community)
 Location: Brussels (Belgium)
 Website: Council of the EU

In the Council, government ministers from each EU country meet to discuss, amend and

adopt laws, and coordinate policies. The ministers have the authority to commit their
governments to the actions agreed on in the meetings.
Together with the European Parliament, the Council is the main decision-making body of
the EU.
Not to be confused with:

 European Council - quarterly summits, where EU leaders meet to set the broad
direction of EU policy making
 Council of Europe - not an EU body at all.
What does the Council do?

 Negotiates and adopts EU laws, together with the European Parliament, based on

proposals from the European Commission
 Coordinates EU countries' policies
 Develops the EU's foreign & security policy, based on European Council guidelines
 Concludes agreements between the EU and other countries or international
organisations
 Adopts the annual EU budget - jointly with the European Parliament.
Composition
There are no fixed members of the EU Council. Instead, the Council meets in 10 different
configurations, each corresponding to the policy area being discussed. Depending on the
configuration, each country sends their minister responsible for that policy area.
For example, when the Council meeting on economic and financial affairs (the "Ecofin
Council") is held, it is attended by each country's finance minister.
 Who chairs the meetings?
The Foreign Affairs Council has a permanent chairperson - the EU High Representative for
Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. All other Council meetings are chaired by the relevant
minister of the country holding the rotating EU presidency.
For example, any Environment Council meeting in the period when Estonia holds the
presidency will be chaired by the Estonian environment minister.
Overall consistency is ensured by the General Affairs Council - which is supported by the
Permanent Representatives Committee. This is composed of EU countries' Permanent
Representatives to the EU, who are, in effect, national ambassadors to the EU.
Eurozone countries
Eurozone countries coordinate their economic policy through the Eurogroup, which consists
of their economy and finance ministers. It meets the day before Economic & Financial
Affairs Council meetings. Agreements reached in Eurogroup gatherings are formally decided
upon in the Council the next day, with only ministers of Eurozone countries voting on those
issues.
How does the Council work?

 All discussions & votes take place in public.

 To be passed, decisions usually require a qualified majority :
o 55% of countries (with 27 current members, this means 15 countries)
o representing at least 65 % of total EU population.
To block a decision, at least 4 countries are needed (representing at least 35% of total EU
population)

 Exception - sensitive topics like foreign policy and taxation require a unanimous
vote (all countries in favour).
 Simple majority is required for procedural & administrative issues

EUROPEAN COMMISSION:

 Role: Promotes the general interest of the EU by proposing and enforcing legislation
as well as by implementing policies and the EU budget
 Members: A team or 'College' of Commissioners, 1 from each EU country
 President: Ursula von der Leyen
 Year established: 1958
 Location: Brussels (Belgium)
 Website: European Commission
 The European Commission is the EU's politically independent executive arm. It is alone
responsible for drawing up proposals for new European legislation, and it implements the
decisions of the European Parliament and the Council of the EU.
What does the Commission do?
Proposes new laws
The Commission is the sole EU institution tabling laws for adoption by the Parliament and
the Council that:

 protect the interests of the EU and its citizens on issues that can't be dealt with
effectively at national level;
 get technical details right by consulting experts and the public.
Manages EU policies & allocates EU funding

 Sets EU spending priorities, together with the Council and Parliament.

 Draws up annual budgets for approval by the Parliament and Council.
 Supervises how the money is spent, under scrutiny by the Court of Auditors.
Enforces EU law

 Together with the Court of Justice, ensures that EU law is properly applied in all the
member countries.
Represents the EU internationally

 Speaks on behalf of all EU countries in international bodies, in particular in areas of

