i: 14 FORGES ON SUB-MERGED Fo Wo > 14.1 INTRODUCTION When a fluid is flowing over a stationary body, a force is exerted by the fluid on the body. Similarly, when a body is moving in a stationary fluid, a force is exerted by the fluid on the body. ‘Also when the body and fluid both are moving at different velocities, a force is exerted by the fluid ‘on the body. Some of the examples of the fluids flowing over stationary bodies or bodies moving in, 4 Stationary fluid are : 1. Flow of air over buildings, 2. Flow of water over bridges, 3, Submarines, ships, airplanes and automobiles moving through water or air. » 14.2 FORCE EXERTED BY A FLOWING FLUID ON A STATIONARY BODY Consider a body held stationary in a real uid, which is flowing at a uniform velocity U as shown in Fig. 14.1. ge ‘STATIONARY BODY Fig. 14.1 Force on a stationary body. ‘The fluid will exert a force on the stationary body. The total force (F) exerted by the fluid on the body is perpendicular to the surface of the body. Thus the total force is inclined to the direction of ‘motion. The total force can be resolved in two components, one in the direction of motion and other perpendicular to the direction of motion. 657658 Fluid Mechanics 14.2.1 Drag. The component of the total force (F,) in the direction of motion is called ‘drag’. This component is denoted by Fp, Thus drag isthe force exerted by the fluid in the direction of motion. 14.2.2 Lift. The component of the total force (F,) in the direction perpendicular to the direction ‘of motion is known as ‘lift, This is denoted by F. Thus lift is the force exerted by the fluid in the direction perpendicular to the direction of motion. Lift force occurs only when the axis of the body is inclined to the direction of fluid flow. If the axis of the body is parallel to the direction of fluid flow, lift force is zero. In that case only drag force acts. If the fluid is assumed ideal and the body is symmetrical such as a sphere or cylinder, both the drag and lift will be zero. » 14.3, EXPRESSION FOR DRAG AND LIFT Consider an arbitrary shaped solid body placed in a real fluid, which is flowing with a uniform velocity U in a horizontal direction as shown in Fig. 14.2. Consider a small elemental area dA on the surface of the body. The forces acting on the surface area dA are : /_sraniontarty SOLD BODY Fig. 142 Drag and lif. 1. Pressure force equal to p x dA, acting perpendicular to the surface and 2. Shear force equal to ty x dA, acting along the tangential direction to the surface. Let 6 = Angle made by pressure force with horizontal direction. (a) Drag Force (F). The drag force on elemental area = Force due to pressure in the direction of fluid motion + Force due to shear stress in the direction of fluid motion. = pd cos 8 + 7A cos (90° ~ 8) = pdA cos 8 + TyA sin 8 Total drag, F = Summation of pdA cos @ + Summation of tadA sin @ Ip cos 6da + ftp sin dA. a4.) ‘The term J p cos @dA is called the pressure drag or form drag while the term J to sin @dA is called the friction drag or skin drag or shear drag. (6) Litt Force (F,.). The lift force on elemental area = Force due to pressure in the ditection perpendicular to the direction of motion + Force due to shear stress in the direction perpendicular to the direction of motion,Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 659 sin @ + tadA sin (90° ~ @) = — pdA sin @ + Ty4A cos @ Negative sign is taken with pressure force as itis acting in the downward direction while shear force is acting vertically up. Total lift, F,=] t dA cos 0 —J pdA sin @ Jtyeos GUA ~ jp sin 6dA (142) “The drag and lift for a body moving in a fluid of density p, ata uniform velocity U are calculated mathematically, as 2 Fo= Cpa PL 143) FA (144) where Cy = Co-efficient of drag, C; = Co-eficient of litt, A= Area of the body whichis the projected area of the body perpendicular to the direction of flow or = Largest projected area of the immersed body. ‘Then resultant force on the body, Fy = FS + FE (145) ‘The equations (14,3) and (14.4) which give the mathematical expression for drag and lift are derived by the method of dimensional analysis. 14.3.1 Dimensional Analysis of Drag and Lift. In the chapter of Dimensional and Model ‘Analysis it is shown in problem 12.6 that the force exerted by a fluid on a supersonic plane is given by : F=ptu79|.~, = 00 8 rr aa i) Also in problem 12.7, itis shown that the force exerted by a fluid on a partially sub-merged body is given by : F=pluo| puL Thus the general expression for the force exerted by a fluid (air or water) on a body (completely ‘sub-merged or partially sub-merged) is given as “id, 2729 | fs _K vp et an Acceleration due to gravity. If the body is completely sub-merged in the fluid, the force exerted by the fluid on the body due to gravitational effect is negligible. Hence the non-dimensional term containing °g’ in equation (14.6), ce, isp. Ie voy othe ays compare wih Yel of oun, eet We660 Fluid Mechanics compressibility is to be considered. But if the ratio of the velocity of the body to the velocity of the sound is less than 0.3, the force exerted by the fluid on the body due to compressibility is negligible. Hence the non-dimensional term in equation (14.6) containing K can be neglected. Then the force exerted by fluid on the body is given as = pu? 4] = peut 9 | UE rape of te] eof] where PUL ~ Reynolds number = Ry u F=pL'U"9{R). (14) Now F is the total force exerted by the fluid on the body. The total force is having two components, one in the direction of motion called drag force and other component in the direction perpendicular to the direction of motion, called lift force. ‘The two components of F arc expressed as plu? 2 where Cy is a function of R, and is called co-efficient of drag Ui Fp= xp =CpA 2 And P= eeu" xO, where C, isa function of R, and is called co-efficient of lift pu 2 Problem 14.1. A fla plate 1.5 m x 1.5 m moves at 50 knvhour in stationary air of density 1.15 kgf’. If the co-efficients of drag and lift are 0.15 and 0.75 respectively, determine : (i) The lift force, (ii) The drag force (iti) The resultant force, and (iv) The power required to keep the plate in motion Solution. Given : CA Area of the plate, A=15x15=2.25 m* Velocity of the plate, U = 50 kame = 5271000 5 — 13.89 mis Density of air p= 1.15 kg/m? (i) Lift Force (F,). Using equation (14.4), (i) Drag Foree (Fp). Using equation (14.3),Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 661 Foxy xa PE cosas HS" yap 8 Am (iti) Resultant Force (F ). Using equation (14.5), Fy= \Fi+ Fe = 3748? + 18720" N = 1400+ 35025 = 190.85 N. Ans. (iv) Power Required to keep the Plate in Motion once in the direction of motion x Velocity 1000 = Fy XU _ 374251389 ©1000 1000 Problem 14.2 Experiments were conducted in a wind tunnel with a wind speed of 50 km/hour on a flat plate of size 2 m long and I m wide. The density of air is 1.15 kg/m’, The co-efficients of lift and drag are 0.75 and 0.15 respectively. Determine (i) the lif force, (ii) the drag force, (iii) the resultant force, (iv) direction of resultant force and (v) power exerted by air on the plate. Solution. Given P kW = 0.519 kW. Ans. ‘Area of plate, Az=2x1=2m? Velocity of air, U=50 km/hr = am m/s = 13.89 m/s Density of air, p= 115 kg/m? Value of Cp=0.15 and C, = 0.75 © Lift force (Fy) Using equation (14.4), Fp = C, xA xp x U2. = 0.75 x2 x 1.15 x 13.8972 = 166.404 N. Ans. (ii Drag force (Fp) Using equation (14.3), Fp=CpxAxpxU'2 0.15 2% 1.15 x 13.897/2 = 33.28 N. Ans. (iti) Resultant force (Fg) Using equation (14.5), Fyp= Fp + FE = 3828" + 166404" = 169.67 N. Ans. (iv) The direction of resultant force (8) The direction of resultant force is given by, Fi _ 16638 _ Fy 33275 * = tan"! 5 = 78.69". Ans. (0) Power exerted by air on the plate Power = Force in the direction of motion x Velocity Fy XUN mls = 33.280 x 13.89 W = 462.26 W. Ans. tan @= Watt = N mis)662 Fluid Mechanics Problem 14.3 Find the difference in drag force exerted on a flat plate of sige 2 m x2.m when the plate is moving at a speed of 4 m/s normal to its plane in : (i) water, (ii) air of density 1.24 kg/m Co-efficient of drag is given as 1.15. Solution. Given : ‘Area of plate, A=2x2 Velocity of plate, U=4mis Co-efficient of drag, Lis (i) Drag force when the plate is moving in water. Using equation (143), Fy = Cy x AX a where p for water = 1000 a = 1.15 x4 x 1000 x 4 N = 36800 N. od) (id) Drag force when the plate is moving in air, : FoeCox ax BE, he pts = 124 40° Ls x 4.0 x 1.24 x 22° N= 45.6N ii) 20 Fo Difference in drag force = (i) - Gi) = 36800 - 45.6 = 36754. 4 N. Ans. Problem 14.4 A truck having a projected area of 6.5 square metres travelling at 70 km/hour has a total resistance of 2000 N. Of this 20 per cent is due to rolling friction and 10 per cent is due t0 surface friction. The rest is due to form drag. Calculate the co-efficient of form drag. Take density of air = 1.25 kg/m’, Solution. Given : Area of truck, A=65m? 70 x100 Speed of truck, U=70 km/hr = 9.44 mis pe 60x60 Total resistance, F = 2000N Rolling friction resistance, Fe = 20% of total resistance = 27 x 2000 = 400 N Surface friction resistance, Fs = 10% of total resistance = a x 2000 = 200 N Form drag, Fp = 2000 ~ Fe ~ Fs = 2000 ~ 400 - 200 = 1400 N Using equation (M3), Fy = CyxAx PO ‘o-efficient of form drag 19.44" 2 where if F, = Form drag then Cy = 1400 = Cp x 6.5 x 1.25 x (p = Density of air = 1.25 kg/m?) c 1400 x2 PY 6SX125 x 19.44 X 19.44 .912. Ans.Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 663 Problem 14.5 A circular disc 3 m in diameter is held normal to a 26.4 m/s wind of density 0.0012 gm/ec. What force is required to hold it at rest ? Assume co-efficient of drag of dise = 1.1 Solution. Given : Diameter of dise =3m Area, A= 5G)" = 7.0685 m* Velocity of wind, U=264 mis Density of wind, p= 0.0012 gm/em* = 20012 ge Ke 1000 m Co-efficient of drag, Cp= 1 ‘The force required to hold the disc at rest is equal to the drag exerted by wind on the disc. Drag (Fp) is given by equation (14.3) as Problem 14.6 A man weighing 90 kgf descends to the ground from an aeroplane with the help of a air = 1.25 kg/m’. Solution. Given : Weight of man, W=90 kgf = 90 x 9.81 N= 882.9 N I kgf = 9.81 N) Velocity of parachute, U=20mis Co-efficient of drag, Cp=05 Density of air, p= 1.25 kg/m? Let the diameter of parachute =D Area, A=" Dim. 4 ‘When the parachute with the man comes down with a uniform velocity, U = 20 m/s, the drag resistance will be equal to the weight of man, neglecting the weight of parachute. And projected area of the hemispherical parachute wil be equal to © D”. Drag, Fp =90 kgf = 90 x 9.81 = 882.9 N pu? Using equation (14.3), Fy = Cy Ax PU 882.9 = 0.5 x © pt 125%20° ws 9420 fi pre —8829%4%2.0 = 5 9946 0 053% 1.252020 90 bgt or D = E9946 = 2.999 m. Ans. Fig, 43 “i664 Fluid Mechanics Problem 14.7 A man weighing 981 N descends to the ground from an aeroplane with the help of 4 parachute against the resistance of air. The shape of the parachute is hemispherical of 2 m diameter. Find the velocity of the parachute with which it comes down, Assume Cy = 0.5 and p for air 00125 gm/cc and v= 0.015 stoke. Solution. Given Weight of the man, Drag force, Diameter of the parachute, Projected area, Cocina vraag, C205 Dons fora 9 =000125 en 00125 gs AB sash’ = 25 ot Mass 1000 m aie Lathe ela fparchue = 0 Uap spain (143), Fy 6px BE or oa) x 0sicmr BS u 31.61 mis. Ans. WBIK20 mx 125 Problem 14.8 A man descends to the ground from an aeroplane with the help of a parachute which is hemispherical having a diameter of 4 m against the resistance of air with a uniform velocity of 25 m/s. Find the weight of the man if the weight of parachute is 9.81 N. Take Cp = 0.6 and density of air = 1.25 kg/m’. Solution. Given Diameter of parachute, D= 4m Projected area, Velocity of parachute, U=25 mis Weight of parachute, W,=9.81N Co-efficient of drag, Cp=0.6 Density of air, P= 1.25 kg/m? Let the weight of man =W; ‘Then weight of man + Weight of parachute = W, + W, = (W> + 9.81) Hence drag force will be equal to the weight of man plus weight of parachute. Drag force, Fy =(W; +931) Ung eon (143 ten Fa Cgc or (W, + 9.81) = 0.6 x 4 x 125%25" = 9045.24 N W, = 2945.24 -9.81 = 2938.49 N. Ans.Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 665 Problem 14.9 Calculate the diameter of a parachute to be used for dropping an object of mass 100 kg so that the maximum terminal velocity of dropping is 5 m/s. The drag co-efficient for the parachute, which may be treated as hemispherical is 1.3. The density of air is 1.216 kg/m’. Solution. Given Mass of object, M ‘Weight of object, Drag force, Velocity of object, Drag co-efficient, Density of air, P= 1.216 kg/m? Let the diameter of parachute = Dm = 100kg 100 x 9.81 = 981 N Projected area, Asi Dm? ject ; Using equation (14,3), Fy =Cyx Ax SU or 981 = 1.3 Ep? 1x5 4 2 or p?=— 281x492 63.94 XR X1216X 5X5 [6321 = 7.95 m. Ans. Problem 14.10 A kite osm 08 m weighing 0.4 kef (3.924 N) assumes an angle of 12° to the horizontal. The string attached to the kite makes an angle of 45° to the horizontal. The pull on the string is 2.5 kef (24.525 N) when the wind is flowing ata speed of 30 km/hour. Find the corresponding co-efficient of drag and lif. Density of air is given as 1.25 kg/m’. Solution. Given : Projected area of kite, A =0.8%0.8 = 0.64 m? Weight of kite, W=04 kgf = 049.81 = 3.924 N Angle made by kite with horizontal, @, = 12° Angle made by string with horizontal, 8, = 45° Pull on the sting, P=25 kel = 259.81 = 24.525 N Speed of wind, 1 =30 kine = 22% 1000 nis = 8.333 mis 6060 Density of air p= 1.25 kg/m? Drag force, F ) = Force exerted by wind in the direction of motion (-e.im the X-X direction) = Component of pull, P along X-X = P cos 45° = 24.525 cos 45° = 17.34 N Force exerted by wind on the kite perpendicular to the direction of motion (i.e, along ¥-¥ direction) = Component of P in vertically downward direction + Weight of kite (W) And lift force, F,666 Fluid Mechanics = P sin 45° + W = 24.525 sin 45° + 3.924 N = 17.34 + 3.924 = 21.264 N. Fig, 144 (i) Drag Co-efficient (Cp). Using equation (14.3), we have 2xfy___2x1734 ApU? 0641.25 x 8333" i) Lift Co-efficient (C,). Using equation (14.4), we have ‘» .624. Ans. F,=C,xax 2 2 2xF, 2x 21.264 “AxpxU? 