{SPD JRREINFORCEMENT HANDBOOK eR sy ie a is & Ralph JonesYAMAHA The Sound ReinfoRrCEMENT Handbook Second Edition Written For Yamaha By Gary Davis & Ralph Jones INSIDE DESIGN & ILLUSTRATION BY Gary Davis & Associates Cover Drsien By Lee SAvorTPublished by AE sc icorarseuistin corporation ‘7777 W. Bluemound Road, P.O. Box 13819 Milwaukee, WI 53213 Copyright 1987, 1989 by Yamaha Corporation of America and Gary Davis & Associates ISBN: 0.88188-900-8 All Rights Reserved. Written Permission from ‘Yamaha Corporation of America (P.O. Box 6600, Buena Park, CA 90622) is required for reproduction in any form, except short excerpts may be reproduced or quoted for purposes of critical review. First Edition First Printing: December, 1987 Second Printing: February, 1989 Third Printing: April, 1989 Second Edition First Printing: June, 1989 Second Printing: February, 1990 Printed in the U.S.A.Preface SY In 1974, the people at Yamaha asked me to write some spec sheets for a dozen or so new guitar amplifiers and small mixers. As soon as that job was done, they showed me a new product. It was a console, one intended to be a major departure — a leap into the heart of the professional sound rein- forcement market — for a company then known primarily as a musical i strument manufacturer (or a motor- cycle manufacturer, if you were not a musician). Yamaha said they wanted to firmly establish themselves as a leader, and they felt that a comprehen- sive instruction manual for the new console would help do the job. We had only a prototype board and some sketchy specs, but no detailed draw- ‘ings or data, s0 I contacted engineer John Windt, and we measured the per- formance. Working with pencil and portable typewriter, I created the first raft ofthe PM-1000 Operating Man- ‘The PM-1000 console did put ‘Yamaha on the map, insofar as the professional sound reinforcement business is concerned. The manual was 80 popular that it had to be reprinted many times (far exceeding the number of consoles built). It became a standard text in several college courses due to its detailed discussions of the basies of sound reinforcement. ‘During the ensuing decade, Yamaha asked me to write manuals for a variety of amps, signal processors, mixers and so forth, and to maintain the same standard of excellence we began with the PM-1000 manual. Un- fortunately, it is very expensive to produce and print 30 to 60 pages of. instructions for every product, and it is difficult to justify — especially when only 8 to 16 pages contain the “hard core” operational data. For this reason, both Yamaha and I had pondered the concept of a generalized guide for sound reinforcement, apart from any individual operating manuals. Finally, 10 years after the PM-1000 ‘manual was published, Yamaha decided to move forward with this Project. We anticipated a book of 96 to 160 pages in length, and expected it, would take a year to complete. The first edition of The Sound Reinforce- ment Handbook was comprised of 384 pages, some 256 illustrations, and took three years to complete. The first printing of 10,000 copies sold out in a year, and while we were completing this second edition, another two runs totalling nearly 5,00 more copies had to be printed. Clearly, the book has been well received, and we're grateful The Sound Reinforcement Handbook is the largest project Ihave ever undertaken. It would not have been ible without the support and patience of the people at Yamaha Corporation of America, and at their parent company, Yamaha Corporation of Japan. All of us were able to endure the strain of gathering data, editing it, and producing this book for one reason: we had an important goal to achieve. ‘That goal was to create a useful reference for anyone who is interested in learning the basies of sound rein- forcement. In this second edition, we have improved many of the illustra- tions, and added entirely new topics, corrected a number of minor errors and typos (Perhaps created new ones). We have made the book much easier to use by completely reorganizing the chap- ters and creating an index. ‘We had originally planned the first edition for looseleaf binding, with the intent to publish updates periodically. ‘The cost, however, would have been prohibitive, and so this soft-cover format was adopted, with the prospect ofa new edition when the need arises. We all hope you enjoy and learn from this one. Gary D. Davis Santa Monica, California June, 1980 This handbook is dedicated To the sound reinforcement industry. and To all those people who lave worked so lard To bring berrer sound and music to the world. We particularly wish To acknowledge the Late Deane Jensen for his advancement of sound.Acknowledgements SN ‘My associate Ralph Jones made a substantial contribution to the writing and illustrations that are in this hand- book. Ralph's background with Meyer Sound Labs, and his formal music edueation, served to balance the knowledge I have gleaned from my involvement with many other sound equipment manufacturers, and my own physics background. Many thanks, Ralph. And thanks also to your wife, Claudette, who helped with some of the early deadlines. ‘As I mentioned in the Preface, the people at Yamaha Corporation of America and of Japan (formerly Nip- pon-Gakki in Japan) have supported this project — both financially and with considerable assistance in terms of suggested contents, proof reading, and helping to secure expert consulting assistance when that was required. They also deserve praise for giving me a free hand to write as much as was required, to include all we wished (including a number of competitors’ ‘names, when that information seemed important), and to not make this a sales presentation for any particular Yamaha equipment. Special thanks go to John Gatts and Bob Davis for overseeing the project at Yamaha, and to Craig Olsen for his help with the initial outline. Nancy Mastroianni, a skilled proof reader, was employed by ‘Yamaha to highlight my inconsistent hyphenation, dangling participles, and other typographical errors. Soundman Steve Getson of Trenton, NJ, kindly identified many typos after the first printing, At our request, Brian Weiss of Word’sworth also did extensive proof reading. Mind you, we exercised our right of editorial license, so if some of the usage remains non-standard, it may not be Brian's or Naney’s fault. Bob Davis, who collated all the comments and edits at Yamaha for both editions, was assisted by Yamaha District Manager Ray Bloom and by in- dependent consultant Rolly Brook. Without this valuable input, I would still be choking on my left foot. Thanks, guys. Tmade many phone calls to engi- ner John Windt, whose extensive knowledge of system grounding and system design added considerably to this book. Thanks also to the late Deane Jensen (of Jensen Transform- cers, Inc.), who provided very useful information on transformer and differential balancing, mic splitting, and other aspects of circuit design. Lynn McCroskey and Alvis Wales of Sonics, Associates were very helpful with regard to interconnect of balanced and unbalanced circuitry, and they also made some useful suggestions regarding the relatively minor direct effects of wind on sound propagation. Bill Swintek of Swintek Wireless Microphones gave us permission to use portions of data we wrote for him beveral years ago, and the people at HME submitted a major portion of the data dealing with wireless micro- phones and wireless intercom systems, which together make this portion of the book far more accurate and complete than it otherwise would have been. Thanks to engineer Bob Ludwig for explaining the pros and cons of console placement. Thanks to Crown Interna- tional Corporation for sending photos and information on their PZM micro- phones. ‘Composer/synthesist/consultant, Christopher L. Stone of Dragonsense Studio was moet helpful in guiding our MIDI and SMPTE discussions, and special thanks go to Jim Cooper of J.L. Cooper Electronics for proof reading the MIDI material and offering valuable corrections and suggestions. J also wish to thank Carolyn and Don Davis, whose Syn-Aud-Con semi- nar and whose book, Sound System Engineering, have significantly aug- mented my understanding of sound and acoustics. Last, but certainly not least, many thanks to Georgia Galey, my hard- working office manager who did so much to help bring this book from ‘concept to reality: typing some data ‘into the computer, proofing the typed and typeset copy, following: mp on phone calls, photocopying and the hecessary go fer jobs -— tn other words, filling in wherever and whenever she could. Gpp PS. The answer to the unashed question No. Bob Davis, Don Davis and Gary Davis are not related to ome another. They ell just happen to hare the some surname and tvork in the some general induatry.