trade policy and humanitarian aid.
 Negotiates international agreements for the EU.
Composition
Political leadership is provided by a team of 27 Commissioners (one from each EU country)
– led by the Commission President, who decides who is responsible for which policy area.
The College of Commissioners is composed of the President of the Commission, eight Vice-
Presidents, including three Executive Vice-Presidents, the High Representative of the Union
for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, and 18 Commissioners, each responsible for a
portfolio.
The day-to-day running of Commission business is performed by its staff (lawyers,
economists, etc.), organised into departments known as Directorates-General (DGs), each
responsible for a specific policy area.
Appointing the President
The candidate is put forward by national leaders in the European Council, taking account of
the results of the European Parliament elections. He or she needs the support of a majority
of members of the European Parliament in order to be elected.
Selecting the team
The Presidential candidate selects potential Vice-Presidents and Commissioners based on
suggestions from the EU countries. The list of nominees has to be approved by national
leaders in the European Council.
Each nominee appears before the European Parliament to explain their vision and answer
questions. Parliament then votes on whether to accept the nominees as a team. Finally,
they are appointed by the European Council, by a qualified majority.
The current Commission's term of office runs until 31 October 2024.
How does the Commission work?
Strategic planning
The President defines the policy direction for the Commission, which enables the
Commissioners together to decide strategic objectives, and produce the annual work
programme.
Collective decision making
Decisions are taken based on collective responsibility. All Commissioners are equal in the
decision-making process and equally accountable for these decisions. They do not have any
individual decision-making powers, except when authorized in certain situations.
The Vice-Presidents act on behalf of the President and coordinate work in their area of
responsibility, together with several Commissioners. Priority projects are defined to help
ensure that the College works together in a close and flexible manner.
Commissioners support Vice-Presidents in submitting proposals to the College. In general,
decisions are made by consensus, but votes can also take place. In this case, decisions are
taken by simple majority, where every Commissioner has one vote.
The relevant Directorate-General (headed by a Director-General, answerable to the relevant
Commissioner) then takes up the subject. This is usually done in the form of draft legislative
proposals.
These are then resubmitted to the Commissioners for adoption at their weekly meeting,
after which they become official, and are sent to the Council and the Parliament for the next
stage in the EU legislative process.

 Role: Ensuring EU law is interpreted and applied the same in every EU country;
ensuring countries and EU institutions abide by EU law.
 Members:

o Court of Justice: 1 judge from each EU country, plus 11 advocates general

o General Court: 2 judges from each EU country
 Established in: 1952
 Location: Luxembourg
  Website: Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)

The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) interprets EU law to make sure it
is applied in the same way in all EU countries, and settles legal disputes between national
governments and EU institutions.
It can also, in certain circumstances, be used by individuals, companies or organisations to
take action against an EU institution, if they feel it has somehow infringed their rights.
What does the CJEU do?
The CJEU gives rulings on cases brought before it. The most common types of case are:

 interpreting the law (preliminary rulings) – national courts of EU countries are

required to ensure EU law is properly applied, but courts in different countries might
interpret it differently. If a national court is in doubt about the interpretation or validity of
an EU law, it can ask the Court for clarification. The same mechanism can be used to
determine whether a national law or practice is compatible with EU law.
 enforcing the law (infringement proceedings) – this type of case is taken against a
national government for failing to comply with EU law. Can be started by the European
Commission or another EU country. If the country is found to be at fault, it must put things
right at once, or risk a second case being brought, which may result in a fine.
 annulling EU legal acts (actions for annulment) – if an EU act is believed to violate EU
treaties or fundamental rights, the Court can be asked to annul it – by an EU government,
the Council of the EU, the European Commission or (in some cases) the European
Parliament.
Private individuals can also ask the Court to annul an EU act that directly concerns them.
 ensuring the EU takes action (actions for failure to act) – the Parliament, Council and
Commission must make certain decisions under certain circumstances. If they don't, EU
governments, other EU institutions or (under certain conditions) individuals or companies
can complain to the Court.
 sanctioning EU institutions (actions for damages) – any person or company who has
had their interests harmed as a result of the action or inaction of the EU or its staff can take
action against them through the Court.
Composition
The CJEU is divided into 2 courts:

 Court of Justice – deals with requests for preliminary rulings from national courts,
certain actions for annulment and appeals.
 General Court – rules on actions for annulment brought by individuals, companies
and, in some cases, EU governments. In practice, this means that this court deals mainly
with competition law, State aid, trade, agriculture, trade marks.
 Each judge and advocate general is appointed for a renewable 6-year term, jointly by
national governments. In each Court, the judges select a President who serves a renewable
term of 3 years.
How does the CJEU work?
In the Court of Justice, each case is assigned 1 judge (the "judge-rapporteur") and 1
advocate general. Cases are processed in 2 stages:

 Written stage
o The parties give written statements to the Court - and observations can also be
submitted by national authorities, EU institutions and sometimes private individuals.
o All of this is summarised by the judge-rapporteur and then discussed at the
Court's general meeting, which decides:
 How many judges will deal with the case: 3, 5 or 15 judges (the whole
Court), depending on the importance and complexity of the case. Most cases are dealt with
by 5 judges, and it is very rare for the whole Court to hear the case.
 Whether a hearing (oral stage) needs to be held and whether an official
opinion from the advocate general is necessary.
 Oral stage – a public hearing
o Lawyers from both sides can put their case to the judges and advocate general,
who can question them.
o If the Court has decided an Opinion of the advocate general is necessary, this is
given some weeks after the hearing.
o The judges then deliberate and give their verdict.
 General Court procedure is similar, except that most cases are heard by 3 judges and
there are no advocates general.