064 x125x8333 Problem 14.11 A kite weighing 0.8 kaf (7.848 N) has an effective area of 0.8m’. Itis maintained in air at an angle of 10° to the horizontal. The string attached to the kite makes an angle of 45° to the horizontal and at this position the value of co-efficient of drag and lift are 0.6 and 0.8 respectively. Find the speed of the wind and the tension in the string. Take the density of air as 1.25 kg/m’, Solution. Given : or L 1.768. Ans. Weight of kite, W=0.8 kgf =0.8 x9.81 = 7.848.N Effective area, A=08m? Angle made by kite with horizontal = 10° Angle made by string with horizontal = 45° Cy=06 C,=08 Density of air, p= 1.25 kg/m? Let the speed of the wind = Umis and tension in string =r “iForces on Sub-merged Bodies 667 west rig. us ‘The free body diagram for the kite is shown in Fig. 14.5. brag fe, Fo Compaen oso X= Teo 45 Bt dig ns Fe sho = Cy Ay DE ODA IIS UE Equating the two values of Fp, T cos 45° = 0.3 U? adi) Now lift force from Fig. 14.5, F, = Component of T vertically downward + Weight of kite = Tsin 45° + 7.848 CX AXpU? _08x08X125xU? 2 20 Equating the two values of F,, T sin 45° + 7.848 = 0.4 U or T sin 45° = .04076 U? - 7.848 di) Also lift force, F, =04 From equations (i) and (ii), as T cos 45° = T sin 45°, 0.3 U? = 0.4 U? ~ 7.848 or 7.848 = 0.4 U?- 0.3 U?=0.1 2. 7848 TSB 5, i w= TE = 78.48 Mii) 886 x 60x 60 1000 Substituting the value of — U? = 78.48 given by equation (ii) into equation (i), we get T cos 45° = 0.3 x 78.48 = 23.544 U = VTRAB = 8.86 mis km/hr = 31.89 knvhr. Ans. 23544 608 45° 33.3 N. Ans. “i668 Fluid Mechanics Problem 14.12 The air is flowing over a cylinder of diameter 50 mm and infinite length with a velocity of 0.1 m/s. Find the total drag, shear drag and pressure drag on I m length of the cylinder if the total drag co-efficient is equal to 1.5 and shear drag co-efficient equal to 0.2. Take density of air 25 kg/em’. Solution. Given : Diameter of cylinder, D=50 mm = 0.05 m Length of cylinder, L=10m Projected Area, A=LxD=1x.05=0.05 m? Velocity of air, U=0.1 ms Total drag co-efficient, Cpp = 1.5 Shear drag co-efficient, Cpg = 0.2 Density of air, p= 1.25 kg/m? Total dag en by, Fop= Copa OS = 19% .05x Siearag gon by, Fg Cd 125 x (0. = 0.2.05 = 0,0000625 N. Ans. From equation (14.1), Total drag, Fp = Pressure drag + Shear drag Pressure drag, = Total drag ~ Shear drag = 0.000468 ~ 0.000625 = 0.004055 N. Ans. Problem 14.13 4 body of length 2.0 m has a projected area 1.5 m? normal to the direction of its ‘motion. The body is moving through water, which is having viscosity = 0.01 poise. Find the drag on the body if it has a drag co-efficient 0.5 for a Reynold number of 8 x 10° Solution. Given Long ty, Le20m Projected Area, A=15m? Visosiyotwaes, 200 poe» 29001 8 brag vstonn, ——cy=05 Reynold number, R,=8x 10° Lathe dng ose on tty = First find the velocity with which body is moving in water. Itis calculated from the given Reynold number. = BU, wn pnts 10Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 669 _ 1000xU x 2.0 or 8x 10° =2x10°U 0.001 = S210" 5 4.0 mis 2x10 Using equation (14.3), Fy = CyAx PL = 051.5 x 1000 42° = 6049 N. Ans, Problem 14.14 A sub-marine which may be supposed to approximate a cylinder 4 m in diameter ‘and 20 m tong travels sub-merged at 1.3 m/s in sea-water. Find the drag exerted on it, ifthe drag co- efficient for Reynold number greater than 10° may be taken as 0.75. The density of sea-water is given ‘as 1035 kg/m’ and kinematic viscosity as 015 stokes Solution. Given : Dia. of cylinder, D=4m Length of cylinder, L=20m Velocity of cylinder, U=13 mis Density of sea-water, p= 1035 kg/m? Kinematic viscosity v= 0.015 stokes = 015 em*/s = 015 x 104 m/s Let the drag force Reynold number, 40 5.466 « 10° 15x10 Since R,>10%,hence Cy = 0.75 Drag force is given by equation (14.3) as Fox Cyan ue 2 where A = projected area of cylinder = Lx D = 20x 4.0 = 80.0 m? TOSSX13" of = 5247.2 N. Ans, Problem 14.15 A jet plane which weighs 29.43 kN and having a wing area of 20 m° flies at a velocity of 950 km/hour, when the engine delivers 7357.5 kW power. 65% of the power is used to overcome the drag resistance of the wing. Calculate the co-efficients of lift and drag for the wing. The density of the atmospheric air is 1.21 kg/m’. Solution. Given ‘Weight of plane, W = 20.43 KN = 29.43 x 1000 N = 29430 N Wing area, A=20m? Speed of plane, U = 950 kre = 250% 1000 _ 963.88 mys 0x60 Engine power, P= 7357.5 kW Power used to overcome drag resistance = 65% of 7357.5 = © 5¢7357.5 = 4782.375 kW 100[670 Fluid Mechanics Density of air, p= 1.21 kgim® Let Cp = Co-eficient of drag and C, = Co-efficient of lift. Now power used in kW to overcome drag resistance = “2*~Y. o- 47gp.375 = Fo 26388 1000 = 478.375 1000 oF 26888 2 But from equation (14.3), we have Fy = Cp A e 4782.375 x 1000 263. 200 = Cy X 20x 1.21 26388 ° p= 41823151000 *2 _ ga15, Ans 20x 1.21 x 26388 The lift force should be equal to weight of the plane s F,=W=29430N pu? 263.88" But Fp=C,.A. 22 or 29430=C, 20x 1.21 x 29430 x2 20x 121 x 263.88° 14.3.2. Pressure Drag and Friction Drag. The total drag on a body is given by equation (14.1) as Total drag, Fy=Jp cos 6dA + J % sin 4A wali) where | p cos @dA = Pressure drag or form drag, and Jt sin @dA = Friction drag or skin drag or shear drag The relative contribution ofthe pressure drag and friction drag tothe total drag depends on : (H. Shape of the immersed body, Gi) Position of the body immersed inthe fluid, and (ii) Fiuid characteristics. Consider the flow ofa fluid over a flat plate when the plate is placed parallel to the direction ofthe flow as shown in Fig. 14.6. In this cos 8, which is the angle made by pressure with the direction motion, wll be 90°. Thus te term Jp cos 844 will be zero and hence total drag will be equal to fiction drag (or shear drag). I the plate is placed perpendicular tothe flow as shown in Fig. 14.7, the angle @, made by the pressure with the direction of motion will be zero. Hence the term | sin 6d will become equal to ze10 and hence total drag will be due to the pressure difference between the upstream and downstream side ofthe plate. Ifthe plate is held at an angle with the direction of flow, both the terms. J p cos 6dA and J ty sin 844 will exist and total drag will be equal to the sum of pressure drag and friction drag. L 0.0349. Ans. Fig. 14.6 Flat plate parallel to flow.Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 671 Pare DOWMESTREAM wae Fig. 14.7 Flat plate perpendicular to lowe. 14.3.3 Stream-lined Body. A stream-lined body is defined as that body whose surface coincides with the stream-lines, when the body is placed in a flow. In that case the separation of flow ‘will ake place only at the tailing edge (or rearmost part of the body). Though the boundary layer will start atthe leading edge, will become turbulent from laminar, yet it does not separate upto the rearmost part of the body in the case of stream-lined body. Thus behind a stream-lined body, wake formation zone will be very small and consequently the pressure drag will be very stall. Then the total drag on. the stream-lined body will be due to friction (shear) only. A body may be stream-lined : 1. at low velocities but may not be so at higher velocities. 2. when placed in a particular position in the flow but may not be so when placed in another position. 14.3.4 Bluff Body. A bluff body is defined as that body whose surface does not coincide with the streamlines, when placed in a flow. Then the flow is separated from the surface of the body much ahead of its tailing edge with the result of a very large wake formation zone. Then the drag due to pressure will be very large as compared to the drag due to friction on the body. Thus the bodies of such ‘shape in which the pressure drag is very large as compared to friction drag are called bluff bodies. » 14.4 DRAG ON A SPHERE p= Md fit[672 Fluid Mechanics F y= 3mDU. (14.8) He further observed that out of the total drag given by equation (14.8), two-third is contributed by skin friction and the remaining one-third by pressure difference. Thus Skin friction dap, F= 3 Fy= 3x 3m1DU = 2muDU and presse rg, Fy, = Fy dco = mo (i Expression of C, for Sphere when Reynolds Number is less than 0.2. From equation (14.3), the total drag is given by Fo=Cpxax oe 2 For sper, Fy 3mDU 4 = Projected area ofthe sphere = = D® 14.9) as Equation (14.9) is called ‘Stoke's law’. (i) Value of Cp for Sphere when R, is between 0.2 and 5. With the inerease of Reynolds ‘number, the inertia forces increase and must be taken into account. When R, lies between 0.2 and 5, Oseen, a Swedish physicist, improved Stoke's law as oo att 3 | (14.10) RL 16R, Equation (14.10) is called Oscen formulae and is valid for R, between 0.2 and 5. (iii) Value of Cp for R, from 5.0 to 1000. The drag co-efficient for the Reynolds number from 5 to 1000 is equal to.0.4. (iv) Value of Cp for R, from 1000 to 100,000, In this range, Cp is independent of the Reynolds ‘number and its value is approximately equal to 0.5. () Value of Cp for R, more than 10°, The value of C, is approximately equal o 0.2 for the Reynolds number more than 10°. Problem 14.16 Calculate the weight of a ball of diameter 80 mm which is just supported in a vertical air stream which is flowing at a velocity of 7 m/s. The density of air is given as 1.25 kg/m’. The kinematic viscosity of air = 1.5 stokes. Solution. Given Dia. of ball, D=80 mm = 0.08 m Velocity of air, u=T mis Density of air, 1.25 kgim? Kinematic viscosity, v= 15 stokes = 1.5 x 10+ m/sForces on Sub-merged Bodies 673 UxD__1x.08 “vy 15x10 Thus the value of R, lies between 1000 and 100,000 and hence Cy = 0.5. ‘When the ball is supported in a vertical air stream, the weight of ball is equal to the drag force as shown in Fig. 14.8. = 0.373 x 104 = Reynold number, R, at ig fore, Fy cyan be 2 BALLOF ~~ \ whore A = projected ae oll eae ner © pts © (0,08)? = 0.005026 m* 4 Ae Drag force, Fp = 0.5 x 0.005026 x se t = 0.07696 N Weight of ball = Fp = 0.07696 N. Ans. » 14.5 TERMINAL VELOCITY OF A BODY ‘Terminal velocity is defined as the maximum constant velocity ofa falling body (such as sphere or ‘a composite body such as parachute together with man) with which the body will be travelling. When the body is allowed to fall from rest in the atmosphere, the velocity of the body increases due to acceleration of gravity. With the increase of the velocity, the drag force, opposing the motion of body also increases. A stage is reached when the upward drag force acting on the body will be equal to the weight of the body. Then the net external force acting on the body will be zero and the body will be travelling at constant speed. This constant speed is called terminal velocity of the falling body. If the body drops in a fluid, at the instant it has acquired terminal velocity, the net force acting on the body will be zero, The forces acting on the body at this state will be : 1, Weight of body (WW), acting downward, 2. Drag force (F,), acting vertically upward, and. 3, Buoyant force (F). acting vertically up. ‘The net force on the body should be zero, ie., W= Fp + Fy (4.10) Problem 14.17 A metallic sphere of sp. gr. 7.0 falls in an oil of density 800 kg/m’. The diameter of the sphere is 8 mm and it attains a terminal velocity of 40 mm/s. Find the viscosity of the oil in poise. Solution. Given Sp. gr. of metallic sphere = 7.0 :. Density of metallic sphere, p, = 7 x 1000 = 7000 kg/m? Density of oil, £800 ke/m® Dia. of sphere, Terminal velocity, U = 40 mm/s = .04 m/s Let the viscosity of oil # Weight of sphere, W =p, xg x Volume of sphere = 7000 x9.81 x ED674 Fluid Mechanics = 7000 x 9.81 x F x (8 x 10°)? = 184 x 10° = 0.0184 N Buoyant force on sphere, Fy = Density of oil x g x Volume of sphere = 800% 9.81 x 7 (8x 107)°N = 0.002108 N. Drag force, Fp on the sphere is given by equation (14.8) as Fy = 3mDU = 3p x8 x 10 x 04 = 003015 4 Using equation (14.11), W=F y+ Fy or 0.0184 = .003015 1 + 0.002103 or 003015 4 = 0.0184 — 0.002103 = 0.016297 = 0.016297 (003015 ‘The expression for drag given by equation (14.11) is valid only upto Reynolds number less than 0.2. Hence it is necessary to calculate Reynold number for the flow. Reynold number, Ry ao where p for oil = 800 kg/m? R, = 800 x AXB10™ g.9474 Hence R, <0.2 and so the expression Fp = 3RUDU is valid Problem 14.18 A spherical steel ball of diameter 40 mm and of density 8500 kg/m’ is dropped in large mass of water. The co-eficient of drag of the ball in water is given as 0.45. Find the terminal velocity ofthe ball in water. Ifthe ball is dropped in air, find the increase in terminal velocity of ball Take the density of air = 1.25 kg/m’ and Cp = 0. Solution. Given Diameter of steel ball, D = 40 mm = 0.04 m Density of ball, Cop for ballin water Let the terminal velocity in water ‘The forces acting on the spherical ball are : 1. Weight, W = Density of ball x ¢ x Volume of spherical ball =p,x 9x z D? = 8500 x 9.81 xt (.04)° = 2.794 N. 2. Buoyant force, F y= Density of water x g x Volume of ball = 1000 x 9.81 x F (0,04)° = 0.3286 N. 2. Drag fore, Fy=Coxax Oe where A = projected area = = D* = F (04), p= 1000 for water 4 Fy = 0.45 x © x 04) x 1000 x 2825 U?Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 675 Using equation (14.11), we get W= Fp + F, or 2.794 = 0.2825 U,? + 0.3286 2 _ 2194-03286 02825 [R725 = 2.953 mis. Ans. When ball is dropped in ar. tcc teminal velocity Weight, W=2.794 Buoyant force, F = Density of air x g x Volume of ball = 8.725 or uy, = 1.25 9.81 7 (08)" = 0.000411 N Dre fore, Fyn Cpa Ql, where p forse = 125 Fy= 0.1 ; (04)? x 1.25 22. = 00000785 U,2. 