———— ——— Sound Reinforcement Handbook Table of Contents Page Section/Subsection & Title Page Section/Subsection & Title Section 1. What is a Sound System Section 5. Sound Outdoors 1 LA The audio signet 435.4 The inverse square law I Tit Sd waves 4g 7) UIST Inverwe square law calculations 2 112 ‘The electrical representation of sound 4552. Bffets of environmental factre a 113) Phase B B21” Wind 5 TL4 Adding sine waves 6 5.22 Temperature gradionts 412 The basic purse af sound system 4823 Humility 413. AConcoptdal mode! ofa sound system 4 82. Feedback enntrol 5 14 Input transducers a B81 Maximum gain (available gain bet 5 18 Output transdiners on feedback) 6 16 Atpractical model of a sound system 49 53.2 Using directional microphones and 24 4a Section 2, Frequency Response A definition ZL Basie specification methods 2.12 Octave relationships and measurements Froquloncy response of practieal audio devices 22.1" Flec\voni esteuts and cables 222 Microphones 22°33 Loudrpeakers Voice and instrament ranges ‘3 The speaking voice 25.2 The singing voice and musical instruments 23.5 Harmonies Feet of acoustial Tetons Section 3. The Decibel, Sound Level, & Related Items ‘What is a decibel? BLT" A mathematical definition ofthe dB B12 Relat ve versus absolute fevels Relating the deabel to electrical signal levels 321° dBm 822 abe 52 By and dy B24 Converting dBy to dBu (or to dBm aeross 500 oars! 82.5 Relatng dBv, diy and dBim to specif 32.6 dw Relating the decibel to acoustic levels B81 dB SPL. S32 dB PWL What is rms? Volume, evel and gain Loudness 3.611 Baal loudness contours and phons 5.6.2 What we cam deduce from equal loudness contours 36. Loudness compensation Section 4. Dynamic Range Dynamic range TLL A definition 41.2 The dynamie range ofa typial rock 4.13 The eestrieal dynamic range of the sound system 4.144 The atoustical dynamic range ofthe system Headroom G21 A definition 42.2 Why headroom is important Manipulating dynamic range in practical sound system 43:1 Why not build a sound system with excess dynamic range? 4.3.2 What happens when the sound system is Inadequate? 4.3.8 How to ft wide program dynamics into a sound system wth limited dynamic range 434 How much headroom is sdequate? aa 82. 88 84 85. 86 loudspeakers Section 6. Sound Indoors Boundaries 6.1.1" The absorption eneTieient Standing waves 621 ‘Standing waves in x room Reverheration Gentical distance 6.41 "Implications for sound reinforcement Section 7. Block Diagrams General discussion Symbolic conventions Rotational caveats wnalysis of simple block diagrams Summation Section 8. How to Read & Interpret Specifications General discussion B.-L © Why specs are not always what they seem, 812 Examples of spees that should be daubted Ba What to look for Froqueney response BET Distinguishing frequency responso, frequeney range, ard power bandwidth 8.22 Graphic versus printed specs 8.2.3 Whats a good frequency response spec? Noise B31 What is noise? 832 White noise 833 Pinknoise B34 Shuping the noise 835 EIN’a'meanure of nie preamplifier noise 83.8 Specifying output mise S37 Other pes oPnoise Harmonie gistorion S41 What is harmonic distortion? 84.2 Measuring harmon distortion 843 Factor affecting hermonte distortion sretiteations Tntermodulation distortion SET Measuring I diatrtion 85.2 Sources of IM distortion 85.3 How much distortan is tolerable? S54 Transient intermodulation distortion Input and output impedances 86.1". Confusion about mput and output, impedances ‘35.11 Outpat impedance B62 Input impedance ‘The implications of umpedanee mismatehes Impeddinee and frequehey ind operating levels ‘General classification of levels Expressing the wide power range of a sound How impedance relates to level specifieations ‘BTS1. Power vs impedance 87.32 Overloading an outputPage 10-2 Page Section/Subsection & Title 95 87.8 How the asd afets output voltage 95, 8.7.4 What happens when hifi and pro ponent mix 95 SULT Th. output to pro equipment 96 8.7.42 Proequipment output to hifi Inge 96 88 Crosstalk a7 "SBT What causes crosstalk ? aT S82 _ Crosstalk in cables oT 8.8.8 Specification of erosetalle 99° 8.9. Filter slope rater and tumover frequencies 100. 8:10 Square wave teste 101 1510.1 Oscitoscopes 403, $.10.2 What not to expect with square waves 403 8.11 Miscellany Section 9. Why Ears Don't Always Correlate With Specs 105 9.1 ifort points of view 105 1 Calibrated mics ys ears 306 5.112 Average cara ve “golden ears” 107 9.2 Text equipment meatorements ve tening este tor ‘82:1 "Test signals versus program material 109 922 Location and number of test microphones io 223 Dynamic range TI 93. State ve dynamic teste, 112 84 Masking effete and equipment interaction Section 10. Microphones 119 10.1 Methods of transduction 3 10.1 Dynamic 13 1012 Condenser i 1013. Heetret condenser iis 1D18 Ribbon 8 10.15 Carbon 6 10.16 Piezoelectric 116 10.2 Functional des iis TOzt Handheld ut 1022. Stand mounting tt 123. Lavalier its 10.24 Gontac pickup us 1028 Pressare reeponse 19 1026 Sho 19 1027 Parabolte 120 10.28 Mulliclement arrays 120 102.9 Noite cancelling mierophones 121 10.8 Acoustical and electrical characteristics i 1031" Pickup patterns 12 10.311 Omnidirectional 1 10.3113 Cardio 123 103.15 Bidirectional or igure 133 pedal Superandosd Ba 3 uency Tesponse 135 Protimity effect 1283 ‘Sanat response 136 Outpt level or sensitivity 135 Overload i Impedance ia 10.3% Balanced and unbalanced connections 135. 10.4 Application information 139 T0d:1" Windscreens and pop Siters 120 3042 Shocle mounes 180 3043 Phantom power 130 1044 Bled he number of open microphone 131 10445 Gain and microphone placement 131 1048 Stereo recording 382 10.5 Wireies inereom systems 13 1.51 What a wireless intercom? 132 103.2 Who uses wireless intoreoma? 133, 10.5.3 What the background nf wirsoas 133 105.4 Types of wireless intercoms 135 105.5 Frequencies used 138 10.3.6 Improved range and noise reduction 186 410.377 Evaluating and selecting @ system 187 1058 Conclosions 138 40.5.9 Glossary of wireless intercom terme ‘Sound Reinforcement Handbook © 1967, 1989 Page _ Section/Subsection & Title 129 10,6 Wirslese microphone systems 133 TO61 "What isa wireless mic? 133 1082 Who use wires mics? 183 108.4 What i the beskgrond of wireless ve Toes Radio fnguamsen weed 1088 Technical proboms aaa tose Sie 15 ompaibility of wireless mie systems 146 1089 Antenna cables os iis 108.10 Evaluating wireless microphone systems i 106.11 Conclusions ue 18:18 Glossy of wiseless microphone terms Section 11. Preamplifiers, Small Mixers, & Mixing Consoles 149 11.1 General discussion 152 112 Preamplifiers 182 TZ What are they, and what do they do? 153 1122 Impedance converters 158 1123 Phono preamps 184 11.8 Mixers 185114 Consoles 155 Th] What isa console? 155 1142 How mixes difer: pre & post fader considerations 157 11.43 Panning, summing and master faders 162 11.5 Understanding console spectfeations 12 ESL. How many inputs, mixes and outputs? 162 1152. Signalctornoise ratio 168 1133 Maximom voltage gain 185 1134 Headroom 166 1035. Ind tors lated versus electronically balanced inputs & outputs 168 FNP “vonsformors versus differential amps ‘pice conce:ne 168 21.82. Discrete verses IC differential amps 89 I163 The case for to transformer 100 LBA Transformers and AC safy 170 118 _More on tanaiormers 172 11.7 Gain singing and gain stuctore i TLTL Wh doa gain have to be manipulated? ‘review of sound levels fod tothe console aa 11.23, Ghin conf nthe mirgghone spat is 173 Taput‘attensation or padding ta ITA Hllminating other eases of signal-level (Ge ain) related distortion 1m TUR Summing amp overdrive 1M 11742 Pomer amp overdrive 173118 tncrtace with : {Stage monitor mixing consoles Te a Whee is v9 1.931 Why a monitor consol preferable oa ‘mix from the main house cneole 180 11.944 Thelimportancr ofa high quality rmonitor mix 180 1195 Other befits of a separate momar 11.96 Polarity (phase) reversal as a tool to ‘gat feedback 11927 Eliminating SCR dimmer noise 11.10 Microphone spitting TL1G.1 The splitter transformer 11.102 Additonal isolation for high-noise 185 293 Splitting mic without a transformer 188 11.11 Reducing feedbuek in the stage monitor system 186 TLIN1 Directional microphones 186 11.112 Polarity reversal (or “phase” reversal) ist ILLE3 Ringing out a monitor system 18 11.114 Aimioge moniter loudspeakers 189 11.12 Equipment plagement. 