 Role: To manage the euro, keep prices stable and conduct EU economic & monetary
policy
 President: Christine Lagarde
 Members: ECB President and Vice-President and governors of national central banks
from all EU countries
 Established in: 1998
 Location: Frankfurt (Germany)
 Website: European Central Bank

The European Central Bank (ECB) manages the euro and frames and implements EU
economic & monetary policy. Its main aim is to keep prices stable, thereby supporting
economic growth and job creation.
 What does the ECB do?

 Sets the interest rates at which it lends to commercial banks in the eurozone (also

known as the euro area), thus controlling money supply and inflation
 Manages the eurozone's foreign currency reserves and the buying or selling of
currencies to balance exchange rates
 Ensures that financial markets & institutions are well supervised by national
authorities, and that payment systems work well
 Ensures the safety and soundness of the European banking system
 Authorises production of euro banknotes by eurozone countries
 Monitors price trends and assesses risks to price stability.
Full list of ECB tasks
Composition
The ECB President represents the Bank at high-level EU and international meetings. The ECB
has the 3 following decision-making bodies:

 Governing Council – the main decision-making body.

Consists of the Executive Board (see below) plus the governors of the national central banks
from eurozone countries.
 Executive Board – handles the day-to-day running of the ECB.
Consists of the ECB President and Vice-President and 4 other members appointed for 8-year
terms by the leaders of the eurozone countries.
 General Council – has more of an advisory & coordination role.
Consists of the ECB President and Vice-President and the governors of the central banks
from all EU countries.
How does the ECB work?
The ECB works with the national central banks of all EU countries. Together they form
the European System of Central Banks.
It leads cooperation between central banks in the eurozone. This is referred to as
the Eurosystem.
The work of the governing bodies

 Governing Council – assesses economic and monetary developments, defines

eurozone monetary policy and fixes the interest rates at which commercial banks can
borrow from the ECB.

 Executive Board – implements monetary policy, manages day-to-day operations,

prepares Governing Council meetings and exercises powers delegated to it by the Governing
Council.
 General Council – contributes to advisory and coordination work and helps to prepare
for new countries joining the euro.

 Role: To check EU funds are collected and used correctly, and help improve EU
financial management.
 President: Klaus-Heiner Lehne
 Members: 1 from each EU country
 Established in: 1977
 Location: Luxembourg
 Website: European Court of Auditors

As the EU's independent external auditor, the European Court of Auditors (ECA) looks after
the interests of EU taxpayers. It does not have legal powers, but works to improve
the European Commission's management of the EU budget and reports on EU finances.
What does the ECA do?

 Audits EU revenue & expenditure, to check EU funds are correctly raised, spent,
achieve value for money and accounted for.
 Checks any person or organisation handling EU funds – including spot checks in EU
institutions (especially the Commission), EU countries and countries receiving EU aid.
 Writes up findings and recommendations in audit reports, for the European
Commission and national governments.
 Reports suspected fraud, corruption or other illegal activity to the European Anti-
Fraud Office (OLAF)
 Produces an annual report for the European Parliament and Council of the EU, which
the Parliament examines before deciding whether to approve the Commission's handling of
the EU budget.
 Gives its expert  opinion to EU policymakers on how EU finances could be better
managed and made more accountable to citizens.
Also publishes opinions on preparatory legislation that will impact EU financial
management, as well as position papers, reviews and ad hoc publications on EU public
finance issues.
To be effective, the Court must be independent of the institutions and bodies it audits. To
this end, it is free to decide on:

 what it will audit

 how to do this
 how & when to present its findings
The Court's audit work focuses mainly on the European Commission – the main body
responsible for implementing the EU budget. But it also works closely with national
authorities, because the Commission manages most EU funds (around 80%) jointly with
them.
Composition
Court members are appointed by the Council, after consulting the Parliament, for
renewable 6-year terms. They choose one of their number as President for a 3-year term
(also renewable).
How does the ECA work?
It carries out 3 types of audit:

 Financial audits – checking that accounts accurately present the financial position,
results and cash flow for the year.
 Compliance audits – checking that financial transactions follow the rules.
 Performance audits – checking that the EU funds achieve its goals with the fewest
possible resources and in the most economical manner.
The Court is divided into audit groups called 'chambers'. They prepare reports &
opinions for the Court members to adopt, thus making them official.