2 ‘The buoyant force in air is 0.000411, while weight of the ball is 2.794 N. Hence buoyant force is negligible, For equilibrium of the ball in air, F,) = Weight of ball or 0.000785 U,2 = 2.794 or Uy= | 4 _ = 188.67 mis (0,0000785 Increase in terminal velocity in air = U, ~ U, = 188.67 ~ 2.9533 = 188.717 mis. Ans. Problem 14.19 A metallic ball of diameter 2 x 10 m drops in a fluid of sp. gr. 0.95 and viscosity 15 poise. The density of the metallic ball is 12000 kg/m’. Find (i) The drag force exerted by fluid on metallic ball, (ii) The pressure drag and skin friction drag, (iti) The terminal velocity of ball in fluid. Solution. Given : Diameter of metallic ball, Sp. gt of fluid, Density of fluid, py = 0.95 x 1000 = 950 kg/m® Viscosity of fluid, = 15 poise = 1515 N5 Density of ball, 1p, = 12000 kg/m? ‘The forces acting om the ball are Weight of ball, W-= Density of ball x g x Volume of ball = 12000 9.81 x © D? = 12000 x 9.81 x : x (2x 107) N = 0.000493 N Buoyant force, F y= Density of fluid x g x Volume of ball = 9509.81 x F (2 x 10°)°N = 0.000039 N676 Fluid Mechanics When the metallic ball reaches the terminal velocity, equation (14.11) is applicable. W=Fp4Fy or Fy= W~ Fy = 0.000493 - 0.000039 0.000454 N. Ans. @ Drag force, Fp = 0.000854 N (ii) Pressure drag = } Fp = 3 * 0.000454 = 0.001513 N. Ans. Skin friction drag = 3x Fy = 2 0.000454 = 0.0003028 N. Ans. (i) Let the terminal velocity =U ‘Then drag force (Fp) is given by equation (14.8) as Fy = 3mDU But Fp = 0.000454 N Equating the wo values of Fy we have SmuDU = 0.000454 of nx 79 «2 «10% xU = 0.000458 _ 10x 0.000454 “3nx15x2x10~ Let us check for Reynold number, R. 1.016 mis. Ans. R= PS, where p = 950 kg/m® = 950 x 20162 x10 _ 99 Hence the Reynolds number is less than 0.2 and so the expression Fy = 3RUDU for calculating terminal velocity is valid. Problem 14.20 Determine the velocity of fall of rain drops of a 30 x 10° em diameter, density (0.0012 gmlent! and kinematic viscosity 0.15 em*/s. Solution. Given : Diameter of rain drops, D= 30% 10 em Density of rain drops, p = 0.0012 gmvem? Kinematic viscosity, v= 0.15 emis Using the relation, ve# or 0.15=—h— “0013 = 0.15 x.0012 = 0.00018 =" em see Now weight of rain drop =p x gx Volume of rain drop Epps =pxex2p’ Pxexe Rain drop is a sphere) Drag force, Fp, on rain drop is given by equation (14.8) as Fy = 3RDU When rain drop is falling with a uniform velocity U, the drag force must be equal to the weight of rain drop. Hence equating these two values, we Bet ‘Weight of rain drop = Drag force Reps PXBX EXD? pup? x or xx p'=3mDU or U Peers m 3mmD 18)[ Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 677 0.0012 x981 x(30 x10")? 18.0018 = 0.327 emis. Ans. Let us check for Reynolds number, R, pUD _UD_ 0327x30x107 ny ous As the Reynolds number is less than 0.2, the expression F,, 0654 smDU is valid, » 14.6 DRAG ON A CYLINDER Consider a real fluid flowing over a circular cylinder of diameter D and length L, when the cylinder is placed in the fluid such that its length is perpendicular to the direction of flow. If the Reynolds, Uxd umber ofthe low is tessthan 0.2 (i.,"*4 <0) me nea fore smeigibly sal as compared to viscous force and hence the flow pattern about the cylinder will be symmetrical. As the Reynolds number is increased, inertia forces increase and hence they must be taken into consideration for analysis of flow over cylinder. With the increase of the Reynolds number, the flow pattern becomes, unsymmetrical with respect to an axis perpendicular to the direction of flow. The drag force, i-e., the force exerted by the flowing fluid on the cylinder in the direction of flow depends upon the Reynolds, number of the flow. From experiments, it has been observed that : (When Reynolds number (R,) < I, the drag foree is directly proportional to velocity and hence the drag co-efficient (C,) is inversely proportional to Reynolds number. (ii) With the increase of the Reynolds number from 1 to 2000, the drag co-efficient decreases and reaches minimum value of 0.95 at R, = 2000, (Gii) With the further increase of the Reynolds number from 2000 to 3 10", the co-efficient of drag increases and attains maximum value of 1.2 at R, = 3 x 10% (iv) The value of co-efficient of drag decreases if the Reynolds number is increased from 3 x 10* to 3 x 10°, AtR, = 3 x 10°, the value of Cp = 0.3, (0) If the Reynolds number is inereased beyond 3 x 10®, the value of C,, increases and it becomes. equal to 0.7 in the end. > 14.7. DEVELOPMENT OF LIFT ON A CIRCULAR CYLINDER ‘When a body is placed in a fluid in such a way that its axis is parallel to the direction of fluid flow and body is symmetrical, the resultant force acting on the body is in the direction of flow. There is no force component on the body perpendicular to the direction of flow. But the component to the force on the body perpendicular to the direction of flow, is known as ‘Lift, Hence in this case lift will be zero. ‘The lift will be acting on the body when the axis of the symmetrical body is inclined to the direction of flow or body is unsymmetrical. In the case of circular cylinder, the body is symmetrical and the axis is parallel to the direction of flow when cylinder is stationary. Hence the lift will be zero. But if the cylinder is rotated, the axis of the cylinder is no longer parallel to the direction of flow and hence lift will be acting on the rotating cylinder. This is explained by considering the following cases :678 Fluid Mechanics 14.7.1 Flow of Ideal Fluid over Stationary Cylinder. Consider the flow of an ideal fluid ‘over a eylinder, which is stationary as shown in Fig. 14.9. Let U = Free stream velocity of fluid R= Radius of the cylinder @= Angle made by any point say C on the circumference of the cylinder withthe ditection of flow. ‘The flow pattern will be symmetrical and the velocity at any point say C on the surface of the cylinder is given by uy = 21’ sin (14.12) Fig. 14.9 Flow of ideal fluid over stationary cylinder. ‘The velocity distribution over the upper half and lower half of the cylinder from the axis AB of the cylinder are identical and hence the pressure distributions will also be same. Hence the lift acting on the cylinder will be zero. 14.7.2 Flow Pattern Around the Cylinder when a Constant Circulation Tis Imparted to the Cylinder. Circulation is defined as the flow along a closed curve, Mathematically, the circula- tion is obtained if the product of the velocity component along the curve at any point and the length of ‘the small element containing that point is integrated around the curve, cLosen FLow Fig. 14.10 Circulation Consider a fluid flowing with a free stream velocity equal to U. Within the fluid consider a closed curve as shown in Fig, 14.10. Let is any point on the closed curve and “dis a small length of the closed curve containing point E. Let 6, = Angle made by the tangent at E with the direction of flow, typ, = Component of free stream velocity along the tangent at E and is given as cos 8,Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 679 By definition, circulation along the closed curve is T= f velocity component along curve x Length of element = f veo, xus cas were § = negra for the complete closed curve Crculton forthe Flawed na Free-Vortes, The eguton fr the fe vortex ow i ven by k Afi) up, X r= Constant sa where up, = velocity of fluid in a free-vortex flow r= Radius, where velocity is uo,- The flow-pattern for a free-vortex flow consists of streamlines which are series of concentric circles as shown in Fig. 14.11 (a). © = @ (>) Fig. 14.11 Stream-lines for free vortex. In case of free-vortex flow, the stream velocity at any point on a circle of radius R is equal to the tangential velocity at that point. This means that angle between the stream-lines and tangent on the stream is zero, Also from Fig. 14.11 (b), the length of the element ‘ds’ is given as ds = Rd8 For a free-vortex flow, U = lg, ¢08 8, = 1; ds= Rd® Substituting these values in equation (14.13), we get the circulation for a free vortex as P= fag xt But from equation (i), for a radius R, we have ty, XR=K P= f kao= 20k (+ fuo=2n) = 2p, xR (R=, x8) r a= oR (14.14) “i680 Fluid Mechanics Flow over Cylinder due to Constant Cireulation. The flow pattern over a cylinder to which a constant circulation (T) is imparted is obtained by combining the flow patterns shown in Figs. 14.9 and Fig. 14.11 (a) The resultant flow pattern is shown in Fig. 14.12. The velocity at any point on the surface ofthe cylinder is obtained by adding equations (14.12) and (14.14) as (14.15) Fig. 14.12 Flow pattern overa rotating cylinder. For the upper half portion of the cylinder, @ varies from 0° to 180° and hence component of velocity, 2U sin @ is positive. But for the lower half portion of the cylinder, @ varies from 180° (0 360". As sin @ for the values of @ more than 180° and less than 360° is negative and hence component ‘of velocity 2U sin 6 will be negative. This means, the velocity on the upper half portion of the cylinder will be more than the velocity on the lower half portion of the cylinder. But from Bernoulli's theorem wwe know that at a surface where velocity is less, pressure will be more there and vice-versa. Hence on the lower half portion of cylinder, where velocity is less, pressure will be more than the pressure on the upper half portion of the cylinder. Due to this difference of pressure on the two portions of the cylinder, a force will be acting of the cylinder in a direction perpendicular to the direction of flow. This force is nothing but a lift force. Thus by rotating a cylinder at constant velocity in a uniform flow field, a lift force can be developed. 14.7.3 Expression for Lift Force Acting on Rotating Cylinder. Let cylinder is rotating in a uniform flow field. The resultant flow pattern will be as shown in Fig. 14.12. Consider a small length of the element on the surface of the eylinder. Let 1p, = Pressure on the surface of the element on cylinder ds = Length of element R = Radius of cylinder ‘d@ = Angle made by the length ds at the centre of the cylinder as shown in Fig. 14.13. p= Pressure of the fluid far away from the cylinder U = Velocity of fluid far away from the cylinder 1, = Velocity of fluid on the surface of the cylinder. Applying Bernoulli's equation to a point far away from cylinder and to a point lying on the surface of cylinder such that both the points are on the same horizontal line, we haveForces on Sub-merged Bodies 681 =2F 4) i melt But the velocity on the surface of the cylinder is given bby equation (14.15). Hence u,=0=2U sin 0+ Ink , 7 , Substituting this value of win (D, we get Fig, 443, Lifton a rotating oplinder Pu Ps r rc 4U? sin? 0+ 2 + AU sin (w rae AU oa) or eid) pet? | [ - From Fig. 14.13, ve have the it force acting onthe small ength ds on the element, due to pressure yas ‘Component of p, in the direction perpendicular to flow x Area of the element (= p, sin ®) x (ds x L) [Negative sign is taken, as the component of p, perpendicular to the flow is acting in the downward direction. Now = length of the cylinder ds=Rxd0 Lift force on the element = ~ p, sin ® x Rd® x L (eds = Rd®) (iti) The total force is obtained by integrating equation (iii) over the centre surface of the cylinder. xRXLXxsin 8 d0 Towaltit, —F,= "-p,sinoxRdox i= ["~ ‘Substituting the value of p, from equation (i), we get roll r or Qe RU? Ux2RR 4 sin? 0- Jenene “i[682_ Fluid Mechanics == Rt fl psn 282" (in asin? 9 ERO. _ $38? OF Vg , 2 Ge RUT Under But f* sin@a9= [™ sin'ao=0 Pye XL ” pat (a Asin" OT) og h 2g Ux2nR = Rx Lx PRUE AT 2g” Ux2nk Jo but ["swoan=[2 sy (2-28 24 | (24 L F,= £28 urxn= = peur = 8 uur= pur (14.16) en 8 8 Equation (14.16) is known as Kutta-Joukowski equation. 14.7.4 Drag Force Acting on a Rotating Cylinder. ‘The resultant flow pattern for a rotating cylinder in a uniform flow field is shown in Fig. 14.12. The resultant flow pattern is symmetrical about the vertical axis of the cylinder. Hence the velocity distribution and also pressure distribution is sym- metrical about the vertical axis and as such there will be no drag on the cylinder. 14.7.5 Expression for Lift Co-efficient for Rotating Cylinder. The lift co-efficient is defined by the equation (14.4) as 0 where C, = Lift co-efficient, A= Projected area U = Free steam velocity of uniform velocity of flow. Fora rotating cylinder. the lit ore is given by equation (1416) F,=pLur ‘A= Projected area of eylladse = 282 Sustiting these values in quaton (we se puur=c,x2Ktx Oe c= 0 aay 2 RLpU* RU From equation (14.14), we have te, = 2 or © = 2m “t a 8° DAR R ‘o Subsing ts value of © nequtin (6.1, Cs a expend C= 2, (14.18) ) where up, = Velocity of rotation of the cylinder in the tangential direction.[ Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 683 14.7.6 Location of Stagnation Points for a Rotating Cylinder in a Uniform Flow-field. Stagnation points are those points on the surface of the cylinder, where velocity is zero. For a rotating cylinder as shown in Fig. 14.12, the resultant velocity is given by equation (14.15) as Tr u=2Usinos U sin + For stagnation point, u=0 “ 2u sin + = 0 0r 2U sin @ Ink r 4nUR" The solution of equation (14.19) gives the location of stagnation points on the surface of the cylinder. There are two values of @, which satisfy equation (14.19). As sin @ is negative in equation (14.19), it means @ is more than 180° but less than 360°. The two values of @ are such that ‘one value is between 180° and 270° and other value is between 270° and 360°. For a single stagnation point, @ = 270° and then equation (14.19) becomes as or sin @ (14.19) r anuR 4n0R : T= 4n0R. (14.20) 14.7.7 Magnus Effect. When a cylinder is rotated in a uniform flow, a lift force is produced on the cylinder. This phenomenon of the lift force produced by a rotating cylinder in a uniform flow is known as Magnus Effect. This fact was investigated by a German physicist H.G. Magnus and hence the name is given as Magnus Effect. Problem 14,21. A cylinder rotates at 150 rp.m. with its axis perpendicular in an air stream which is having uniform velocity of 25 m/s. The cylinder is 1.5 m in diameter and 10 m long. Assuming ideal ‘fluid theory, find (i) the circulation, (i) lift force, and (iti) position of stagnation points. Take density “of air as 1.25 kg/m’. Solution. Given : sin 270° (eo sin 270° =~ 1) Speed of cylinder, 150 rpm. Velocity of air, y=25 mis Diameter of cylinder, D= 1.5m Radius of eylinder, R= 2 Length of eylinder, L=10m Density of ai p= 1.25 kg/m? RDN _ Rx15%150 Tangential velocity of eylinder is given as uy = "2 > 11.78 mis. r ) Circulation (T) is obtained from equation (14.14), as ug = —— @ 0 equation (14.14), a8 ug = > * T= 2m x ug = 2m x 0.75 x 11,78 = 55.51 m%s, Ans. (ii) Lift force, F;, is given by equation (14.16) as F,= pLUT = 1.25 x 10x 25 x $5.51 = I7M44N. Ans.684 Fluid Mechanics (iii) Position of stagnation points are given by equation (14.19) % r 9551 4RUR © 4nx25x0: sin (13.62°) = sin [180° + 13.62°] and sin [360° ~ 13.62°] 180° + 13,62°) and (360° ~ 13.62°) = 193.62° and 346.38°, Ans. The location of stagnation points are shown in Fig. 14.14. Tig. WAS, Problem 14.22 A cylinder whose axis is perpendicular to the stream of air having a velocity of 20 mls, rotates at 300 r.p.m. The cylinder is 2 m in diameter and 10 m long. (a) Find : (i) the circulation, (ii) theoretical lift force per unit length, (iit) position of stagnation points, and (iv) the ‘actual lift, drag and direction of resultant force. Take density of air 1.24 kg/m’. For actual drag and 12356 8 lift, take C, = 3.4, Cp = 0.65 and t 1.57. (b) Find the speed of rotation of the cylinder which will give only a single stagnation point. Solution. Given : Velocity of air, Speed of rotation, Diameter of cylinder, Density of air, p= 1.24 kg/m? ema ety fer ge y= 28 2 E205 302 342 Cc (a) (i) (D is gi ry eq i ) Oak D Petanays 20 2 31 eave} 3142219741 ws As (i Te ers (Fs any stn (16 ecpunr ats 0 97a = a9 8 Thcoretical it per unit length = 4 = “S077. 4gos.77 Nim, Ans. i ato of sagnion pons aroun om eunion 4:19) ee ene gad TAL jag GRUR 4Rx20xD/2 4nex20%1 sin [180° + 51.75°] and sin (360° ~ 51.75°] sin [231.75°] and sin [308.25°] : = 231.75° and 308.25". Ans. Stagnation points will be at an angle of 231.75° and 308.25°. “iForces on Sub-merged Bodies 685 (iv) Actual Lift, Drag and Direction of Resultant Force 34 and Cp = 0.65. For actual lift and drag, given “® = 1.57, C, ti 8, given ‘The rato of 1 from theoretical consideration is given as Tp = 3242 =1.57 U 20 Now atalino span by = pAv Fis Gxcx xP (14.23) Equating the two value of lift force given by equations (14.22) and (14.23), we get RpCU'L sin a= C, x Cx Lx 2 2 2npCU?L sin o CxLxpU? ‘Thus itis clear from equation (14.23), that co-efficient of lift depends upon the angle of attack. 14.8.1 Steady-state of a Flying Object. When a flying object for example airplane is in a steady-state, the weight of the airplane is equal to the lift force and thrust developed by the engine is equal to the drag force. Hence 1 sin 0. (14.24) We Litt force = ¢, PAU (14.25) 2 where W= Weight of the airplane and C, 244" = itt force. Problem 14.24 An airfoil of chord length 2 m and of span 15 m has an angle of attack as 6°. The airfoil is moving with a velocity of 80 m/s in air whose density is 1.25 kg/m’. Find the weight of the airfoil and the power required to drive it. The values of co-efficient of drag and lift corresponding to angle of attack are given as 0.03 and 0.5 respectively. Solution. Given : Chord length, C=2m Span of airfoil, ‘Angle of attack, Velocity of airfoil, Density of air, Co-efficient of drag, Co-etficient of lift, From equation (14.25), we know that Weight of airfoil = Lift force =688 Fluid Mechanics = 0.50 % 1.25 % (2 x 15) x = = 60000 N. Ans. Now drag force, Fy=Cpxpx ae ©. Power required in kW = FoXU _ 3600%80 _ a6 kW. Ans. 1000 1000 Problem 14.25 A jet plane which weighs 29430 N and has a wing area of 20 m’ flies at a velocity ‘of 250 km/hr. When the engine delivers 7357.5 kW. 65% of the power is used t0 overcome the drag resistance of the wing. Calculate the co-efficient of lift and co-efficient of drag for the wing. Take density of air equal to 1.21 kg/m’. Solution. Given : Weight of plane, W = 20430 N Wing area, A=20m Velocity of plane, U = 250 km/h Power delivered by engine = 7357.5 kW Power required to overcome drag resistance 65% of 7357.5 = 0.65 x 7357.5 = 4782.375 kW. Density of air, 1.21 kg/m? Now weight of plane Lin torce= G34 PL 29430 = C, x 20 1.21 « eas? La Fy Defoe Dover mind twovacome dng ressane = F227 gy faxes 782315100 670.69 1.21 x69.44" 68870.6 = Cy x 20x 688706 x2 © 20121 «69.447 — ‘y 18, Ans.Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 689 | HIGHLIGHTS Ay The forve-exeried by a fui on a solid body: immersed in the Mud in the direction oF motion ix culled ttrag force while the force perpendicular 19 the dinection of motion, on the body te known ws fit force 2. The mathemurca! expression forthe drag and a force : > K en nace 2 where Cy = Civef ficient of dea, C= Coemeten ot tit, As Projected aren of the body, p= Density of fli U = Froo-steum veloolty of ud 2 Tho reat fore ener y ftom sh oxy Fy = YASH 4, Total digg oo a bodys the san of presiute drag and ton dea. 3. A body whose surface coincides with the stream lines, when the body is placed in w Mow ts called stream ined body. Ifthe surtace Of he holy dies ne Soocide wth the acin-nes, the dy ir-alled BE ay. The drag om a sphere for Reynolds number less thaw 0,2 is given by Fy = RDU Out of isto da, Skin ion dag = $ xSM_U~ BRU! nd pressure dag «fxm = mu. ‘Vales of tor Sobete for difteeat Reynold ammber is Cyn Bt <0 4.2 & 19R, |" (7 OA aw whew R, es berween Sand 100) = OS sun when R, es between 100. and 100000. 9 08 ae hen R > 10? 8. Terminal velocity is defined as the maximum consiant velocity of « falling body with which it will travel. “Abthe lefthiiial wlovity, Ihe weighl of (he budy is equal lo the drag force pits the bub yaal force. Hence WY a Fpt he 9, ‘The yelocty of ideal fi a any pol om the stface ofthe cylinders ie By ayn 2Usin 8 ‘bere j= Tangent velocity onthe mice of the cylinder 1 = Uniform velcity oe toe seam vlcety @= Angle made by any point on the surface of the cyfindee with the direction of rw. 10, Cecutniion he low aloo ele eave and otalaed when the proc f veloc song the coi fare nd len 0 hel leet i integrates in he carve Circa for ee eres any rads Ri ven by when02 eee ee aR ‘where R= Radius of cylinder, U = Free streaa velocity. 5. For x single stagnation point, the condition Is Deane sein erm Of eireulition} oF My =20 Ain tenon of tangential yelocity) Circulation developed on the alrfot is given by P= nl sin ‘where C= Chon lengih, U/ = Velocity of airfoil, = Angle of attack The expression for co-efficient of lift for an alefoll iC, = 2m sin a ‘When un wiplane i= in stendy-state, ‘Weight of plane = Lift force Thast by engine = Drag fore EXERCISE (A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS «Define the terms : drag and lit, - What do you understand by : Total drag on a body, resultant force on a body, co-efficient of drag and co- efficient of lit - Differentiate between (i) stream-lines body and bluff body, (i) Friction drag and pressure dra. (a) What is the expression for the drag on a sphere, when the Reynolds number of the flow is upto 0.2 7 Hence prove thatthe co-efficient of drag for sphere for this range of the Reynolds number Is given by Cy = 74, where R= Reynolds number. x (©) Draw Cp versus R, diagram for a sphere and explain why Cp suddenly drops at R,= 3% 10% {© Draw pressre distribution diagrams in dimensionless for for flow past sere when fuid has no viscosity, when R, = 10° and when R, = 10° :. What do you mean by “Terminal velocity of a body’ ? What i the relation between the weight of the body, drag force on the body and buoyant force when the body has aequired terminal velocity ? - What is circulation ? Find an expression for circulation fora free-vortex of radius R. /- Obtain an expression for the lift produced on a rotating cylinder placed in a uniform flow field such that the axis ofthe eylinder is perpendicular to the direction of flow, 1. What is Magnus effeet ? Why is it known as Magnus effect ? “iForces on Sub-merged Bodies 691 10. Te 2 1B. 4. 10. ). Prove that the co-efficient of lift fora rotating cylinder placed in a uniform flow is given by Get RU where P= Circulation, R = Radius of cylinder, U = Free-stream velocity Define stagnation points. How the position of the stagnation points for a rotating cylinder in a uniform flow is determined ? What is the condition for single stagnation point ? Define the terms : Airfoil, chord length, angle of attack, span of an airfoil. Ifthe circulation developed on an airfoil is equal to XCU sin a, then prove that co-efficient of lift for airfoil is given by C, = 2r sin a, where c= angle of atack Explain the terms : (i) Friction drag, (ii) Pressure drag and profile drag. (a) How are drag and lift forces caused on a body immersed in a moving fluid ? (®) What isthe drag force on a sphere inthe stoke range ? (B) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS |. A flat plate 2 m x2 m moves at 40 km/our in stationary alr of density 1.25 kg/m’. Ifthe co-efficient of drag and lift are 0.2 and 0.8 respectively, find : (the lift force, (i) the drag force, (ii) the resultant foree, and (iv) the power required to keep the plate in motion. [Ans. (i) 246.86 N, (i) 61.715, (ii) 254.4 N, (iv) 0.684 KW] . Find the drag force difference on a fat plate of size 1.5 m x 1.5 m when the plate is moving at a speed ‘of 5 m/s normal to its plate frst in water and second in air of density 1.24 kg/m. Co-efficient of drag is given as 1.10. [Ans.30899 N] - A truck having a projected area of 12 square metres travelling at 60 km/hr has a total resistance of| 2943 N. Of this 25% is due to rolling friction and 15% is due to surface Traction. The testis due to form drag, Calculate the coefficient of form drag ifthe density of air = 1.25 kp/m*. (Ans. 0.847] |. citcular dise 4 m in diameter i held normal to 30 m/s wind of density 1.25 kg/m’. I the co-eficient of drag of dis 1-1, what force is required to hold the die at rest ? (Ans. 7775.4 N] . Find the diameter of a parachute with which a man of mass 80 kg descends tothe ground from an aeroplane against the resistance of air, with a velocity of 25 m/s. Take C, = 0.5 and density of air 25 kfm [Ans. 2.26 m] ‘A man descends to the ground with the help ofa parachute from an aeroplane against the resistance of ait ‘with a uniform velocity of 10 m/s. The parachute is hemispherical in shape and is having diameter of Sm. Find the weight of man if C, = 0.5 and density of aie= 1.25 kes [Ans. 613.52 N] A kite 60 cm x 60 cm weighing 2.943 N assumes an angle of 10° tothe horizontal. The string attached to the kite makes an angle of 45° to the horizontal. Ifthe pull on the string is 29.43 N when the wind is, lowing ata speed of 40 km/hr Find the corresponding co-efficient to drag and lift. Density of air is given 81.25 kghm’ Ans. C= 0.7489, C, = 8548] t. The air is flowing over a eylinder of diameter 100 mm and of infinite length with a velocity of 150 mm/s. Find the total drag, shear drag and pressure drag on 1 m length ofthe cylinder if the total drag. co-efficient = 1.5 m and shear drag co-efficient = 0.25, The density of air is given as = 1.25 ke/m’ [Ans. 0.00211 N, 0.000351 N, 0.001756 N] 1. A body of length 2.5 m has a projected area 1.8 m? normal to the direction of its motion. The body is ‘moving through water with a velocity such that the Reynold number = 6 x 10° and the drag co-efficient 5. Find the drag on the body. Take viscosity of water = 0.01 poise [Ans. 2592 N] Calculate the weight of a ball of diameter $0 mm which is just supported in a vertical air stream which is flowing at a velocity of 10 m/s, The density of air= 1.25 kgim’ and kinematic viscosity = 1.5 stokes. [Ans 0.0613 N] “i692 Fluid Mechanics 1. 12. 1B 7 15. 16. 17. ‘A metallic sphere of sp. ge. 8.0 falls in an oll of density 800 kg/m’, The diameter of the sphere is 10 mm dnd iC attains a terminal velocity of 50 mnvs. Find the viscosity of the oil in poise. [Ans. 78.48 poise] ‘A metallic ball of diameter 5 mm drops in a fluid of sp. gr. 0.8 and viscosity 30 poise. The specific ‘ravity of the metallic ball, is 9.0. Find : () the drag force exerted by fluid on metallic ball, (i) the pressure drag and skin friction drag, and (ii) terminal velocity of ball in fluid. TAns. (i) 0.005264 N, (i) 0.001754 N, 0.003527 N, (ii) 3.7 emis] ‘A cylinder rotates at 200 r.p.m, with its axis perpendicular in an air steam which is having uniform velocity of 20 mvs. The eylinder is 2 m in diameter and 8 m long, Assuming ideal fluid theory, find (i) the circulation, (i) lift force, and (i) postion of stagnation points. Take density of air as 1.25 kg/m’. Ans. (i) 131.57 m'h, (i) 263094 N, (ii) @= 211.56" and 328.44°) For the problem 13, find the speed of rotation of the cylinder which will give only a single stagnation point. Ans. 381.97 rpm.) ‘The air having a velocity of 30 mvs is flowing over a cylinder of diameter 1.4 m and length 10 m, when the axis of the cylinder is perpendicular tothe air stream. The cylinder is rotated about its axis and a total lift ‘of $8860 N is produced, Find the speed of rotation and location of the stagnation points. The density of air is given as 1.25 kg/m’ [Ans, N = 486.87 rpm. = 216.5° and 323.5°] A jet plane which weighs 19620 N has a wing area of 25 m*, It is flying at a speed of 200 km per hour, ‘When the engine develops 588.6 kW, 70% of this power is used to overcome the drag resistance of the Wing. Caleulate the co-efficient of lift and co-efficient of drag for the wing. Taken density of aie as 1.25 kg/m’ [Ans. C, = 407, Cp =-114] Experiments were conducted in a wind tunnel with a wind speed of $0 km/hour on a flat plate of size 2m long and 1m wide, The density of air is 1.15 kg/m’. The plate is Kept at such an angle that cco-fficients of lift and drag are 0.75 and 0.15 respectively. Determine : (lift fore, (i), drag force, (ii) resultant force, (iv) its direction, and (v) power exerted by the airstream on the plate TAs. (0) 166.4 N, (7) 33.28 N, (if) 169.64 N, (i) 