139, TLYZT Adastional monitor conaole placement, factors 190 11.122 Main house mixing console placement© 1987, 1989 Page Section/Subsection & Title 193 193 193 Tos 185 196 1st 236 236 2st 238 238 Bal Section 12. Power Amplifiers 1a 2 ws » 15 1a 132 B38 14 8 139 General dissussion Ohm's Taw de related equations 1221 Vorage, resistance and current 1239 WlacSeal pamer 1233 Ohmi aw chart 12.24 Electrical power and amplifier gain Power ratings of amplifiers, 12.1" PRC preconditioning 12.32 Power bandwidth 12.33 Sley rate and output power 12.34 Bridged operation 1235 The elect of chpping ‘The relationship between amplifier power and SPL, ‘Matching power amplifies to loudspeakers 2.5.1" Foterpreting loudspeaker power ratings 1252 Impedance falculatione 1253 Corstant-voltage distribution systems Section 13. Loudspeakers Introduction lam metodo asus trandution THB "Bletromamnete transduction 1332 Plemelecene transduction Low frequen anvers TS eect! charactrss of cone Low frequeneyencosuros That’ Verted enclosures spit, bo enum hos Yeh frequency arivers High frequency hore Groner Ta TT General model TRE Pamive gt lovel crossovers 18:73 Active, low level erossovers 93.31 Hendroon Bffteney 3 Damping 4 Disorticn 15.738 Blam or tiamp versus awentional oto Fullange losdspeskern Th BT eft of boundary conditions Loudspeaker specications TOT Frequency response 1382 Pon fandieg 1303. Seniuvty 1384 Impedance 1388 Biletonal characteristics 13.10 Sources of detrtion 13:10. Overexeursion 13.10°2 Intermodulation distortion 1510.5 Mechanical defects 13.11 ‘Typical ulure modes "P Ma re Tia Manufacturing defects 15.112 Improper operation 13.113 Fallures due to other components in the signal chain Section 14. Signal Processing Equipment Equalizers Tilt General discussion 14.12 Common tone controls ALS Molti-band conventional equalizers M14 Sweop-type equalizers ILLS Parametric equalizers HELE Grephic equalizers 1417 Paragraphie equalizers TELS Tuning a sound system with graphic ‘or parographie equalization 14.1.9 High pss and Tow pass filters everberatiot nd delay 1421" "Reverb chambers 1422 Ducctype reverbs 1425 Spring bpe reves 1424 Platetype reverbs 1425 Digtal reverberation 1426 Tape delay M427 Digital delay Sound Reinforcement Handbook Page TC-3 Page _ Section/Subsection & Title 269 210 eo 14.28 Analog delay 14.8 Compressors & limiters 14.3.1 General diseussice 14.3.2. How compressor imiters work 143.3 Sctup adjustmenss 14.4 Noles gaten © expuore TST General 1442 Notee gate applications 14.43 Expander applications 145 Flangers and phasers 14.6 Exeiters Section 15. Cabling 15.1 The importance of good cables 52 Types of eables, their construction and use 152-1 “Hleetrostatie and electromaymetic shielding 1522 Cable selteapacitance 152.3 Single and dual eonductor shielded cables 132.4 Strain relict 152.5 Unshielded cables and speaker cables 152.6 Multicore audio exbles anakes") 158 Connectors 15.3.1 General 15.32 Phone plugs 158.3 Phono (pini connectors 183.4 XLH connectors Section 16. Sound System Test Equipment 16.1 The voliohm meter 162 The sine wave oeillator 183 The omelloscype 184 The phase tester 18.5 The Sound pressure level meter 166 The ealtine analyzer 1647 "Tho loudness monitor 188 Summary Section 17. The Electronics 1741 Basie sound systom types TET "Sound reproduction systems 1212, Sound relnforcemrent systems 17.2 Deveioping logical system architecture 1124 inetional grouping 1722. System examples 173 Basie connections 182" Signal lovels and impedance 1752 Unbalanced and balanced connections 174 Grounding TILT “Why i proper mrounding important? 1142 Ground lope TAS. Sante groaning echniques Using audia signa! transformers Vis Properties and finetions of signal transformers 17.5. Some practical applications 12.6 The matin power sure “rl” Verty the correct mains voltage 118.2. Rnsure there ia good earth ground 5 How to obtain asaety ground when sing a two-wire outlet 4 Improperly wired AC outet:lited grounds 5 Improperly wired AC outlets: Ited neutral 8 AC slaty tips 7 Turn-on requencng TBS. Power sore integrity 17:7 Configuring equipment racks 1755 Troubleshooting T"Abscie of signal tas Onan ial, Section 18. the loudspeakers 18.1 Analvaing the application Tei The program material 16.1.2. The environment 18.2 Directional control 18.2.1. Widening dispersionPago TC 4 Sound Reinforcement Handbook © 1987, 1989, Page Section/Subsection & Title Page Section/Subsection & Title 850 1822. Narrowing dispersion 404 202.5. Time code and audio tape 351 1825 SPL estimations doa 3025.1 Pring SMPTE time code 351 183 Placement onsiderations 405 20.2.2 Copsing SMPTE time code 3 1B. Drectionality and coverage 408, 2026 SMPTE to MIDI eonversion 18.2 Feedback contro review 406 20.8 Bait decision lists 1539 Oncor snd eye _ 183.4 Controlling feedback indoors Appendix A. Logarithms 104 Cos udspeatter placement indoors 409 At. Raising Numbers toa Power: The Key to Logs eee 409° A'2. Sitaple Logs (and Antlogs to the Base 10 dbl Fire sine 410 4.3. Less Obvious Loge to The Base 10 B42 Connectors 411 44 Mathematical Properties Loge larity of panpections 412A One More Look At Loge ard Decibels 184.4. General guidelines 185 Setting eleetronie crossovers 18.3.1 Choice of crossover frequency and slope 185.2. Sting up the loudspesler systern 18.5.3. Tisting and optimizing the system 1854. High frequency driver protection. 186 Use of fil systems 18.6.1. Balancing fill systems 18.7 Testing and Equalization “s'7" "Single loudspeakers 18772 Multiple loudspeaker systems 18.73 Reom equalization Section 19. MIDI 19.1 Interface specifications 19.11 Hardware configuration 1812 Data structure 18.13 Channel messages 19.14 System messages 19.2 Control of masieal instrament 192.1 MIDI modes 12:2 Controllers 192'3 Patch editorlibrarian functions 1924 MIDI implementation charts 19.3 MIDI sequercing 19.31" Basie theory 1932 Channels & tracks 1933 Hardware va computer-based sequencers 18.34 Typical sequencer features 19.3.4. Song editing 193.42 Step editing 19.3-4.3 Common editing features 19.4 MIDI data processors 19.41 ‘Try boxes 1942 MODI mergers 1943 MIDI patehers 1944 Mapping devices 19-415. Syav data storage 19.5 Automation through MID 95.1 Instrument patch changes 195.2 Signal processors 1953 Chane fintions 19.54 Syne to media 19.6 Troubleshooting 19.6.1 Lack of reponse 1982 Sisck notes 19183 MIDI feedback 1964 MIDI time delays Section 20. Synchronization 20.1 General diseassion Zot Bosie theory 20.12 Pulse methods 20,13 Timepiece methods 202 AMPTWERE time code 20.21 Signal structure 20.22 Frame ratos and lin references 20.23 Longitudinal, vertical interval and visible time code 02 20.24 Machine contral 402 20.24.) Slave code error 402 202.42 Slave code effet 403 202.43 Fiving affects 403 20244 Slew 403 20.243 Advanced transport controls 03 20.24'6 Bvent triggers Index ColophonSound Reinforcement Handbook List of Illustrations SS Page Figure N?