 Role: Manages the EU's diplomatic relations with other countries outside the bloc and
conducts EU foreign & security policy
 High Representative for Foreign Affairs & Security Policy: Josep Borrell  
 Established in: 2011
 Location: Brussels (Belgium)
 Website: European External Action Service

The European External Action Service (EEAS) is the EU's diplomatic service. It aims to make
EU foreign policy more coherent and effective, thus increasing Europe's global influence.
What does the EEAS do?

 Supports the EU High Representative in conducting EU foreign and security policy

 Manages diplomatic relations & strategic partnerships with non-EU countries
 Works with the national diplomatic services of EU countries, the UN and other
leading powers.
Practical examples include:

 Peace building – through political, economic and practical support

 Ensuring security – under the Common Security & Defence Policy
 Maintaining good relations with the EU's immediate neighbours through
the European Neighbourhood Policy
 Development and humanitarian aid and crisis response
 Tackling climate change and human rights issues.
Composition
The European External Action Service is led by the EU foreign affairs chief – or High
Representative for Foreign Affairs & Security Policy. It is composed of:

 in Brussels – expert staff transferred from the Council of the EU, the European

Commission and EU countries' diplomatic services
 worldwide – a network of EU "embassies" (delegations).
How does EEAS work?
The High Representative is also a Vice-President of the European Commission.
He represents the EU's foreign and security policy around the world, coordinates the work
of the European Commission on EU external relations and chairs meetings of EU Foreign,
Defence and Development ministers.. The High Representative/Vice President
implements EU foreign & security policy, together with EU countries and using national and
EU resources. This helps ensure consistency in foreign policy across the bloc.
Outside its borders, the European Union is represented by a number of in-country
offices – EU delegations – which have a similar role to that of an embassy.

 Role: Advisory body representing employers' and workers' organisations and other

interest groups
 President: Luca Jahier
 Members: 326 from all EU countries
 Established in: 1957
 Location: Brussels (Belgium)
 Website: European Economic and Social Committee

The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) is an EU advisory body comprising

representatives of workers' and employers' organisations and other interest groups. It
issues opinions on EU issues to the European Commission, the Council of the EU and the
European Parliament, thus acting as a bridge between the EU's decision-making institutions
and EU citizens.
What does the EESC do?
It gives the interest groups a formal say on EU legislative proposals. Its three key tasks are
to:
 ensure that EU policy and law are geared to economic and social conditions, by
seeking a consensus that serves the common good
 promote a participatory EU by giving workers' and employers' organisations and
other interest groups a voice and securing dialogue with them
 promote the values of European integration, and advance the cause of participatory
democracy and civil society organisations.
Composition
EESC members represent the variety of civil society organisations across Europe, including
businesses, trade unions and other interests. They are nominated by national governments
and appointed by the Council of the EU for renewable 5-year terms. The number of
members per country depends on that country's population.
The EESC elects its President and 2 Vice-Presidents for two-and-a-half-year terms. Members
belong to one of three groups:

 employers
 workers
 other interest groups (e.g. farmers, consumers).
How does the EESC work?
The EESC is consulted by the European Parliament, the Council of the EU and the European
Commission on a variety of subjects. It also issues opinions on its own initiative.
Members work for the EU, independently of their governments. They meet 9 times a year.
Opinions are adopted by a simple majority vote.
Meetings are prepared by the EESC's specialised sections and the consultative commission
on industrial change. The EESC's specialist think-tanks (known as 'observatories') track the
progress of EU strategies.
The EESC keeps in touch with regional and national economic and social
councils throughout the EU - mainly to share information and discuss particular issues.

 Role: Advisory body representing Europe's regional and local authorities

 President: Apostolos Tzitzikostas
 Established in: 1994
 Location: Brussels (Belgium)
 Website: European Committee of the Regions

The European Committee of the Regions (CoR) is an EU advisory body composed of locally

and regionally elected representatives coming from all 27 Member States. Through the CoR
they are able to share their opinion on EU legislation that directly impacts regions and cities.
 What does the CoR do?
The CoR gives regions and cities a formal say in EU law-making ensuring that the position
and needs of regional and local authorities are respected.