78.7%, (¥) 0.461 KW] “ii: 5 Ota eso » 15.1 INTRODUCTION ‘Compressible flow is defined as that flow in which the density of the fluid does not remain constant uring flow. This means that the density changes from point to point in compressible flow. But in case of incompressible flow, the density of the fluid is assumed to be constant. In the previous chapters, the ‘luid was assumed incompressible, and the basic equations such as equation of continuity, Bernoulli's equation and impulse momentum equations were derived on the assumption that fluid is incompressible. This assumption is true for flow of liquids, which are incompressible fluids. But in cease of flow of fluids, such as (0 flow of gases through orifices and nozzles, (id, flow of gases in machines such as compressors, and, (i) projectiles and airplanes flying at high altitude with high velocities, the density of the fluid changes during the flow. The change in density of a fluid is accompanied by the changes in pressure and temperature and hence the thermodynamic behaviour of the fluids will have to be taken into account. » 15.2. THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS ‘The thermodynamic relations have been discussed in Chapter 1, which are as follow: 15.2.1 Equation of State. Equation of state is defined as the equation which gives the relationship between the pressure, temperature and specific volume of a gas. For a perfect gas the equation of sate is DV = RT (15.1) Absolute pressure in kgffm? or Nim? Specific volume or volume per unit mass T= Absolute temperature = 273 + £ (centigrade) Gas constant in kef-m/kg °K or (I/kg K) += 29.2 kgf-mikg °K or 287 J/kg K for air. In equation (15.1), V is the specific volume which is the reciprocal of density or vel P where 693,694 Fluid Mechanics Substituting this value of ¥ in equation (15.1), we get Pear as) > Noten eto of sat aten by equation (152. dimensions ofp and sould be wed wih ae re owing poms mos te renee 1 rie tae of Ris gnen a9 292 buf ma °K fr air he corespondng vale of pad p shuld beak in kgffm? and kg/m’. The mass rate of flow of the gus will be in kg/sec. 2. If the value of R is given as 287 J/kg K, the corresponding value of p and p should be in Nim? and kg/m’. The tune wl bea Kes Value of P_in Bernoulli's Equation*. (i) Ifthe value of p is taken in Nim?, the corresponding value of psn gyn’, And as mentioned above (pont number 2) the vale of R should be 287 J K, (Gi) If the value of p is taken in kgf/m? in Bernoulli’s equation, the corresponding value of p should be in msI/m°. But as mentioned in point number 1, if the value of 2 is taken 29.2, the corresponding values of p and p are in kgf/m” and kg/m’. Hence the mass density in equation of state is in kg/m" while in Bernouli’s equation itis in ms1/m*. The density calculated from equation of state must be converted into msI/m Note. It is better to use pressure in Nim?, density in kg/m’ and value of R= 287 Skg K. The value of density calculated from equation of state will be in the same dimensions as used in Bemoulli's equation 15.2.2 Expansion and Compression of Perfect Gas. When the expansion or compression ofa perfect gas takes place, the pressure, temperature and density are changed. The change in pressure, temperature and density of a gas is brought about by the two processes which are known as 1. Isothermal process, and 2. Adiabatic process. 1. Isothermal Process. This is the process in which a gas is compressed or expanded while the temperature is kept constant. The gas obeys Boyle’s law, according to which we have pV = Constant, where V = Specific volume 2 = Constant (: v 3) (153) p 2. Adiabatic Process. If the compression or expansion of a gas takes place in such a way that the ‘gas neither gives heat, nor takes heat from its surrounding, then the process is said to be adiabatic. According to this proc: pv" = Constant where k = Ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume LA for air, Constant. (as) If the adiabatic process is reversible (or frictionless), it is known as isentropic process. And if the G, pressure and density are elated such a way that isnot qua oC but equal © some postive value then the process is known as polytropic. » According to which Constant (15.5) ° where n # k but equal to some positive constant. * Please, refer to equations (15.10) and (15.11)[ ‘Compressible Flow 695 >» 15.3. BASIC EQUATIONS OF COMPRESSIBLE FLOW ‘The basic equations of the compressible flows are 1. Continuity Equation, 2. Bemoulli’s Equation or Energy Equation, 3, Momentum Equation, 4, Equation of state. 15.3.1 Continuity Equation. This is based on law of conservation of mass which states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed. Or in other words, the matter or mass is constant. For one- dimensional steady flow, the mass per second = pAV where p= Mass density, A = Area of cross-section, V = Velocity ‘As mass or mass per second is constant according to law of conserv. jon of mass. Hence PAV = Constant (156) Differentiating equation (15.6), d(pAV)=0 or palAV) + AVup =0 or plAdV + VdA]+AVdp=0 or pAdV + pVdA + AVdp = 0 Dividing by paV. we ge = “yp 4 9 (157) va‘ p Equation (15.7) is also known as continuity equation in differential form, 15.3.2. Bernoulli's Equation. Bemoulli’s equation has been derived for incompressible fluids in Chapter 6. The same procedure is followed. The flow of a fluid particle along a stream-line in the direction of S is considered, The resultant force on the fluid particle in the direction of S is equated to ‘the mass of the fluid particle and its acceleration. As the flow of compressible fluid is steady, the same Euler's equation as given by equation (6.3) is obtained as Pe vave siz=0 (15.8) Integrating the above equation, we get Bef vars f eiz= cons « [BoB sez comn aso) ay In case of incompressible flow, the density p is constant and hence integration of “2 is equal to 2. P P But in case of compressible flow, the density p is not constant. Hence p cannot be taken outside the integration sign. With the change of p, the pressure p also changes for compressible fluids. This change of p and p takes place according to equations (15.3) or (15.4) depending upon the type of process during compressible flow. The value of p from these equations in terms of p is obtained and is 4 substan f 22 and then the integration done. The Bernoulli's equation wil be diferent for ° isothermal process and for adiabatic process.696 Fluid Mechanics (A) Bernoull’s Equation for Isothermal Process. For isothermal process, the relation between pressure (p) and density (p) is given by equation (15.3) as, p =f dp dp Cdp dp _ ee a a C, = 2 from equation (i) P Dividing by ‘g', 2 tog.p + + z= Constant (15.10) Ps 2g Equation (15.10) is the Bernoulli's equation for compressible flow undergoing isothermal process. For the two points 1 and 2, this equation is written as (15.11) (B) Bernoulli's Equation for Adiabatic Process. For the adiabatic process, the relation between pressure (p) and density (p) is given by equation (15.4) as = Constant = say Cy tii) HenceCompressible Flow 697 2c from (ii) P Substituting the value of f £ - Ga) in equation (15.9), we get 2 APY 4 97 =Constant k-1)p*2 Je eEen Constant. (as.2) k-1)pg 28 Equation (15.12) is the Bernoulli's equation for compressible flow undergoing adiabatic process. For the two points {and 2 ths equations writen ss bn, k ane ae 2 15.13) (eae 28 (ae 2g * use) Problem 15.1 A gas is flowing through a horizontal pipe at a temperature of 4°C. The diameter of the pipe is 8 cm and at a section 1-1 in this pipe, the pressure is 30.3 N/em* (gauge). The diameter of the pipe changes from 8 cm to 4 em at the section 2-2, where pressure is 20.3 N/em® (gauge). Find the velocities of the gas at these sections assuming an isothermal process. Take R = 287.14 Nm/kg K, and ‘atmospheric pressure = 10 Nlem* Solution. Given For the section I-1, Dividing ye ‘Temperature, 4=4°C Absolute temperature, 7, =4 +273 = 277°K Diameter pipe, D,=8cm= 0.08 m Area of pipe, Ay= 7 Dg = © (08) = 005026 m* Pressure, py = 30.3 Nlem? (gauge) = 30.3 + 10 = 40.3 Niem? (absolute) = 40.3 x 10* Nim? (abs.) “i698 Fluid Mechanics For the section 2-2, Diameter of pipe, D,=4 em =.04m Area, Ay= ; (.04)? = .0012565 m? Pressure, 2 = 20.3 + 10 = 30.3 N/cm? (abs.) = 30.3 x 10* Nim? (abs.) Gas constant, Ratio of specific heat, k R= 287.14 Nemlkg°K 14. Applying continuity equation at sections (1) and (2), we get PAV, = PxAQV> Ve _ Diy _ py X.005026 _ 4 By “ Yo od; p2x.0012565 ~" "py For isothermal process using equation (15:3), or Pu Po op Pia PL. 403x108 Pr Pz P2 Pr 30.310" 1.33 Substituting the value of 2 = 1.33 in equation (i), we get : Vz = 5.32 V, ii) Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections 1-1 and 2-2 for isothermal process which is given by equation (15.11), we get, Pu top.p,+ Mi +z, = P2top,p.+ 2 +z, es 2g Pu 28 For horizontal pipe, u=% Pi WL ve —* log. pi + =~ = —> log. p2 + Pik 2g Poe 2g or PL jog, p,- P2 tog.p2 = Ps Pas But for isothermal process, 2 = P2 Pi Pa p P. ve we PL tog,p,- P+ tog.p)= Pg og EP 2g 2g 5324) ve on 2 [int] = SH we (= rom Gp, ¥,=532¥) esl pm] 2 2e “iCompressible Flow 699 or Pu tog, ($03007) = ME 532? 1) = 2730 ME pe (303x107) ~ 2g 28 or Pu tog, 1.33 = 27.30 4 Pig 2g or PL 0.285 = 27.30 Me Ps 2¢ or 2.2 2730_ 2 argos y2 iti) Pp, 2x.285 Now from equation of state, ie, from equation (15.2), we have 2 = RT or at section 1, 2 = RT, 1 or o = RT, = 287.14 x 277 = 795374 Substituting this value of 2+ = 79537.4 in equation (iii), we get 79537.4 = 47.894 V,? = 40,75 mis. Ans. From equation (ii), V> = 5.32 x V, = 5.32 x 40.75 = 216.79 mis. Ans. Problem 15.2. A gas is flowing through a horizontal pipe which is having area of cross-section as 40 cm*, where pressure is 40 N/em? (gauge) and temperature is 15°C. At another section the area of cross-section is 20 cm” and pressure is 30 N/cm? (gauge). If the mass rate of flow of gas through the Pipe is 0.5 ke/s, find the velocities of the gas at these sections, assuming an isothermal change. Take R = 292 N-m/kg°K, and atmospheric pressure = 10 N/em?. Solution. Given : Section 1 Section 2 Area, Ay = 40 0m? = 40% 10 m? 20em? = 20 10m? Pressure, P\ =40 Nicm? (gauge) 30 N/m? (gauge) = 40 + 10 = 50 Niem?(abs.) 30 + 10= 40 Niem? (abs) = 50x 10" Nim? = 40 x 10" Nim? Temperature, 1, = 15°C ‘ T= 15-4273 = 288°K Mass rate of flow = 055 gis Gas constant, R= 292 N-mikg°K From equation of state ie., equation (15.2), e =RT,700 Fluid Mechanics p= Bi = SOKIO" KE sys KE Rr, ~ 292x288 m @ Mass rate of flow is given by = p,A,V, of 0.5 = 5.945 x 40 x 10 x V, 0.5 21.02 m/s vyj=——s _, 5945 x 40x10 For isothermal process, temperature is constant and hence temperature at section 2 is also 288°K. T, = 288°K Using equation (152), we get 22 = Rr, Pr Ps _ 40x10" = .756 kes? RT, — 292x288 Pa Now mass rate of flow PAs 0.5 = 4.756 x 20 x 104 x V, 0s: 95 ___ ~ 52.565 mis. Ans. 24.756 x20 x10” Problem 15.3 A gas with a velocity of 300 m/s is flowing through a horizontal pipe at a section vwhere pressure is 6 10" Nin (absolute) and temperature 40°C. The pipe changes in diameter and at this section the pressure is 9x 10' Nin’. Find the velocity ofthe gas at this section ifthe flow ofthe gas is adiabatic Take R = 287 J/hg°K and k = 1 Solution. Given Section 1 Section 2 V, = 300 mis r= 9 10" Nim? DP) = 6X 10° Nh V, = velocity at section 2 y= 40°C R= 287 Jhg"K 2 1, = 273 +40 =313°K Adiabatic flow, k= 1 Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections | and 2, given by equation (15.13), we get (alestaes (Fale ~ Ge ; sor coman ( 42%)Compressible Flow _701 14 \ ply pe 14-10) p\|' ps For adiabatic flow, using equation (15.4), we get ae aeGleb) ‘Substituting the value of Phin equation (i), we get Hal. (ay Substituting the value of p, and p,, we get |, (oxi) | ve ve 3.5 1) — =i a (ee 202 my an) Mi Bs assy VE or 5 Pe fras?7] = Mor 3.5 2 1s = 2 * nl ] 202 pt ey? or = 0293 2h = ME M300 p22 2 or ~ 498 2 = % _ 45000 p 2 From equation of state, we have PL = RT, = 287 x 313 = 89831 Substituting the value of PL = 89831 in equation (ii), p, ve ~ 0.4298 x 89831 = 7 — 45000 or SP = 45000 ~ 4298 x 89831 = 6390.6 V, = 263906 = 113.0 mis. Ans. i) i) “i[702_ Fluid Mechanics 15.3.3 Momentum Equations. The momentum per second of a flowing fluid (or momentum flux) is equal to the product of mass per second and the velocity of the flow. Mathematically, the momentum per second of a flowing fluid (compressible or incompressible) is = pAV x V, where pAV = Mass per second. ‘The term pAV is constant at every Section of flow due to continuity equation. This means the mo- mentum per second at any section is equal t0 the product of a constant quantity and the velocity. This also implies that momentum per second is independent of compressible effect. Hence the momentum equation for incompressible and compressible fluid is the same, The momentum equation for compressible fluid for any direction may be expressed as, Net force in the direction of S = Rate of change of momentum in the direction of S Mass per second [change of velocity] pAVIV, ~ Vil (15.14) Where V2 = Final velocity in the direction of S, V, = Initial velocity inthe direction of S. 15.4 VELOCITY OF SOUND OR PRESSURE WAVE IN A FLUID ‘The disturbance in a solid, liquid or gas is transmitted from one point to the other. The velocity with which the disturbance is transmitted depends upon the distance between the molecules of the medium, In case of solids, molecules are closely packed and hence the disturbance is transmitted instantane- ously. In case of liquids and gases (or fluids) the molecules are relatively apart. The disturbance will be transmitted from one molecule to the next molecule. But in case of fluids, there is some distance between two adjacent molecules. Hence each molecule will have to travel a certain distance before it ‘can transmit the disturbance, Thus the velocity of disturbance in case of fluids will be less than the velocity of the disturbance in solids. The distance between the molecules is related with the density, which in turn depends upon pressure in case of fluids. Hence the velocity of disturbance depends upon the changes of pressure and density of the flui 15.4.1 Expression for Velocity of Sound Wave in a Fluid. The disturbance creates the pressure waves in a fluid. These pressure waves travel with a velocity of sound waves in all directions. But for the sake of simplicity, one-dimensional case will be considered. Fig. 15.2 shows the model for one-dimensional propagation of the pressure waves. It is a right long. pipe of uniform cross-sectional area, fitted with a piston. Let the pipe is filled with a compressible fluid, which is at rest initially. The piston is moved towards right and a disturbance is created in the fluid. This disturbance is in the form of pressure wave, which travels in the fluid with a velocity of sound wave. Let A = Cross-sectional area of the pipe V = Velocity of piston p= Pressure of the fluid in pipe before the movement of the piston 1p = Density of fluid before the movement of the piston dt = A small interval of time with which piston is moved C= Velocity of pressure wave or sound wave travelling in the fluid Distance travelled by the piston in time dt Velocity of piston x dt = Vx dtCompressible Flow _703 [-PSTON/-RIGID PPE ) —=zV eg \ Eo WAVEFRONT Fig. 15.2 Propagation of pressure wave. Distance travelled by the pressure wave in time dt = Velocity of pressure wave x dt = C x dt As the value of C will be very large, hence Cx dr will be more than Vx dt. For the time interval ‘a’, the pressure wave has travelled a distance L and piston has moved through x. Thus in the length of the tube equal to (L—), the fluid will be compressed. Due to compression of the fluid, the pressure and, density of the fluid will change. Let p+ dp = Pressure after compression + dp = Density after compression or the density of fluid in the length (Lx) Now mass of fluid for a length *L’ before compression Volume of fluid upto length L =pXAXL=pxAxCxdt © Mass of fluid after compression for length (L.