_ Title a u 2 13 13 1“ 16 46 a7 45 50 51 2 Section 1 1 Representation ofa sound wave 12 Representation of an audio signal 1-3 Phase relationships between input & output signals 1-4 Phase affects the way two sine waves add together 1-5 Conceptual model ofa sound system 156 A simple sound system, Section 2 21 Model fr measuring frequency response 22 Plotted frequeney responce 23 Derivation ofa frequency response specifica tion fron a plot 24 A plot lat” frequency response 25 A fat” frequeney response plot of a device with very wide handwidth 2.6 Frequency response measured in 13 octave bands 27 Construction of typical aualio cables 28 Froquoaey response of a typical audio power amplifier 29 On-andofaxis frequency response ofa typical cardioie (unidirectional) dynamic microphone 210 Frequency range of typical instruments and singing voices 2-11 Harmonic eontent of open strings of the violin Section 3 8-1 Nomograph relating level in dB (or dBm crass (00 ohms) to voltage 32 Therm value of a sine wave 3:3 Equal ludness contours 3-4 Filter carves for sound lev! meter weighting characteristics Section 4 Dynamic range and headroom 2:1 Compression of a 90 aB program 21:1 Compression of @ 90.48 program 43:1 Compression above a threshold How a compander tape noise reduction system ‘overcomes dynamic range limitations Section 5 5-1 Acousti> power or sound pressure: the inverse square lave 5-2 Sound and wind vectors 53 —_Bifet of wind velocity gradient on sound ropagation 5-4 —_Bifect ef temperature gradients on sound propagation 55 ‘Absorption of sound in air vs relative humidiyy ‘Typical acoustic and electrical feedback path Acoust gain relationships (A Polar patterns for a cardicid microphone ) Polar patterns for a sound reinforcement loudspeaker Using directional elements in @ sound system, can increase maximem available gain before feedback Page Figure N° Title 59 102 102 102 Section 6 61 62 68 feet of boundary surfuees om sound tran mission and refletion Elect of boundary surfaces on sound refeac Formation ofa standing wave by reflection at a boundary Formation ofa standing wave in a r00m Room modes at harman frequencies Reverberation time «uations Development of a revsrberant fold from a ‘heretical point soure of sound in the center f'n acoustic environment Directional radiator in a reverberant field Section 7 ra 7 Block diagram symbals: amplifiers Block diagram symbols: miscellaneous components Block diagram symbuls: transformers Block diagram symbuis: grounds Block diagram symbais: indicators Block diagram symbais: connectors Block diagram symbuls: filters and equalizers Block diagram symbdls: other functions Block diagram notation Microphone preamplifier black diagram Graphic equalizer bleck diagram Digital delay block diagram Section 8 1 82 An inadequate signal processor specication Frequency response and power bandwidth carver are not dent White nose energy’ vi reasenes Pink none enon vs frequen Freeney spectrum sf oie iow by on SCR dimmer n a DH AC power ine Graph reproventatin of harmonte distortion Relationship o a toporsent of signal THD plot fra type power amlierostput Block dingraey showing np termination resistance and outptsoure impedance Block diagram illustrates how land impedance of an input terminates source impedanes ofa preceding output Measuring ott saree impedance Cromstalk beeen to bose in axing console Frequoney response of an 80 He, Sole filer A theoretically porte square wave and a god stare. wave fem a function generator Kn oslloscope dapty of near-perfect. Mingnfenion ofthe aquare wave in Figure 8-19, with expanded ime bese Square wave oriloncope pot of a iret with 6 albociave rllaftbelow 1 kite Square wave oxilncope phot of circuit ‘shich ic improper'y terminated and engin Sine wave ocllosipn photo of bpclar plier with imbalanced power supplies‘Sound Reinforcement Handbook age 1-8 Page Figure N? Title Section 9 107 8:1 ‘Simplified illustration of loudspeaker system being “fine tuned” to the environment 108 9.2 Comparison of uncorrected and corrected spectrum analysis fora sound system, slong with graphie EQ settings needed to achieve the sorretions 109 9:8 —_‘Souad field comparison : (A) Sound field at Thurman ears and at test mie (B) Representative frequency response atthe TL 94—_Ascuare wave which shows “ringing” and a ‘onc burst test ofthat same eireuit Section 10 113. 10-1 Construction of @ dynamic microphone 13 102 Construction ofa eondenser microphone 114168 Construction ofa ribbon microphone 115 104 Construction ofa carbon microphone 16 105 Construction of a piczoeletrie microphone 116 106A few typical hand-held microphones 117107 Stand mount microphones 118 108A typical lavalier microphone 118 109 Atpica contact microphone 118 1020 A Crown pressure zone mierophone. 119 10-11 typical shotgun microphone 119 10-12 A parabolic mie 120 1018 Crote-seetional view of a dual-element Aiferential microphone 1211014 ler pattern of a cardioid microphone 1221018 Poler response of an omnidirectional microphone 128 1016 Polar pattern of figure-8 microphone 123107 Poler pattern ofa supercardioid microphone 125 10-18 —_Prosimity effect 125 10-19 Comparison of transient response in typical condenser and dynamic mierophanes 128 10.20 Balaneed and unbalanced microphone connections 129 1021 Common windscreens 129 1022 Atypical shosk-mounted microphone on @ stard 180 10.25 How phantom power and audio share the same cable 131 1024 Spaced pair stereo mie placement, with separate soloist mic 181 10-25 Stereo microphones in an X-Yeonfiguration 152 10-26 Sensitivity patterns of cardio and figure-8 rics in an MES stereo configuration 188 10.27 Simplex wireless itereom system 134 10-28 Hal? duplex wireless intercom system 134 10-29 Fulhduplex wireless interoom systom 435 1080 Wirsiess intercom frequency bands 140 10-381 Commonly used international frequency bands 140 10-82 Wireless mierophone frequeney bands used in the United States 142 10-83 Diversity reception system 143 10-34 Spare diversity signal selection 143 10-35 —-Maximal ratio combining and equal gain comaining 143 10-86 Comparison of signal selection and combining methods Section 11 150 11-1(A) Therelationship betwoon a proamp, « mixer ‘anda console : A small 12-input channel x stervo output mixer with an external RIAA preamp for a phonograph Page Figure NP 151 154 154 158 159 160 181 163, 165 166 ar 16 119 181 188 184 185 190 193, 194 195, 196 196 198 199 200 200 201 205 207 208 210 210 an aL a2 213 213 1B) © 1987, 1989 Title ‘Tho relationship between a preamp, a mixer land a console: A lange 24-input channel x ‘output console with 2 effects wend and return circuits 1.2 Avack mount of line mixer 118 A gpical smal, stand-alone mixer 114 How pan pots work 11.5 (A) How summing arplifiers are overdriven, and hhow to eorveet the problem 11.5 (B) How summing anplifers are overdriven, and hhow to correct the problem 115 (©) How summing anplifiers are overdriven, and hhow to correct the problem 11.6 Simplified block diagrams of different mixer configurations 11-7 ‘Typical gain structure diagram for a mixing console, shoving headroom correlated with a simplified block diagram 11.8 How a typical VU meter with peak indicator responds to a tet signal 11.9 Noise rejection ina balanced line 11-10 Block diagram of 1 sub-mixer connected to a ‘main mixing eonssle 1111 Block diagram of atypical stage monitor system 11-12 A monitor mixing system which also furnishes ‘2 suhmixed feed tthe main house system 11-18 An isolated mie split feed that allows phantom powering of the mie 1114 Use of additional transformers for isolation of clectronicaly balenced inputs inthe presence of extreme noite 11-18 a"Y" connected (parallel wired) 1:2 mic eplit with hard wiring instead of a transformer 11-16 A suggested location for the mixing console in ‘concert hall Section 12 124 A-simple DC cireuit 122 Asimple ACdrewit 128 Ohms Law nomograph for AC or DC 124 Sample eireut for power ealewlation 125 Atypical audio circuit: a signal Source, a power amplifier, and a load 12.6 Power bandwidth af a power amplifier 127 Slewing of a step 128 Slew rate requirements are greater for higher power amplifiers 129 Bridged mono operation: signal polarity (phase) relationskips 12:10 Powor amp bridged output connection A211 Clipping ofa sine wave 32-12 typical loudspeaker impedance curve 32-18 Series and parallel emnection of loudspeakers 12414 Series/parallel conncetion of loudspeakers 32415 Constant voltage distributed loudspeaker system Section 13 131 Operation of a finear electromagnetic motor 182 Components ofa inear electromagnetic motor (in a typical driver) Bimorphs as used in piezoelectric driver Cross-section of pezoeleetrie driver Cross-section of scone-type driver ‘Testing driver polarity with a battery How the directional characteristics ofa driver vary with wavelength© 1967, 1989 Page Figure N° Tile 214 138 Reproduction of tow frequencies by an tmbaffed eone driver ean result in acoustic eaneellation 215 189 A vend, direct-radiator low frequency enclore 216 13:10 A ducted port low frequency enclosure 216 13-11 Cross-tection of a straight exponential horn 217 1312 Crosssection ofa folded, low frequency horn (a"Wain") BIT 18:18 Cross-section ofa folded, low frequency horn (a "seapp") 218 19-14 Crossacction of typical compression driver 219 13-15 Cross-section of piezoelectric supertweeter 220 13-16 Tho design of an exponential radial horn 221 1B.17 _Avanety of constant directivity homs 2221-18 Atypical way loudspeaker system and ite idealized crossover response characteristics 223 13:19 Tdealzed crossover response characteristics