 The European Commission, the Council of the EU and the European Parliament must

consult the CoR when drawing up legislation on matters concerning local and regional
government such as health, education, employment, social policy, economic and social
cohesion, transport, energy and climate change.
 If this is not done, the CoR can bring a case before the Court of Justice.
 Once the CoR receives a legislative proposal, it prepares and adopts an opinion and
circulates it to the relevant EU institutions.
 The CoR also issues opinions on its own initiative.
Composition
The CoR members are elected representatives serving in local or regional authorities. Each
country nominates members of its choice who are appointed for renewable five-year terms
by the Council of the EU. The number of members per country depends on the size of that
country's population.
Members from one country form the national delegation which reflects the political,
geographical, regional and local balance of their country.
Each member can also choose to be part of a political group in the CoR. Currently there are
six political groups reflecting a range of political affiliations: the European People's Party
(EPP), the Party of European Socialists (PES), Renew Europe, the European Alliance Group
(EA), the European Conservatives and Reformists Group (ECR) and The Greens. Members
can also choose not to be part of a political party if they so wish (non-aligned).
The CoR appoints a president from among its members for a two-and-a-half-year term.
How does the CoR work?
The CoR appoints a rapporteur (one of its members) who consults stakeholders and
prepares the opinion. The text is discussed and adopted by the CoR commission in charge of
the policy area concerned. The opinion is then presented to all members in plenary session
who vote to amend and adopt it. Finally, the opinion is shared and communicated to all
relevant EU institutions.
There are up to 6 plenary sessions per year, adopting opinions that cover 50 to 80 EU
legislative projects.

 Role: provides funding for projects that help to achieve EU aims, both within and
outside the EU
 President: Werner Hoyer
  Board of Directors: comprises one director per EU country, plus one from the
European Commission
 Founded in: 1958
 Location: Luxembourg
 Website: European Investment Bank

The European Investment Bank (EIB) is jointly owned by the EU countries. It seeks to:

 boost Europe's potential in terms of jobs & growth

 support action to mitigate climate change
 promote EU policies outside the EU.
What the EIB does?
The Bank borrows money on capital markets and lends it on favourable terms to projects
that support EU objectives. About 90 % of loans are made within the EU. None of the
money comes from the EU budget.
The EIB provides 3 main types of products and services:

 Lending – about 90 % of its total financial commitment. The Bank lends to clients of
all sizes to support growth and jobs, and this support often helps to attract other investors.
 'Blending' - allowing clients to combine EIB financing with additional investment.
 Advising and technical assistance - maximising value for money.
The EIB makes loans above EUR 25 million directly. Where smaller loans are involved, it
opens credit lines for financial institutions that then lend funds to creditors.
Composition
All EU countries are shareholders in the EIB. Decisions are taken by the following bodies:

 the Board of Governors, comprising ministers (mostly finance ministers) from all EU
countries. It defines general lending policy.
 the Board of Directors, chaired by the EIB President, which comprises 28 members
appointed by the EU countries and one appointed by the European Commission. It approves
lending and borrowing operations.
 the Management Committee, the Bank's executive body, which handles day-to-day
business.
The Audit Committee checks that EIB operations are conducted in a proper manner.
The Bank's departments implement management decisions.
How does the EIB work?
It makes borrowing and lending decisions, based on the merits of each project and the
opportunities offered by financial markets. Within the EU, it has specific lending
 priorities. Outside the EU, it supports the EU development and cooperation policies
worldwide.
As an independent body, the Bank takes its own borrowing and lending decisions. It
cooperates with other EU institutions, especially the European Commission, the European
Parliament, and the Council of the EU.

 Role: Investigates complaints against EU institutions, bodies, offices & agencies

 Ombudsman: Emily O'Reilly
 Established in: 1995
 Location: Strasbourg (France)
 Website: European Ombudsman

The European Ombudsman investigates complaints about poor administration by EU

institutions or other EU bodies. These may be lodged by citizens or residents of EU countries
or by EU-based associations or businesses.
What does the Ombudsman do?
The Ombudsman investigates different types of poor administration, for example:

 unfair conduct
 discrimination
 abuse of power
 lack of information or refusal to provide it
 unnecessary delays
 incorrect procedures.
How is the Ombudsman chosen?
The European Parliament elects the Ombudsman for a renewable 5-year term. This is one of
its first tasks when newly elected.
How does the Ombudsman work?
The Ombudsman's office launches investigations either in response to complaints or on its
own initiative. An impartial body, it takes no orders from any government or other
organisation. It produces an annual activity report for the European Parliament.
The Ombudsman may be able to solve your problem simply by informing the
institution concerned. If more is needed, every effort is made to reach an amicable
solution that will put matters right. Should this fail, the Ombudsman can
make recommendations to the institution. If these are not accepted, the Ombudsman can
draw up a special report to the European Parliament, which must then take appropriate
action.
  Role: Ensures that EU institutions and bodies respect people's right to privacy when
processing their personal data
 Supervisor: Wojciech Wiewiórowski
 Established in: 2004
 Location: Brussels (Belgium)
 Website: European Data Protection Supervisor