— x) = Density after compression x Area x Length (p+ dp) Ax (Lx) = (p+ dp) Ax (Cat Vat) From the continuity equation, we have Mass of fluid before compression L=Cdt,x= Vat) ..Aii) Mass of fluid after compression 2 pACat = (p + dp) A x (Cat ~ Vt) or pACdt = (p + dp) A x dt (C= V) Dividing by Ax di, pC = (p + dp) (C- V) = pC pV++ Cap ~ Vap & Cap = pC— pC + pV + Vap = pV + Vato. iti) But the velocity of the piston, V, is very small as compared to the velocity of the pressure wave C. Also the value of dp is very small. Hence the term (V x dp) will be very-very small and ean be neglected. Hence equation (ii) becomes, Cap = pv Ai) Now when the piston is moved with a velocity V for time dr, the fluid which is at rest initially will move with a velocity equal to the velocity of the piston. Also the pressure of the fluid will increase from p to p + dp due to the movement of the piston. Hence applying the impulse momentum equation, we get Net force on the fluid = Rate of change of momentum or (@ + dp) A~p x A= Mass per second [change of velocity of fluid] “i704 Fluid Mechanics Total mass paL or dp A= TOMBS Tyo} = PAL (yo px A= EES [v—o]= OE v0} pacar = v- WW 0) =PACtv=01= pacy or ap = PACY - acy ap c= 2 0) or wv ) Multiplying equations (iv) and (v), we get ap Cdp = pv x 2 p= pV x ef cy a c (15.19) ap Hence equation (15.15) gives the velocity of sound wave which is the square root of the ratio of change of pressure to the change of density ofa fluid due to disturbance. 15.4.2 Velocity of Sound in Terms of Bulk Modulus. Bulk modulus K is defined as _ Inetease in pressure ___dp = Decrease in volume ~~ /a¥ ry Original volume — -{ v ) where dV = Decrease in volume, ¥ = Original volume. [Negative sign is taken, as withthe increase of pressure, volume decreases. [Now we know mass of a fluid is constant. Hence x Volume = Constant (= Mass = p x Volume) on px ¥=Constant Differentiating the above equation (p and ¥ are variables), pdv + ¥dp=0 or pdv vp or 2 From equation (15.15), the velocity of sound wave is c fe £— 1s.16) dp Vp Equation (15.16) gives the velocity of sound wave in terms of bulk modulus and density. This ‘equation is applicable for liquids and gases.Compressible Flow _705 15.4.3 Velocity of Sound for Isothermal Process. Isothermal process is given by ‘equation (15.3), as p 1 ? = Constant or pp! = Constant ° Differentiating the above equation (p and p both are variable), Pe 1p? dp+p" dp=0 Dividing by p"', we get — pp"! dp + dp = 0 or " dp + dp =0 ap == dp or 2 p ar (+ tromequtionot sae £2) ° dp ( Pp & SE as.17) 15.4.4 Velocity of Sound for Adiabatic Process. Adiabatic process is given by equation (15.4), as db ,, Substituting the value of “2 in equation (15.15), C 1g dp equation (15.15), P- = Constant or pp = Constant ° Differentiating the above equation, we get PER pT "dp +p" dp=0 Dividing by p*, we get pkp"! dp + dp = 0 or dp * ap @ oP pean G app = ART Substituting the value of a in equation (15.15), we get C= VERT. (15.18) Note 1. For the propagation of the minor disturbances through air, the process is assumed to be adiabatic ‘The velocity of the disturbances (pressure waves) through air is very high and hence there is no time for any appreciable heat transfer. 2, Isothermal process is considered for the calculation of the velocity of the sound waves (or pressure waves) only when itis given in the numerical problem that process is isothermal. If no process is mentioned, is assumed to be a 15.5 MACH NUMBER In Chapter 12, Art. 12.8.5, Mach number has been defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the elastic force,706 Fluid Mechanics i Mach umber aoe int. fav Etnies “VR v i, fe = fs [E-ctomeauain 1516 Kip {k7p [ ° from equation ( ) ‘Thus Mach number =M Velocity of fluid or body moving in fluid ‘Velocity of sound in the fluid v =X (15.19) c ) For the compressible fluid flow, Mach number is an important non-dimensional parameter. On the basis of the Mach number, the flow is defined as : 1, Sub-sonic flow, 2. Sonic flow, and 3. Super-sonic flow. 1. Sub-sonic Flow. A flow is said sub-sonic flow if the Mach number is less than 1.0 (or M < 1) which means the velocity of flow is less than the velocity of sound wave (or V< C). 2. Sonic Flow. A flow is said to be sonic flow if the Mach number (M) is equal to 1.0. This means that when the velocity of flow V is equal to the velocity of sound C, the flow is said to be sonic flow. 3. Super-sonie Flow. A flow is said to be super-sonic flow if the Mach number is greater than 1.0 (or M> 1). This means that when velocity of flow Vis greater than the velocity of sound wave, the flow is said to be super-sonic flow. Problem 15.4 Find the sonic velocity for the following fluids : (i) Crude oil of sp. gr. 0.8 and bulk modulus 153036 Nem’. (ii) Mercury having a bulk modulus of 2648700 Nem. Solution. Given : (0 For Crude oil, sp. gr. = 0.8 Density, p= 0.8 x 1000 = 800 kg/m? Bulk modulus, K = 153036 N/em? = 153036 x 10* Nim? Using equation (15.16) for sonic velocity, as c= [R= 153030200" 1355.09 = 1383 mis, Ans. ° 800 (ii) For Mercury, sp. gr. = 13.6 Density of Mercury, p= 13.6 x 1000 kg/m? Bulk modulus, K = 2648700 Niem? = 2648700 x 10* Nim? ‘The sonic velocity, C= | = 2648700210" _ 1395.55 mis, Ans. pV 136x100Compressible Flow _707 Problem 15.5 Find the speed of the sound wave in air at sea-level where the pressure and temperature are 10.1043 Nem? (abs.) and 15°C respectively. Take R = 287 Wkg°K and k = 1.4. Solution. Given : Pressure, p= 10.1043 Niem? = 10.1043 x 10* Nim? ‘Temperature, 1 15°C T= 273 + 15 = 288 K, R= 287 Wkg°K, k= 14 For adiabatic process, the velocity of sound is given by equation (15.18), as C= VERT = T4287 288 = 340.17 mis. Ans. Problem 15.6 Calculate the Mach number at a point on a jet propelled aircraft, which is flying at 1100 km/hour at sea-level where air temperature is 20°C. Take k= 1.4 and R = 287 J/kg°K. Solution. Given : 1100 x 1000 60x60 105.55 mis Speed of aircraft, V= 1100 km/hout ‘Temperature, t= 20°C T= 273 + 20 = 293°K, k= 1.4, R= 287 Jikg°K Using equation (15.18), the velocity of sound is C= VERT = (14K 287x293 Mach number is given by equation (15.19) as v_ 30855 “= O° 3an1 Problem 15.7 An aeroplane is flying at an height of 15 km where the temperature is ~ 50°C. The ‘speed of the plan is coresponting to M = 2.0. Assuming k= lel and R= 287 Jig'R, find the speed athe plane. Solution. Given : 3.11 mis 89. Ans. Height of the plane, Z=15 km (Extra Data) Temperature, =~ 50°C T=~50 +273 =223°K Mach number, M=20, k= 14, R = 287 Iikg°K. Using equation (15.18), we get the velocity of sound as C= VERT = Ji4 x 287X223 = 299.33 mis Y or292 "299.33 V = 2.0 x 299.33 = 598.66 m/s = 59866 x60 x60 1000 Using equation (15.19), we have M = 2158.17 km/hour. Ans.708 Fluid Mechanics 15.6 PROPAGATION OF PRESSURE WAVES (OR DISTURBANCES) IN A. COMPRESSIBLE FLUID Whenever any disturbance is produced in a compressible fluid, the disturbance is propagated in all directions with a velocity of sound (i-e., equal to C). The nature of propagation of the disturbance depends upon the Mach number. Let us consider a small projectile moving from left to right in a straight line in a stationary fluid. Due to the movement of the projectile, the disturbances will be ‘reated in the fluid. This disturbance will be moving in all directions with a velocity C. Hence let V = Velocity of the projectile, C= Velocity of pressure wave of disturbance created in the fluid, Let us find the nature of propagation of the disturbance for different Mach numbers. Ast Cass hen M < 1. When Mach number is less than 1.0, the flow is called sub-sonic flow. For seins <1 oY Tofino of open rte Y= Lian = 2ani,s0 ot =} which thn 1.0. Let epee iat Aan i moving ase Let in 4 seconds the projectile reaches to the position B. At A, the point 4 is also marked. The position, of the projectile after I sec, 2 sec, 3 see and 4 sec along the lines are shown by the points 3, 2, | and B respectively. The projectile moves from A to B in 4 seconds and hence the distance AB = 4 x V=4x1=4 units. The disturbance created at A in 4 seconds will move a distance = 4C = 4 x 2 ‘units in all directions. Hence taking A as centre and radius equal to 8 units, a circle is drawn. This circle gives the position of disturbance after 4 seconds. When the projectile is at point 3, it will reach B in three seconds and distance 38 = 3 x V=3 x 1 = 3 units. But the disturbance created at point 3 in three seconds will move a distance having a radius = 3 x C= 3 x 2 = 6 units. Similarly at point 2, the disturbance will have a radius = 2 x C= 4 units and at point 1, the disturbance will have a radius = 1x C = 1x 2=2 units. This is shown in Fig. 15.3 (a). ‘AS in this case V < C, the pressure wave is always ahead of the projectile and point B is inside the sphere of radius 8 unit 2nd Case : When M = 1. When M = 1, the flow is known as sonic flow. In this case, the distur- bance always travels with the projectile as shown in Fig. 15.3 (b). Let V= 1 unit, and C= 1 unit so that vii M .0. Let the projectile moves from A to B in 4 seconds. The disturbance created at A in 4xCa4x cl 4 seconds will move a distance having radius units in all directions. The projectile “SE janesCompressible Flow _709 SI rosece 2 ste en Fig. 15.3 Propagation of disturbance for different Mach numbers. from point 3 will move to position B in tree seconds. The disturbance created at point 3, will move 8 distance having radius = 3 x C= 3 x 1=3 unit in ll directions in tree seconds. Similarly atthe Point 2 and point 1, the disturbance created at these points will move a distance having radius 2 and 1 in all directions respectively. 3rd Case : When M > 1. When M > I, the flow is known as supersonic flow. Let V= I unit and c= vet = C705 A to B in 4 seconds. The distance travelled by the projectile in 4 seconds = 4 x V=4 x 1= 4 units. Hence, tke AB =4 units, The disturbance created at A will move in ll directions and in 4 seconds, the radius of disturbance will be equal a4 x C=4 x0,5= 2 units. Hence taking A as centre, draw a circle with radi equal to 2 units. After one second from A, the projectile willbe at point 3 and distance A3 = Vx1=1x1=1 unit, The projectile from point 3 wil reach point B in three seconds. Hence the disturbance created at point3 will move in all directions and in thee seconds, the radi of disturbance from point 3 will be equal 103 x C= 3 x0.5 = 1.5 units, Similarly the radius of disturbance at point 2 and Iwill 2x C=205= | unitand 1 C= 1%0.5~ 05 unit respectively as shown in Fig. 153 () In this case the sphere of propagation of disturbance always lags behind the projectile If we draw a tangent to the different circles which represent the propagated spherical waves on both sides, we shal get cone with vertex at B. This cone is known a Mach Cone. 15.6.1 Mach Angle. This is defined as the half of the angle ofthe Mach cone. In Fig. 15.3 (0), angle ais known as Mach angle. In the ALBD of Fig 15.3 (the distance 12 = Velocity of projectile the distance 1D = Velocity of sound wave = C, Hence we have wc 14 sing = 22€2 1 1 IBV V/C M 5 unit so that M .0, which is greater than unity. Let the projectile moves from (15.20)710 Fluid Mechanics 156.2 Zone of Action. When M > 1, the effect of the disturbance is felt only in the region inside the Mach cone. This region is called the zone of action. 