fora Sway loudspeaker system 223 13:20 Typical lation ofa passive, high-level ‘roesover network inside a loudspeaker enclosure 225 19-21 Typiea| location ofan uetive (electron) crossover network, just ahead of the power amplifiers 226 13-22 Oscilloscope photos ilustrate the headroom advantage ofa biamplifid system 228 18.28 Twoofthe many ways to package a 3-way loudspeaker system 229 19.24 How SL increases due to boundary effects 231 13-25 Graphic specification of loudspeaker frequency response 233 18-26 Graphic specification of loudspeaker impedence 294 13-27 —_Beamwidh plot of « loudspeaker 234 13-28 On anc offais frequency response curves of @ typical fall-range loudspeaker system 235 19:29 Polar plots illustrating horizontal and vertical dispersion ofa fullrange lodapesker system 236 18:80 Pushing and pulling a driver “to the limits” with ton much power ean introduce distortion ion 14 2a ‘Typical bass and treble tone controls and how they aller frequeney response 245 142A typical family of bass and treble tone control curves, with contol settings indieated 248 14-3 Type band equalizer characteristic 247 44 A-4and equalizer with two sviteh-selectable frequercies per bund 248 145A Shand equalizer with the middle band having a sweepable center frequency 249 146 A Sand flly-parametrie equalizer 250 147 —“‘Correcing special problems with s para metric EQ 251 148 A'S exave graphic equalizer 253 149 Reducing feedback and smoothing the overall system response with a graphie equalizer 253 14:10 The difference between non-combining and combining type fiters ina graphic equalizer 255 11 Reducing feedback and snwuthing tne over system response with a paragraphie equalizer 258 14-12 Commen high pase filter characteristics 257 14-13 Commen low pass filter characteristics, 258 14-14 A-horizmtal (sliding) low pass filter funetions as a sirgleended noise reduction system 258 14:15 Propagation of an impulse sound in the envirorment shows natural occurence of early reflections and subsequent reverberation, ‘Sound Reinforcement Handbook Pago 10-7 Page Figure N° Title 260 261 262 263 264 265 267 268 269 270 272 214 25 276 282 285 284 285 287 287 292 298 294 295 298 298 300 501 307 307 208 308 509 309 210 au 312 317 319 4418 Tho natural oceurense of echoes 417 General design of an actual reverb chamber 1418 General design of a duct type reverb 14-19 General design ofa spring type reverb 1420 General design ofa plate type reverb 1421 Block diagram of a digital reverb 1422 A tape delay unit 14-23 Block diagram of a 4input x Soutput digital delay tine 14-24 Block diagram of an analog delay line 14.25 Compression and limiting characteristics 1426 Bleck diagram of a compressorfimiter 1427 The netion ofa noise gate 14.28 The action of an expander 14.29 Using a noise gate Wo tighten a snare drum Section 15 15.1 How shielding shunts electrostatic noise 15-2 Different types of cable shielding 15-3 Cable resistance & capacitance create a low pass filter 154(a)_ Single and dual conductor cables for use with “unbalanced sourees 15440). Single and dual conductor cables for use with ‘transformer or differentially balanced sources 15-5 Using heat shrink tubing for train relief 156 Avoid Chinese handeuff type strain relief 15-7 Typical multi-core stake with stage box and pigtails 15.8 Tipiring/sleeve phone plugs and jacks in a Dalanced eireuit 15-9 A tipfring’leeve phone plug wired for stereo headphones [A tipfring/leove phone plug wired for a single-eable effecta sendireturn loop Wiring a tipsleeve standard phone plug Wiring a tipring sleeve standard phone plug Wiring a phono plug Wiring a male XLR-S type connector Wiring u female XLK-3 type connector Section 16 16-1 Continuity measurement with a VOM 162 DC voltage measurement with a VOM 163 AC voltage measurement with a VOM 16-4 Driver testing with asine wave oscillator and ‘8 power amplifier 166 Loudspeaker testing with a sine wave oscillator and a power amplifier 16.6 Measuring nominal eperating levels with @ ino wave oscillator and a VOM 16-7. Measuring signal precessor gain with a sine ‘wave oscillator and a VOM 168 Atypical oscilloscope and probe 16-9 Oscilloscope display of «sine wave 16-10 Measurement of maximum output level 16-11 Checking the polarity ofa signal processor 16-12 Checking tho polarity of a loudspeaker 1613 Frequency response curves corresponding to sound pressure level meter weighting characteristics. 16-14 Simplified block diagram of u realtime analyzer, as used for sound system tests 16-15 The Dorrough loudness monitor Section 17 37-1 Aatereo playback system 372 Aclub sound reinforcement systemSound Reinforcement Handbook Page 10-8 Page Figure N° Title 2017-8 (A) A typial concert sound reinforcement aystem: Input sources 821 17.8(B) Atypical concert sound reinforcement system: Signe! processing 422 17-8 (©) A typical eoncert sound reinforcement system: Ouipat group. 823 17-8 (D) A typial concert sound reinforsement system: 349 349 330 252 353 386 387 360 360 361 Common applications for signal processors 174 Concert stage monitor aystem 17-5 Unbalanced and balanced connections X16 Formation of ground loops 11-7 Bingle-point grounding 178 Multiple-point grounds 17-9 Foating connections 17-10 Telessoping shields 17-11 Combining grounding techniques in a practeal system 17-12 Basic transformer types YE13 Unbalanced and balanced connection of transformers V7-1d Termination of transformers YTS A musica! instrument DI box 1-16 Typical microphone transformer connection 1-17 Teolated equipment rack input YE-18 — Mierephone splitter 17-19 Standard duplex outlet 17-20 Testing a twoowire AC outlet VEDI Testing a 2-wire outlet and 2 3 prong to 2 proag adaptor 17.22 Schomatie of an outlet with a lied neutral YP-23 Testing a three-wire AC outlet Section 18 18:1 Splayed loudspeaker arrangement for wider dispersion 182 Obtaining wider vertieal dispersion from multiple eabinets 183 Intentionally narrow vertical dispersion 184 Tigh fequency coverage of an elevated full range loudspeaker system 18.5 Aiming dual spoakor clusters on either side of the stage for optimum coverage 18-6 5-Way binding posts accept dial banana plugs ‘or hare wires, as well us spude lugs and single banana plugs 18.7 Phone plug and phone jack connectors 188 3-Pin XLR type connectors (inline and panel mounted) 189 APin XLR connector utilized for carrying ‘the output from two channels af pomer ampli: fication to a biamplified loudspeaker system 18-10 Initial positioning of drivers in an all direet- radiaior loudspeaker aystem 18-11 Initial positioning of drivers in an al straight horn-oaded loudspeaker system 18-12 Initial positioning of drivers in a mixod horn- loaded and direet-radiator loudspeaker 18-13 Test setup for optimizing loudspeaker system frequaney response 18.14 High pass filtor nework for protection of the high ‘requency driver 18:15 Coverage problems of a single loudspeaker luster (array) for a large audience 18:16 Use da fil eystem to angment the coverage ‘ofa main loudspeaker cluster 18-17 Fill loudspeakers used to improve mid and Ihigh equency coverage beneath a balcony 18.18 The way sound waves propagate around © 1987, 1989 Page Figure N? Title 307 a2 872 373 313 313 314 a5 876 873 381 382 383 a8 387 ‘obstructions explains why low frequencios tend to build up under balconies 16:19 Electronics required for delaying the sound to rear fil loudspeckers| 1820 Checking loudspeaker polarity with a dry cll 18.20 Sine wave sweep test of loudspeaker Section 19 1941 Standard MIDI cable (MIDI: block diagram of actual interface ‘Typical instrument MIDT port MIDI data byte stricture ‘MIDI message strvewure Like televisions, MIDI instruments may be ‘tuned to specific receive channels 19-7 Small live performance setup 19.8 Live performance setup using three keyboard synthesizers 19.9 MIDI 1.0 specification controller numbers 19410 Typical MIDI implementation chart 18.11 MIDI sequencing 19-12 A simple musie sequencing aystem 19-18 Creating a thirty-two channel MIDI system. 