The EU institutions and bodies sometimes process citizens' personal information - in

electronic, written or visual format - in the course of their duties. Processing includes
collecting, recording, storing, retrieving, sending, blocking or erasing data. It is the task of
the European Data Protection Supervisor (EDPS) to uphold the strict privacy rules governing
these activities.
What does the EDPS do?

 Supervises the EU administration's processing of personal data to ensure compliance

with privacy rules
 Advises EU institutions and bodies on all aspects of personal data processing and
related policies and legislation
 Handles complaints and conducts inquiries
 Works with the national authorities of EU countries to ensure consistency in data
protection
 Monitors new technologies that might have an impact on data protection.
How does the EDPS work?
The Supervisor is appointed for a renewable 5-year term of office. For everyday operations,
the EDPS comprises 2 main entities:

 Supervision and Enforcement - evaluates data protection compliance by EU

institutions and bodies.
 Policy and Consultation - advises EU legislators on data protection issues in various
policy areas and new legislative proposals.

 Role: To ensure that the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the Data
Protection Law Enforcement Directive are consistently applied in the EU countries, as
well as Norway, Liechtenstein and Iceland.
 Chair: Andrea Jelinek
 Assistant Supervisor: 
 Established in: 2018
 Number of staff: 21
 Location: Brussels
 Website: European Data Protection Board
 The EDPB is an independent body which :

 ensures that EU law in this field – especially the General Data Protection Regulation
(GDPR) and the Data Protection Law Enforcement Directive – is consistently applied in all
countries that are covered by it promotes cooperation among the national data protection
authorities
What does the EDPB do?

 provides general guidance (including guidelines, recommendations and best practice)

to clarify the GDPR
 adopts consistency findings, designed to make sure the GDPR is interpreted
consistently by all national regulatory bodies, for example in cases relating to 2 or more
countries
 advises the European Commission on data protection issues and any proposed new
EU legislation of particular importance for the protection of personal data
- encourages national data protection authorities to work together and share information
and best practices with each other.
If you think your data has not been protected, you have 3 options:

 contact the organization holding your data

 contact your national data protection authority
 put the matter before a national court
National data protection authorities can conduct investigations and impose penalties where
necessary.
Who is on the EDPB?

 Chair and 2 deputy chairs, appointed for renewable 5-year terms of office.
 Each national data protection authority and the European Data Protection
Supervisor  (EDPS).
For day-to-day operations, the work of the EDPB receives analytical, administrative and
logistical support from a secretariat provided by the EDPS. The members of the staff of the
EDPB Secretariat are working under the instructions of the Chair of the EDPB.
Terms of EDPB-EDPS cooperation
How does the EDPB work?
The Board has regular meetings in Brussels, to discuss and make decisions on data
protection related issues.
The decisions are made by the plenary meetings, gathering the head of national authorities,
on the basis of preparatory work of expert subgroups meetings and of the EDPB Secretariat.
Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT)
The Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) became fully operational in September
2012.
CERT's remit is to help manage threats to EU institutions' computer systems – supporting IT
security teams in each EU Institution and liaising with public-sector CERT counterparts in EU
countries.
European School of Administration
The European School of Administration was set up on 10 February 2005. Its task is to
provide training in specific areas for members of EU staff. Its courses are open to staff of all
the EU institutions, thereby helping spread common values, promoting better
understanding among EU staff and achieving economies of scale. It works in close
cooperation with the training departments of all the institutions to avoid any duplication of
effort.
European Personnel Selection Office
The European Personnel Selection Office (EPSO) became operational in January 2003. Its
task is to set competitive examinations for recruiting staff to work in all the EU institutions.
This is more efficient than having each institution organize its own recruitment
competitions. EPSO’s annual budget of roughly €21 million is 11% less than what the EU
institutions used to spend on recruitment.
Publications Office
The full name of this body is the Publications Office of the European Union. It acts as the
publishing house for the EU institutions, producing and distributing all official European
Union publications, on paper and in digital form.