15.6.3 Zone of Silence. When M > 1, there is no effect of disturbance in the region outside the Mach cone. The region which is outside the Mach cone is called zone of silence. Problem 15.8 A projectile is travelling in air having pressure and temperature as 8.829 N/em? and = 2°C. If the Mach angle is 40°, find the velocity of the projectile. Take k = 1.4 and R = 287 J/kg?K. Solution. Given : Pressure of air, (p= 8.829 N/cm? = 8.829 x 10* Nim? “Temperature of ai 1e-2°C =~ 24273 = 271°K Mach angle, = 40°, k= 1.4, R= 287 Jke°K Let the velocity of projectile = V Using equation (15.20), have sin = orn 4" The velocity of sound, C is given by equation (15.18) as C= VERT = J14 287x271 c_ 30 sin 40° = 0.6427 = £= 330 0° = 0.6427 = == 329.98 m/s = 330 m/s 330 0.6827 Problem 15.9 A projectile ravels in air of pressure 10.1043 N/em? at 10°C at a speed of 1500 knvhour. Find the Mach number and the Mach angle. Take k = 1.4 and R = 287 Wkg°K. = 513 més. Ans. Solution. Given : Pressure, ‘p= 10.1043 Nfem? = 10.1043 x 10% Niem? Temperature, 1= 10°C T= 104273 = 283°K Speed of projectile, V = 1500 kmihour = 1500%1000 1), — 416,67 mis 60% 60 k= 14, R= 287 Ikg?K For adiabatic process, the velocity of sound is given by C= VERT = 14% 287 x 283 eV 41667 33720 Mach number, = 1.235. Ans.[ ‘Compressible Flow 711 + Mach angle is obtained from equation (15.20) as sina= C2121 VM 1235 Mach angle, 01 sin’ 0.8097 = $4.06°. Ans. Problem 15.10 Find the velocity of bullet fired in standard air if the Mach angle is 30°. Take R = 287.14 Ikg°K and k = 1.4 for air. Assume temperature as 15°C. Solution. Given : Mach angle a=30° R= 287.14 Jikg°K held ‘Temperature, 1 15°C * T= 15 +273 = 288°K ‘Velocity of sound is given by equation (15.18) as C= VERT = J14 28714 x 288 = 340.25 mis Usingtertaon, sn = gen by equation (1820) sin 30° = 34025, v y= 34025 _ 680.50 mvs. Ans. Sno » 15.7 STAGNATION PROPERTIES ‘When a fluid is flowing past an immersed body, and at a point on the body if the resultant velocity becomes zero, the values of pressure, temperature and density at that point are called stagnation, properties. The point is called the stagnation point. The values of pressure, density and temperature are called stagnation pressure, stagnation density and stagnation temperature respectively. They are denoted by p,, p, and T, respectively. 15.7.1 Expression for Stagnation Pressure (p,). Consider a compressible fluid flowing past an immersed body under frictionless adiabatic conditions as in Fig. 15.4. Consider two points 1 and 2 ‘on a streamline as shown in Fig. 15.4. Let ressure of compressible fluid at point 1, ‘elocity of fluid at 1, and P, = Density of fluid at 1, zy Vas Pa = Corresponding values of pressure, velocity and density at point 2. ‘Applying Bernoulli's equation for adiabatic flow given by equation (15.13) at point 1 and 2, we get (este. kK) mY k-1 pig * 2 K-1) pie” 2g712 Fluid Mechanics Fig. 15.4 Stagnation properties. But “=%, k) ow (4k) me k-I)pg 29 (k-U pag 2 or kK Vol (_k )p we Cancelling E-1)p, 2 \k-t)p,° 2 8 Point 2 is a stagnation point. Hence velocity will become zero at stagnation point and pressure and density will be denoted by p, and p,. Vo =0,p2= p,and P2= Py Substituting these values in the above Bernoulli's equation, kK )a MW (k\a Ly E-1)p,° 2 (e-a)p, _& Val) em] We “ Cael axe). if “0 tic process from equation (15.4), we have oii) GaelsCompressible Flow _713 or or or re (iii) For the point 1, sung te vaicot B= meno We 1 (pe reget a[e 2 CDG (2 or vem? ci or wiv) as2n Equation (15.21) gives the value of stagnation pressure. In equation (15.21), for M< 1, the term St ‘M,2 will be less than 1 and hence the R.H.S. of this equation can be expressed by Binomial theorem as714 Fluid Mechanics fists (ts! a) (Ne V7 or (15.214) the velocity of sound wave Chen M, wl be very smal andthe em 1+ a will be nearly equal to 1. Hence equation (15.21) becomes as 1 2 Lye — Pie PuX Vy Orpy= Pi + > Pi Vi Pe-Pi= 3 -P P= Pit > Pi But when approaching velocity becomes high then M, is not small and equation (15.214) is expressed as (ee) _ T i .05.21B) phx h “iCompressible Flow 715 15.7.2. Expression for Stagnation Density (p,)._ From equation (ii), we have (OFF ria Substiting the vale of ) from equation (is), n Jo asa 15.7.3. Expression for Stagnation Temperature (T,). Equation of state is given by ‘equation (15.2) as . RT For the stagnation point, we have equation of state as 2 = Rr, (15224) Ps tn Rp, Substituting the value of p, and p, from equations (15.21) and (15.22), we have716 Fluid Mechanics Problem 15.11 Find the Mach number when an aeroplane is flying at 1100 km/hour through still, air having a pressure of 7 N/em* and temperature ~ 5°C. Wind velocity may be taken as zero. Take R = 287.14 Ikg K. Calculate the pressure, temperature and density of air at stagnation point on the nose of the plane. Take k= 1.4. Solution. Given : 1100 x 1000 Speed of aeroplane, V= 1100 kimi = Eo 6 = 305.55 mis Pressure of air, 7x 108 Nim? ‘Temperature, Using relation C= VERT for velocity of sound for adiabatic process, we have Cy = LAR DRTIAR DGB = 328.2 mis + Mach number, My 0.9309 = 0.931. Ans. Stagnation Pressure, p,- Using equation (15.21) for stagnation pressure, kala et =p, [i+ kat ae » af 2 ] 14-10 =10x108[ 1 xcoa? 7.0 x 10" [1 + 1733] 4 = 7.0 10° [1.1733] = 12.24 x 108 Nim? = 12.24 Niem?, Ans. Stagnation Temperature, T,, Using equation (15.23) for stagnation temperature, =268 [144 1, -273 = 31443 -273 oy ony} = 268 {1.1733] = 314.44°K 41.44°C. Ans, Stagnation Density, p,- Using equation of state (15.22 A) for stagnation density, =e i Oe oli) In equation (i) given above, if Ris taken as 287.14 J/kg K, then pressure should be taken in N/m? so, that the value of pis in kg/m, Hence p, = 12.24 x 10° Nim? and 7, = 314.44°K. 1224 x10* = teSE TO = 1.355 ky’. Ans. 28714 x 31444 efCompressible Flow _717 Problem 15.12 Calculate the stagnation pressure, temperature and density at the stagnation point on the nose of a plane, which is flying at 800 km/hour through still air having a pressure 8.0 N/em? (abs.) and temperature ~ 10°C. Take R = 287 J/kg K and k = 14 Solution. Given : Speed of plane, V = 800 km/hour = 500% 1000 60% 60 Pressure of air, 8.0 x 10* Nim? ‘Temperature, 1, =- 10 +273 = 263°K R= 287 Jkg°K For adiabatic flow, the velocity of sound is given by C= ERT = (14% 287X263 = 325.07 mis Mach number, Ma Y= 22222 © 32507 ‘This Mach number is the local Mach number and hence equal to M, . My = 0.683 Using equation (15.21) for stagnation pressure, nent 10.93 x 10" Nim? = 10.93 N/em?. Ans. = 8.0 x 10° [1.0933)°° = Using equation (15.23) for stagnation temperature, (1-Stm) = 63 (4 T,= x(083))) 20 = 263 [1.0933] = 287.5 K T, ~ 273 = 287.5 ~ 723 = 148°C. Ans. Using equation (152), F = RP For stagnation point, Rr, pF okt Oo ae As R= 287 Iikg K, the value of p, should be taken in N/m? so that the value of p, is obtained in kg/m’. p, = 10.93 x 10° Nim? 10.93 x10* 287 x 2875 Stagnation density, 1.324 kg/m’. Ans.[718 Fluid Mechanics 15.8 AREA VELOCITY RELATIONSHIP FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLOW ‘The area velocity elaonship for incompressible fluid is given by the continuity equation as Ax V= Constant From the above equation, itis clear tat withthe increase of area, velocity decreases. Butin cas of compressible uid, the continuity equation is given by, pAV = Constant i) From this elation its clear that With the ehange of ate, both the velocity and density ar affected. Hence to find the elation between area and velocity foreompresible uid we proceed as given below Differentiating equation (), we gt DICAV) +AVup=0. or pIAdV + Vad] + AVdp=0 or padV's pVda + AVap = 0. W tA, dy ap ‘The Euler's equation for compressible uid is given by equation (15.8). as e VaV + gdz=0 Dividing by pAV, we get “id, Neglecting the term, the above equations writen as + VaV= 0, ‘This equation can also be written as 2 2 +Vvav=0 (Dividing and multiplying by dp) or BM vay =o ap dp ap Hence above equation becomes as But from equation (15.15) CB svav=0 of C& ° p Substring the vas of in equation we ae Wg VV via ce Bw (15.24) Equation (15.24) gives the relationship between change of area with change of velocity for different Mach numbers. The following are the important conclusions (@ For M <1, the flow is sub-sonic and the right-hand side of equation (15.24) is negative as (P= yssesive ore vaesoF a 1 Hae 0, <0. en ht i eet of area, the velocity decreases and vice versa.Compressible Flow _719 (id) For M > 1, the flow is super-sonic. The value of (MM? ~ 1) will be positive and hence right-hand st of gun 1520 wl be poste eee A> 0 and ato 50 This men tt wih he increase of area, velocity also increases. (iti) For M = 1, the flow is called sonic flow. The value of (M?~ 1) is zero. Hence right-hand side ot equion 1528) wl be er Hess 20 This means a is const. »15.9 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUID THROUGH ORIFICES AND NOZZLES FITTED TO A LARGE TANK Consider a compressible fluid filled in a large reservoir or vessel (© which a short nozzle is fited as shown in Fig. 15.5. If the pressure drop of the compressible fluid, flowing through the nozzle from reservoir is small, the process is considered to be isothermal, But if the pressure drop is large, the process is considered to be adiabatic. Consider two points 1 and 2 inside the tank and at the exit of the nozzle respectively. veo Let locity of fluid in the tank, essure of fluid at point 1, lensity of fluid at point 1, remperature of fluid at point 1, and Vy, Pay Py» T, = Corresponding values of velocity, pres- sure, density and temperature at point 2 Considering the process to be adiabatic. Then from Bernoulli's equation for adiabatic flow from equation (15.13), we have Fig. 155 Pressure tank fitted (1) mv k eee. (t |e ey pg 2g “t (4 P2g 28 % But Z, = Zand also V, = Velocity of fluid in tank = 0 4k) yo kt) pg or lie | we k-1lo.e” 28] 2s (coming +) z ) or Vo= |e (e-D Lp, But for adiabatic flow from equation (15.4), we have720 Fluid Mechanics Pi Pe og Pi Pb Le (2) mo Po Pr Substituting the value of 2 in equation (i), we get 1 \- 2k_pi)y Pry(P\t| | 2k ply (me Del a le) | Vedeal Wy 2k, (e)" = Pulp [Be 15.25) (k al Py Ps 2k ply yr Let =n. Then above equation becomes as V, = j)———~ "| 1 =n Aili) Ds “ VaR) al | ‘The mass rate of flow of the compressible fluid is given as ‘m= pxAiV, Where Ay = Area at the exit of nozzle so, 2 Pig itte Vy trom (i soe i | [Substitute V, from (iti)] (aking p, inside) But from equation (ii), we have p= (15.26) ‘The mass rate of flow (m) depends on the value of n for the given values of p, and p, at 1Compressible Flow 721 15.9.1 Value of n or 5? for Maximum Value of Mass Rate of Flow. For maximum value of m, am we have am an? alent fe » 2k yy = ee lo hana o « a 15.27 k+d ‘ > Equation (15.27) is the condition for maximum value of mass rate of flow through the nozzle. For k= 1.4, the value of n can be obtained from equation (15.27) as wee? 22 ge 2 “1441 24 “24 aya b n=(2)" = 0528 or 2 =n=0528. 15.28) () Pp “ 15.9.2 Value of V, for Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid. From equation (15.27), the value of mis given as. (a) Substituting this value of n in equation (iti), we get722 Fluid Mechanics = Peal (2 “yee (ea) ~ (Pen 2)_ [2 vi [eet-2 “Vk-1p,( e+) Ve-1p, | ee1 Para. pra asin k-1p, k+l] Yer p, 15.9.3 Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid Through Nozzle. Mass rate of flow of fluid through nozzle is given by equation (15.26) as. From maximum rate of flow, from equation (15.27), we have For air, ke14, axid 5 |(_2 yr _(_2 14-10" | Ta e7 Tari ee 24 24 =A, (7% pip [A018 3348] = A, x 0.685 x JP,P, = 00685 A, VPP: (15.30)Compressible Flow _723 ion of Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible Fluid with Pressure Rosie { P2 15.9.4. Vas Py Fig. 15.6 shows the variation of mass rate of flow of Mowe Antal mane rate ® é « ot flow: compressible id with diferent pressure ratio (@}. a It is seen that when 22 is less than critical pressure ratio of 0.528, the mass rte of flow is constant and is equal to the mass rte of low conesponding to pressure ratio 20.508: Buti the presure rato s moe than 0.528, mass fate of flow decreases as shown by died line. Fig. 15.6 15.9.5 Velocity at Outlet of Nozzle for Maximum Rate of Flow is Equal to Sonic Velocity. This is proved as given below, ‘The velocity at the outlet of nozzle for maximum rate of flow is given by equation (15.29) as, ) Now pressure ratio Also for adiabatic flow, : Pi = Patt Substituting the value of p, and p, in equation (3), we get Butn §724 Fluid Mechanics Problem 15.13 Find the velocity of air flowing at the outlet of a nozzle, fitted 10 a large vessel which contains air at a pressure of 294.3 N/em® (abs.) and at a temperature of 20°C. The pressure at the outlet of the nozzle is 206 N/em® (abs). Take k = 1.4 and K = 287 J/kg°K. Solution. Given : Pressure inside vessel, _p, = 294.3 Nom’ 294.3 x 10° Nim? ‘Temperature inside vessel, f, = 20°C T, = 20 +273 = 293°K Pressure at the nozzle, _p, = 206 Nlem? = 206 x 10* Nim? R= 287 kek held Using equation (15.25) forthe velocity, 2k) pn) )_ (ps) © kp, (yy Taw 2x14) 2943x108), ( 20610") 14x Pr 2943 x10" 294910" fy gqoana] = [7243 XI0" fo) 04” py m ‘The value of p, is calculated from equation of state as. ol) =P Pe = RT, P, In this equation if R is taken in J/kg K, p, should be in Ném?. Then p, will be in kg/m?. Py = 294.3 x 10° Nim? Rr, * Pt 2043 x10" = 224310" _ 34.99 kein’. ° (287 x 293 i ‘Substituting the value of p, = 34.99 kg/m? in equation (i), Vy = {7x 2243210" fy _ 993] = 239.2 mis. Ans. 349 Problem 15.14 A tank contains air at a temperature of 30°C. Air flows from the tank into atmos- phere through a convergent nozzle. The diameter at the outlet of the nozzle is 25 mm. Assuming ‘adiabatic flow, find the mass rate of flow of air through the nozzle when the pressure of air in tank is (i) 3.924 Niem* (gauge), (ii) 33.354 N/om? (gauge). Take k = 1.4, R = 287 Jkg°K and atmospheric pressure = 10.104 N/em* (abs). Solution. Given : ‘Temperature in tank, 1, =30°CCompressible Flow 725 T, = 30 + 273 = 303°K Diameter atthe nozzle, D = 25 mm = 0.025 m. Area, Ags E Dg = © (025) = 0.0004908 m* R= 287 Vkg°K k= 14. (@ Mass rate of flow of air when pressure in tank is 3.924 Niem? (gauge). P, = 3.924 Niem? (gauge) = 3.924 + 10.104 = 14.028 Niem? (abs.) = 14.028 x 10* Niem? (abs.) Atmospheric pressure 10.104 Niem? = 10.104 x 10" Nin? Pressure at the nozzle, p Pressure ratio, n= Pa WMAXIO™ _ 0.7203 Py 14.028 10" ‘This pressure ratio is more than the pressure ratio 0.528 given by equation (15.28), hence mass rate of flow of air is given by equation (15.26), as, 2k ie m=A arm =n | 4) In this equation if p, is taken into N/ ‘equation of state as then p, will be in kg/m?. The value of p, is obtained from pa DL epryorpy= 2, where py Ps Per, ’ 14.028 Nim? 14.028 x 10" 287 x 303 .613 ke/m’. Substituting this value of p, = 1.613 kg/m? and p, = 14.028 x 10* N/m? in equation (i), we get 2x1. 