1914 Use ofa thru box Section 20 20-1 Closed-loop synchronization system 202 Manchester biphase modulation encoding 20:8 SMPTE time code data format (a single frame) 204 Vertical interval time code and longitudinal time code 205 An example of an eit decision list derived from a segment of a TV news show promo 20.6 Another segment of an edit decision list, from 22 dramatie video programYAMAHA, Sound Reinforcement Haxdbook Page 1 [tatty technolorically sophist- cated world, audio systems of various types are a part of alziost everyone's daily life. Nearly every home has a stereo or a simple radio. ‘Most businesses use some type of intercom/paging system, Some auto sound systems are more sophisticated than many home stereos. This handbook deals with a specific class of audio system which is properly referred to as a reinforcement system. For the purposes of this handbook, the term sound system is used exclusively to refer to reinforcement systems, Re- inforcement systems of varying levels of sophistication are used routinely by amateurs and professionals for public address and music performance, Sound reinforcement systems are not generally as simple as home stereos. Although they operate on the same principles, they require a higher level of understanding from their users, This handbook is an introduction to those principles. Its purpose is to give you the understanding necessary to ‘design and operate moderate-scale re- inforeement systems. It can also serve as a reference when questions concern- ing such systems arise. Section 1 introduces the basic concept of the sound system. sevour |«—_1overe _} 12 were PRESSURE AMPUTUDE Te |-<——Peniop _, | a WAVELENGTH Figure 1-1. Representation of a sound wave (one cycle ofa sine wave in air) Section 1. What Is A Sound System? 1.1 The Audio Signal 1.1.1 Sound Waves What we hear as sound is-a class of physical kinetic energy called acousti- cal energy. Acoustical energy consists of fluctuating waves of pressure in a physical medium — usually air. A single complete eycle of an acous- tical pressure wave consists of one half-cycle of compression (higher pressure) of the air molecules, followed by one half-cycle of rarefaction (lower pressure) of the molecules. Sounds of higher amplitude (louder) compress and rarefy the air molecules to a greater extent than do lower amplitude (softer) sounds. The rate of air pressure fluctuation is called the frequency of the wave. In order to be classified as sound, waves of pressure in air must fluctuate at a rate between 20 and 20,000 complete cycles per second (cps). Frequency corresponds to the musical attribute of pitch. Although pitch is a more com- plex attribute than frequency (it also involves amplitude), generally speak- ing the higher the frequency, the higher the perceived pitch of the sound The unit Hertz (Hz) is now used to indicate frequency in eycles per second: 20 Hz = 20 cps The amount of time required for one complete eycle of a sound wave is, called the period of the wave. A wave's period is expressed in seconds per eyele, and is found by using the equa. tion: Period = 1+ Frequency Sound waves travel through air at the speed of 1130 f/sce (344 m/sec)... at sea level on a standard temperature day (which is 59 degrees Farenheit or 15 degrees Celsius). The speed of sound is independent of frequency. The physical distance covered by one complete cycle ofa given frequency sound as it passes through air is called the wavelength. Wavelength is expressed by the equation: Wavelength = Speed of sound ‘Frequency1.1.2 The Electrical Representation of Sound An audio signal is an electrical rep- resentation of a sound, in the form of a fluctuating voltage or current. Within the limits of audio equipment, the signal voltage or current fluctuates at exactly the same rate as the acoustical energy that it represents, and the amplitudes of the acoustical sound wave and the electrical audio signal are scaled proportionately. ‘The amplitude, or strength, of an audio signal is called the signal level. Many different operating levels exist in audio systems. Level (acoustical or electrical) is specified in decibel Section 4 describes the decibel detail. is expressed on the graph in relation- ship toa time reference called ',. This happens to be the start time of the wave, although it could be designated at any time within the wave's period. The time reference may also be an- other signal. If itis, the reference signal must resemble the signal whose phase is being measured: we can mean- \gfully compare only objects that are ike, or at least related. For example, Figure 1-3 shows an audio signal processor with one input (V,,) and one output (V.,): The phase of the output signal is expressed in relation to the input signal TIME Tp ei Voltage, Current, or SPL ° 90° PHASE 0° ewe 7 OV CLL mem | 180° 270° 360° 1 1 | AIR PRESSURE Figure 1-2. Representation of an audio signal (one cycle of a sine wave ) 1.1.3 Phase The time relationship of a sound wave (or an audio signal) to a known time reference is called the phase of the signal. Phase is expressed in degrees. One complete cycle of a sine wave equala 360 degrees. The time reference may be an arbi- trarily chosen, fixed instant in time. For example, Figure 1-2 shows a type of audio signal called a sine wave. A sine wave is a pure tone, a fundamen- tal frequency with no harmonics (representing something like the sound ofa flute). The phase of the sine wave In Figure 1-3(b), the output is said to be in phase with the input (both sine waves cross zero at the same time, going in the same direction). In (e), the output is 90 degrees out of phase with the input (one sine wave crosses zero when the other is at maximum, both going in the same direction). In 1-3 (d), the output is 180 degrees out of phase with the input (both sine waves cross zero at the same time, but going in opposite directions). Note that these phase relationships may change at different frequencies, and often do with real-world audio circuits. Section 1 YAMAHA Sound RelNlorceaent Havelbook Page 2Whar Is A Sound System? YAMAHA Sound Reivforce ent Havdbook Page Vy —+] Sional Processor |_+, Vin arenes INA entation Vou po, re “| 1 RerPnase wt TB) Output 190 Dages 1° Suet Pee Phase relationships between input and output signals Signals 1 & 2 ‘Are in Phase Signals 1 & 2 are 90° Out of Phase 1.1.4 Adding Sine Waves Phase is very important in sound systems. The main reason that phase must be controlled is that it affects how sounds add together. When audio signals are mixed in a console, or when sound waves mix in the air, they add algebraically. Figure 1-4 shows the effect of phase on the addition of two sine waves of equal level and frequeney, but at different phase relationships. In Figure 1-4 (a), the sine waves are in phase; they add to form a sine wave of twice the level of either one. In (b), the sine waves are 90 degrees out of phase. They add to form a sine wave that is 1414 times higher in level than either one. In (c), the sine waves are 180 degrees out of phase; they totally cancel one another. L 142 Both signals sum to zero (cancellation) © Signals 1 & 2 are 180° Out of Phase1.2 The Basic Purpose of a Sound System A sound system is a functional arrangement of electronic components that is designed to amplify (increase the strength of) sourd. This may be done for any of several reasons. The three most common reasons are: A) To help people hear something better. For example, one person speaking on a stage may not be heard well at the back of a large hall. A sound system may be used to make the sound more clearly au- dible. In this case, the intention is to make the voice at the back of the hall sound as loud as (not louder than) it is when heard up close. B) To make sound louder for artistic reasons. A vocal group in a small club may be clearly audible but not necessarily very exciting. A sound system can give the group much greater musical impact by making it seem “larger than life.” ©) To enable people to hear sound in remote locations. Seminars or meet- ings sometimes éraw larger crowds than the meeting room will hold. A sound system can bring the speeches and discussion to a second room, so that the overflow crowd can hear them. There are also sound systems which are designed to reproduce recorded or broadeast sound. In this case the general requirements may be similar to the live sound reinforcement system, except that a tape reproducer, compact dise player, phonograph, or radio tuner will be substituted for the microphone or electronic musical instrument, and there will be less concern about feed- back. Acoustical to slectical energy ‘Signal Processing Electrical manipulation of the audio signal 1.4 A Conceptual Model of a Sound System ‘Sound systems amplify sound by converting it into electrical energy, in- creasing the power of the electrical energy by electronic means, and then converting the more powerful electrical energy back into sound. In audio electronics, devices that convert energy from one form into another are called transducers. Devices that change one or more aspects of an audio signal are called signal proces- sors. Using these terms, we can model a sound system in its simplest form, as illustrated below in Figure 1-5 ‘The input transducer (j.¢., mic or pickup) converts sound into a fluctuat- ing electrical current or voltage which is a precise representation of the sound, The fluctuating current or voltage is referred to as an audio signal. ‘The signal processing alters one or ‘more characteristics of the audio signal. In the simplest case, it in- creases the power of the signal (a signal processor that does this is called an amplifier). In practical sound systems, this block of the diagram represents a multitude of devices — preamplifiers, mixers, effects units, power amplifiers, and so on. The output transducer (.¢., the loudspeaker or headphones) converts the amplified or otherwise processed audio signal back into sound. ‘Ouput Transaueer Electrical to Section 1 YAMAHA, Sound Reivoncement Hawdbook Page 4What Is A Sound System? YAMAHA Sound ReINionceneNT Howdbook Page 5 1.4 Input Transducers Ina sound system, input transduc- ers convert sound into audio signals. The types of input transducers most commonly encountered in sound reinforcement systems are: A) Air Pressure or Velocity Micro- phones — convert sound waves traveling in air into an audio signal traveling in the mic cable. B) Contact Pickups — convert sound waves in a dense medium (wood, metal, skin) into an audio signal Sometimes used on acoustie stringed instruments such as guitar, mandolin, violin, ete. Usu- ally of the crystal type, occasionally capacitive. C) Magnetic Pickups — convert fluc- tuating waves of induced magnet- ism into an audio signal. Found on electric stringed instruments. D) Tape Heads — convert fluctuating magnetic fields (imprinted on magnetic recording tape) into an audio signal. E) Phonograph Pickups (car- tridges) — convert physical move- ment of a stylus (*needle") into an audio signal. In professional sys- tems, the moving-magnet type cartridge is the most common. F) Laser Pickups — convert im- printed patterns on a compact dise into a digital data stream that is then translated by a DAC (Digital- to-Analog Converter) into an analog audio signal. G) Optical Pickups — convert vari- ations in the density or transparent, area of a photographic film into an audio signal. Used for most motion picture sound tracks. Each type of input transducer has its own characteristics, which must be understood if the transducer is to be used properly. Section 10 of this hand- ‘book deals with microphones in det 1.3 Output Transducers Ina sound system, output transduc- cers convert audio signals back into sound. The types of output transducers ‘most. commonly encountered in sound reinforcement systems are: A) Woofer loudspeakers — designed specifically to reproduce low fre- quencies (usually below 500 Hz). Woofers sometimes are used to reproduce both low frequencies and some mid frequencies (normally not higher than 1.5 kHz). Typically, cone-type drivers are used as woof cers, measuring from 8 to 18 inches in diameter. B) Midrange loudspeakers — (formerly called “squawkers,” though this is an archaie term from the hi-fi world) — designed specifi- cally to reproduce mid frequencies (typically above 500 Hz). The high- est frequency reproduced by a midrange unit is usually not higher than 6 kHz. Ifa cone-type driver is used as a midrange loudspeaker, its diameter typically ranges from 5 to 12 inches; if a compression driver is used, its diaphragm diameter may range from 2.5 inches to 4 inches (with a few special units up to about 9 inches in diameter) C) Tweeter loudspeakers — de- signed to reproduce the highest fre- quencies (normally higher than 1.5 kHz, and usually above 6 kHz). Ta cone-type driver is used, its dia- phragm diameter usually ranges from 2 to 5 inches; compression driver diaphragms range from under 1.5 inches to about 4 inches. D) Full-range loudspeakers — inte- grated systems incorporating woofer and tweeter (and, if used, midrange) drivers in a single enclo- sure. As the name implies, they are designed to reproduce the full audio range (more cr less). In practical terms, their range rarely extends below about 60 Hz. NOTE: A full-range driver isa single loudspeaker which alone is designed to reproduce the full audio frequency range; this is not the ‘same as a full range multi-driver system.) Subwoofer loudspeakers — used to extend the low frequency range of fall-range systems to include fre- ‘quencies down to 20 or 30 Hz. Their range rarely extends above about 300 Hz, Cone-type drivers are used nearly exclusively, and typically ‘measure from 15 to 24 inches in diameter, although a few special units are available with cone di- ameters approaching 5 feet, F) Supertweeter loudspeakers — used to extend the range of full- range systems in the highest fre- quencies (usually above 10 kHz). Typically, these are either compres- sion drivers or piezoelectrie drivers in professional sound systems, although hi-fi type systems use some more esoteric technologies. G) Monitor loudspeakers — full- range loudspeakers that are pointed at the performer on stage, rather than out into the audience. They are used to return a portion of the program to the performer, to help him or her stay in tune and in time, and are sometimes loosely referred to as “foldback.” In recording stu- dios, a studio monitor or control room monitor loudspeaker is a full range, high accuracy loudspeaker system designed to permit evalu- ation of the sound being recorded. H) Headphones —fall-range transducers designed to fit snugly on the ears. Some designs block out ambient (external) sound, while others do not. Headphones are sometimes used in sound systems as monitors for click-tracks, and may be used by engineers to check a live mix or a recording during a per- formance. Headphones also appear as components of intercom systems. Each type of output transducer has its own characteristics, which must be understood if the transducer is to be ‘used properly. Section 13 of this man- ual deals with output transducers in detail 1.6 A Practical Model of a Sound System —— igure 1-6 (next page) shows a simple practical sound system, such as ‘might be used for a panel discussion in a lecture hall ‘The system in Figure 1-6 is designed to amplify the voice of three panelists (or board members, etc). The system ‘can be conceptually analyzed as having three sections: (a) the input transduc- ers, (b) signal processing, and (c) the output transducers: A) Input Transducers — Three microphones convert the sound they pick up from the panelists into audio signals that travel down the cables to the signal processing equipment. B) Signal Processing — The three microphones are connected to indi- vidual inputs on the mixing console. The console serves the following functions: 1) Preamplification — The console's microphone input section amplifies the level of the audio signal from each microphone, bringing it up to line level 2) Equalization — ‘The console provides the means to adjust the tonal balance of each ‘microphone individually. This allows the console oprator to achieve a more pleasing or more intelligible sound quality. 3) Mixing — The console adds the equalized signals of the microphones together to produce a single line-level output signal. ‘The output of the console is connected to a power amplifier, ‘The power amplifier boosts the console’s line level (0.1 to 100 mil- liwatts) output signal to a level suitable to drive the loudspeaker (0.5 to 500 watts), C) Output Transducer — The lou speaker converts the power amp! fier output signal back into sound, ‘The level of the sound is much Section 1 YAMAHA Sound Reinforcement Haydbook Page 6‘Whar Is A. Sound System? YAMAHA ‘Sound RuMoRceMeNt Handbook. Pace 7 higher than that of the three panel- ists speaking unaided, ‘There is another less obvious, but, equally important aspect of the sound system: the environment. When the sound output of the loudspeaker propagates into the hall, itis altered by the acoustical characteristics of the space. ‘The room may have little effect on the clarity of the sound if, for example, the room is “dead” or nonreverberant. If the room is highly reverberant, and the sound system is not designed and installed to deal with the acoustics of the space, the effect on the sound may be s0 severe as to render the sound Input Transducers Microphones system useless. ‘The environment is an integral part of the sound system, and its effects must be considered when the system is installed. Sections 6 and 6 of this ‘manual deal in detail with the effects of the environment on sound systems. Every sound system, no matter how large, is merely an extension of this basic model. The same principles that apply to this simple sound system also apply to large-scale concert reinforce- ment systems. Output Transducer i | | oudspeaker Mixing Console Signal Processing Power Ampifier Figure 1-6. A simple sound systemYAMAHA, Sound Reivfoncement Handbook Pace 8YAMAHA, Sowd Reinlorcesenr Haxdbook Page? SECTION 2. 13810 dN (LON id ne of the most commonly-used. terms in audio is frequency response. In Section 2, we define this term, examine how it applies to various types of audio equipment, and describe the relationship between frequency re- sponse and program material. The Proverbial ial To =o) a 2.1 A Definition ‘The frequency response of a device describes the relationship between the device’s input and output with regard to signal frequency and amplitude. Another term for this is magnitude response. In its most common usage, the frequency response describes the usable range of signal frequencies which the device will pass from input to output, Consider the system shown in Figure 2-1. An unknown signal proc- essing element (or black box) is fed from a variable-frequency sine wave generator, and a device for indicating sine wave level in decibels is connected to its output. A 8 SINE WAVE LeveL GENERATOR DEVICE en TES INDICATOR Figure 2-1. Model for measuring frequency response ‘The ideal oscillator produces the same output level at all frequencies (in reality the linearity is not always perfect), so the input level to the black box is constant. As we sweep the oscillator fre- quency throughout the RELATIVE LEVEL (49) Fl audio range, however, we may see that the output level of the black box, as registered by our meter, changes. If we make note of the level at each frequeney ona graph, we can produce a chart like that shown in Figure 2-2, Here, the output Jevel (vertical axis) is plotted against frequency l FREQUENCY) ee 22 (horizontal axis). Figure 2-2. Plotted frequency response (relative level versu frequency) of “Black Box” in Figure 2-1The graph of Figure 2-2is called a frequeney response plot. It shows us, the range of frequencies that the black box will pass from input to output, and what fluctuations in output level (if any) occur within that range. tis important to understand that the frequency response plot assumes a constant input level to the device ‘under test. For precisely this reason, it gives us an indication of the fidelity with which the device transfers a signal from input to output. The less deviation there is in output level across the stated frequency band, the more faithfully the signal at the output will reflect the signal at the input. NOTES: 1. If the input to a device under test is not constant in level at all frequen- cies, a correction may be made to the output plot (or the input level can be intentionally varied to make it con- stant). The resulting plot is said to be “normalized.” 2. The term “frequency response” is used only to refer to signal process ing devices and transducers — that is, any devices through which a signal passes. When referring to signal generating devices (oscilla- tors, musical instruments, and so con), the proper term to use is “fre queney range.” 20 30 Figure 2-3. Derivation of a frequency response specific: FREQUENCY (Hz) 2.1.1 Basic Specification Methods In its simplest form, a typical fre- quency response specification might read: FREQUENCY RESPONSE: 80 Hz to 18 kHz, £3 dB Note that the range (from 30 Hz to 18 kHz) is accompanied by the quali- fier, “+ or —3 dB.” This is called the tol- erance of the specification. The toler- ance tells us the maximum deviation in output level that we can expect over the stated range if the input level remains the same at all frequencies. Without a stated tolerance, the fre- quency response specification is use- Jess, since we are left to guess the unit's effect on the signal. There might, in fact, be horrendous peaks and/or dips in the response — and these could alter the signal considerably. While a tolerance of £3 dB is often assumed if not specified, such an assumption is at your own risk... there is usually a Teason why such an important quali- fier is omitted from a specification! Figure 2-3 shows how such a specifi- cation is derived from the frequency response plot. + Average L 18K 20K n from a plot Section 2 YAMAHA Sousd ReisorceMeNt Handbook Page 10Frequency Response YAMAHA Sousd ReiMforce Ment Handbook Page 1 Some audio devices exhibit extraor- dinarily flat frequency response, as shown in Figure 2-4, Such a response curve would be characteristic of a power amplifier or line amplifier, for example. Figure 2-4. A plot of “flat” frequency response In such cases, the frequency re- sponse limits are usually taken to be those points where the unit’s output is 3 dB below the average (reference) level. The frequency response apecifica- tion for the device plotted in Figure 2-4, then, would read: FREQUENCY RESPONSE: 20 Hz to 30 kHz, +0, -3 4B. If the frequency response of the device in question greatly exceeds the total range of human hearing (20 Hz to 20 kHz), the frequency response may be specified by simply stating the total response deviation within the audible range. The specification for the device whose response is shown in Figure 2-5, for example, might read: FREQUENCY RESPONSE: 20 Hz to 20 kHz, +0, -1 dB. Alternately, if one chooses the -3 4B points as the frequency limits, the specification would read: FREQUENCY RESPONSE: 10 Hz to 40 kz, +0, -3 dB. ween ont meouency) 2K 40K Figure 2-5. A “fat” frequency response plot of a device with! very wide bandwidth 2.1.2 Octave Relationships And Measurements Frequency response measurements and specifications are sometimes made on an octave or Ys-octave basis. Such ‘measurements are far lower in resolu- tion than those described above. They are widely used with loudspeakers, however, because they provide good. correlation with the characteristics of human hearing (and can be adjusted by corresponding one octave or ¥/- octave equalizers or filter sets) The octave is a special musical interval between two tones, formed when the ratio between the frequencies of the tones is 2:1. The ear hears an equivalence between the tones when this is the case (for this reason, pitches at suecessive octaves in the musical scale are named with the same letter). With regard to frequency, the octave interval is much wider at high frequen- cies than at low frequencies. For ex- ample, one octave above 40 Hz is 80 Hz (a 40 eyele wide interval), but an octave above 1,000 Hz is 2,000 Hz (a 1,000 cycle wide interval). Yet we hear both of these intervals as musically similar! This is because the ear’s response to frequency is logarithmic in character. (Logarithms are discussed in the Appendix of this handbook). Accord- ingly, audio response plots such as those shown earlier in this section employ a logarithmic seale to indicate frequency. On this type of seale, the divisions are packed closer and closer together as the frequency inereases.. up to a decade (10, 100, 1000, ete.), then the spacing interval repeats. Octave and ¥/-octave measurements are designed to divide the linear audio frequency scale, which we do not perceive to be linear, into perceptually equal increments. In frequency re- sponse measurements and specifica- tions, then, the average level in each incremental division is given — nor- mally in bar graph form, as shown in Figure 2-6 (next page). Here, the center frequencies of the bands are spaced '/s octave apart. The specific frequencies given on the horizontal axis are standard center frequencies for "s-oclave measure- ‘ments: these same centers are also used for the filters in Ys-octave graphic equalizers. The standard used is ‘Known as “ISO” ‘International Stan- dards Organization), so you know if ‘you have an equalizer with ISO