14-10 ooo4908 [1583935).7203"* — 7203] = .0004908 [1583935 [6258 —.5698] = 0.146 kp/s. Ans. (ii) Mass rate of flow of air when pressure in the tank is 33.354 Niem? (gauge). 3.3594 + 10.104 = 43.458 lem? (abs.) = 43.458 x 10* Nim? (abs). 0004908 14008 x10! xr ra -m0s |726 Fluid Mechanics 1, = Atmospheric pressure = 10.104 10* Nim? ‘Pa _ 10104 x10 p, 4345810" Pressure ratio, on = 0.2325, ‘This pressure ratio is less than the pressure ratio of 0.528. Hence as mentioned in Art, 15.9.4, the ‘mass rate of flow will be corresponding to the pressure ratio of 0.528, Hence 2g where n= 0.528, p, = 43.458 x 10" Nim? ‘The value of| p= Pin $3458 x10" | Br, 287308 99 kgim* 328! seasenio a3 = 004908, [4906875]. 4015 — 3346] = 0.494 kp/s. Ans. Problem 15.15 A large tank contains air at 28.449 N/cm? gauge pressure and 24°C temperature. The air flows from the tank to the atmosphere through an orifice. If the diameter of the orifice is 20 mm, find the maximum rate of flow of air. Tank R = 287 J/kg°K, k = 1.4, atmospheric pressure = 10.104 Néem?, Solution. Given : Pressure in tank, p, = 28.449 Nicm? (gauge) = 28.449 + 10.104 = 38.553 Nlem? (abs.) = 38.553 10* Nim? ‘Temperature in tank, 12 24°C T, = 273 +24 = 297°K R= 287 Jikg K keld Diameter of orifice, D=20 mm = 04 Area, A= © (0) = 0003141 m* Using equation of state, we get 22 = RT, or py = PL = 38553210" 4.522 kg/m? Pr: RT, 287x297 Maximum rate of flow of air is given by equation (15.30) as Mgax = 0.685 Ay PP, (Here A, = A = 0.003141) = 0.685 x .0003141 [38553 x10* x 4.522 = 0.284 kg/s. Ans.Compressible Flow 727 » 15.10 MASS RATE OF FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUID THROUGH VENTURIMETER, Consider a compressible fluid flowing through the horizontal venturimeter. Let the conditions of flow is represented by suffix 1 at the inlet of venturimeter and by suffix 2 at the throat of the ‘venturimeter, Considering the flow as adiabatic, we have from Bernoulli's equation at sections 1 and 2 from equation (15.13), as (gre Gale (asa) (consti) or wow or woe 2 2 ve ve 272 “@ For adiabatic flow, Pek Be (2) Pre Pa Pr \P2 “BG -(2)° ” Substituting this vate of EL n equation (, we get A Pil) Pe k=1p, ky tii) Applying continuity for sections 1 and 2, we have PrAVs = PrArV>728 Fluid Mechanics Substituting the value of V, in equation (ii), we get ate [ey wiv) But fom equation (i, we have ne fa)" am Pr Pr Pr Suhstiuting this vale in equation (i), we gt wn ef va (ey (k-1) py Pi 2 Pi (15.32) ‘The only condition for equation (15.32) is thatthe pressure ratio (2) should be more than the pressure ratio 0.528 Problem 15.16 Find the mass rate of flow of air though a venturimeter having inlet diameter as 300 mm and throat diameter 150 mm. The pressure at the inlet of venturimeter is 14 kgffem™ (1.4 x9.81 N/em?) absolute and temperature of air at inlet is 15°C. The pressure at the throat is given das 1.3 keffem® (1.3 x 9.81 N/em*) absolute. Take R = 287 J/kg°K and k = 14. Solution. Given : Diameter at inlet, Area, “iCompressible Flow _729 Diameter at throat, Area, Pressure of air at inlet, ‘Throat pressure, ‘Temperature at inlet, The pressure ratio, Py _ 13x10" x981 Pp, Wax 10" x 981 D, = 150 mm = 0.15 m AQ= ; (15)? = 0.01767 m? y= Ld kgflem? = 1.4 x 10" kgtim? = 14 x 104 9:81 Nim? y= 1.3 kgflem? = 1.3 x 10% 9.81 Nim? R= 287 Hkg"K kad 1)= 15°C 9285 Density of gas at inlet is obtained from equation of state, 2. = pr, orp, = Li = MXN x 981 RT, 287% (273+ 15) where T= t, +273 = 19 +273 = 288°K 14x10* X981 287 x 288 Ps .66 kglem® For adiabatic process, we have PE (22) Pao (2) Pi PL Pp oe om ly P2= Pr (2) = 1.66 x (.9285)""* a = 1.574 kg/m’, Using equation (15.32) for the mass rate of flow through venturimeter, we get [oe 2 p, |k=Tp, 7 m= Babe I aa | I | [2Kld 4x10" x98 cee ia jut tes | = 1.514 01767 " ‘ { 01767" -| gas | (077068 Jive ] svoi44i 9085] 8 0625 x.899 = 315 kg/s. Ans. ToS om 78% 38 “i730 Fluid Mechanics > 15.11 PITOT-STATIC TUBE IN A COMPRESSIBLE FLOW ‘The pitot-static tube, when used for determining the velocity at any point in a compressible fluid, ‘gives only the difference between the stagnation head and static head. From this difference, the veloc- ity of the incompressible fluid at that point is obtained from the relation, V= 2gh,, where h = Difference in two heads. But when the pitot-static tube is used for finding velocity at any point in a compressible fluid, the actual pressure difference shown by the gauges of the pitot-tube should be multiplied by a factor, for ‘obtaining correct velocity at that point. The value of the factor depends upon the Mach number of the flow. Let us find an expression for the correction factor for sub-sonic flow. AL a point in pitotstatc tube, the pressure becomes stagnation pressure, denoted by py, The expression for stagnation pressure, p, is given by equation (15.21), as where _p, = Pressure of fluid far away from stagnation point, ‘M, = Mach number at point I far away from stagnation point. Fora 1 low fs super-samie How, Mel ow sanie flow. 8, In tb sonic Mow, the Giaurbance always moves ahead af Me projectile, In vonie flow. the distur hhance moves along the projectite white in super-soaic flow. the projectile alyays moves ahead of the sistorbance 9, Mach angle is piven by. sin 10. ‘The preséure, termperarive and deny ata point whee velocity & deve Af called stipnation pressure, temperature snd sagnation density, Thor values are given asCompressible Flow _733 | TH, Area velocity relationship few compressible Muid te given as a8 toe = ware 1.2E <0 and At sonic means withthe increase of ae, relocty Gores wis a4 >and Boo ‘whieh menns with the increase Of area, velocity alsy increases tees 2 ome ans cons Dee ee oe = Prepare ut the outlet of nozele or orifice, = Pressure in the tak. 13, The mais rte of flow of compressible fuk thouigh arice or norzle Fitted to the tank is it ate a snatstyatneowinr ae aiteorsane tea [FEB aN ‘Aa mass rac of flow of fluid is given by 21,4, = 0.685 As JmPy 1S, Wethe pressure ratio forthe no22le of ori ited othe Tnrge tank is eee than 0.528, the as ate af Taw [oT he Mid ts hiways comeeponding 0 the presente ratio of 0.528, But af the pressure rato ix mare than (528, the mass rate of flow of luld ls corresponding to the given prescue rai 116. Mass rac of flow of compressible Fuid through venturimcter ix given by where A, = Area atthe throat, A, ~ Asca at inlet. : 17, Mees osston tate anny C= [EA734 Fluid Mechanics 2 13 M4 15. 16. w. 18, vw. EXERCISE (A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS |. Define compressible and incompressible flow. 3. What is the relation between pressure and density of a compressible fluid for (@) isothermal process and (b) adiabatic process ? Derive the continuity equation for one-dimensional compressible flow in differential form, |. State the Bernoulli's theorem for compressible flow. Derive an expression for Bernoull’s equation ‘when the process is () isothermal and (ii) adiabatic. Write an expression for momentum equation for compressible fluid (a) isothermal process and () adiabatic process ? (@) Obtain an expression for velocity of the sound wave in a compressible fluid in terms of change of pressure and change of density. (®) Show thatthe velocity of propagation ofthe pressure wave in a compressible fluid is given by C= ETP. where E is volume modulus of elasticity of fluid. Prove thatthe velocity of sound wave in a compressible fluid is given by C where K = Bulk modulus of fluid, p = Density of fui. Derive an expression for the velocity of sound wave for compressible fluid when the process is assumed as () isothermal and( i) adiabatic. 1. Define Mach number. What is the significance of Mach number in compressible Mid flows ? 10. aL Define the terms: Sub-sonic flow, super-sonic flow, sonic flow, Mach angle and Mach cone. Show by means of diagrams the nature of propagation of disturbance in compressible flow when Mach ‘number is less than one, is equal to one and is more than one. (Delhi University, Dec. 2002) ‘What do you understand by stagnation pressure? Obtain an expression for stagnation pressure of @ ‘compressible fluid in terms of approaching Mach number and pressure Prove that stagnation temperature and stagnation density are given as typ satya reefs tstad annie von[teAsra] nooo [ie] Deine ance a el atime aa om 8 ue (oe vey es. 20) Find an expression for mass rate of flow of compressible fluid through an orifice or nozzle fitted toa large tank. What is condition for maximum rate of flow”? ‘What do you mean by compressibility correction factor ? Find an expression for compressibility factor. Derive an expression for velocity of sound for an adiabatic process. ‘What do you mean by sub-sonic, sonie and super-sonic flows? For frictionless adiabatic flow( ie, isentropic flow) show thatthe stagnation pressure ata given point is sven by Lye 2 ee tet CY as ressure in ambient flow and My = Uy yETp. Be a tagnation pressure, py where p, “iCompressible Flow 735 20. a. 22. 10. ue 2 Differentiate between isentropic and adiabatic processes, (a) Derive an expression for the velocity of sound waves moving in a compressible fluid. (®) Define and explain the terms = ‘Mach number, Froude number, Reynolds number, Mach cone and Mach angle ‘State the Bernoulli's theorem for compressible flow. Derive an expression for Bernoulli's equation when the process is adiabatic (RGPY., Summer, 2002) (8) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS - A gas is flowing through a horizontal pipe of cross-sectional area of 30 em. At a point the pressure is 30N per em’ (gauge) and temperature 20°C. At another section the area of cross-section is 15 em* and pressure is 25 Nlem gauge the mass ate of flow of gas is 0.15 ky, find the velocities ofthe gas at these two sections, assuming an isothermal change. Take R = 287 Jikg K, and atmospheric pressure 10 Neem TAs. V, = 10.71 m/s; V;= 24.5 mis} AA gas with @ velocity of 350 mis is flowing through a horizontal pipe ata section where pressure is '8 lem’ (absolute) and temperatute is 30°C. The pipe changes in diameter and at ths section the pressure is 12 Nrem* (absolute). Fin the velocity ofthe gas at this section ifthe flow of the gas is adiabatic. Take 287 Ik K and k= 1. [Ans 218.63 mis] Find the speed of the sound wave in air at sea-level where the pressure and temperature are 9:81 Niem™ {abs.) and 20°C respectively. Take R = 287 Ike K and k= 1. (Ans. 343.11 mis) Calculate the Mach number ata point on a et propelled aircraft which is flying at 900 kmvhour at sea-level ‘where air temperature is 15°C. Take k = I and R = 287 ka K. Ans. 0.735] ‘An aeroplane is flying at an height of 20 km, where the temperature is - 40°C. The speed of the plane is corresponding to M= 1.8. Assuming k= 1.4 and R= 287 J/kg K, find the speed ofthe plane. [Ans 1982.66 m/e] A projectile is travelling in air having pressure and temperature as 8.829 Nfem* and ~ 5°. Ifthe Mach angle is 30° ind the velocity ofthe projectile. Take k= 1.4 and R= 287 Jkg K. (Ans. 65630 mis], 1A projectile travels in air of pressure 8.829 Nlcm* at ~10°C ata speed of 1200 km/hout. Find the Mach ‘number and the Mach angle. Take k= 1.4 and R= 287 Iikg K. [Ans 1.025, 0= 7.2") Find the Mach number when an aeroplane is flying at 900 km/hour though still air having a pressure of| ‘80 Niem? and temperature “15°C. Take k= 1.4 and & = 287 J/kg K. Calculate the pressure, temperature and density of ar atthe stagnation point onthe nose ofthe plane [Ans. 0.776, 11.9 Niem? ,16.06°C, 1.434 kg/n'] Find the velocity of air flowing at the outlet of a nozzle, fitted toa large vessel which contains air ata pressure of 294.3 Nom? (abs) and at a temperature of 30°C. The pressure at the outlet of the nozzle is 137.34 Niem? (abs.) Take k= 1.4 and R = 287 Jk K. [Ans 242.98 mis] ‘A nozzle of diameter 20 mm is fitted toa large tank which contains air at 20°C. The air flows from the tank into atmosphere. For adiabatic flow, find the mass rate of flow of air through the nozzle when pressure of arin tank is () 5.886 Nien (gauge) and (i) 29.43 Nom? (gauge). Take k= 14 and R = 287 kg K and umospherie pressure = 9.81 Nem" TAs. (0.114 kal, (i 0.291 kes] Find the mass rate of flow of air through a. venturimeter having inlet diameter as 400 mm and throat diameter 200 mm, The pressure a the inlet of the venturimeter is 27.468 N/em? (abs) and temperature of air at inlet is 20°C. The pressure at the throat is given as 25.506 Nlem* absolute. Take k= 1.4 and R= 287 kg K. {Ans 11.13 kei} Calculate the numerical factor by which the actual pressure difference shown by the gauge ofa pitot-tube shold be multiplied to allow for compressibility when the Value of the Mach number i 0.7. Take k= 1.8 [Ans 1.1285] “i736 Fluid Mechanics 13. Find the Mach number when an aeroplane is flying at 1000 km/hour through still air having pressure ‘of 7 Nem and temperature of ~5°C. Take R = 287.14 Ikg K. Calculate the pressure and temperature of| sistant Take = (Debt tabony, Be. 208) Unt, V= 100th = 1922090 7.7 p= Nn = 7 108 = °C Ty 5-5 +273 = 268° K R= 287.14 Jkg K, k= 14 eR, = fia x2BT14 x26 v.27 Now C, 3282 328.2 mis 106.38° K = 306.38 273 =33.38°C.] xo] “i| it i FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS > 16.1 INTRODUCTION Flow in open channels is defined as the flow of a liquid with a free surface. A free surface is a surface having constant pressure such as atmospheric pressure. Thus a liquid flowing at atmospheric pressure through a passage is known as flow in open channels. In most of cases, the liquid is taken as water. Hence flow of water through a passage under atmospheric pressure is called flow in open, channels. The flow of water through pipes at atmospheric pressure or when the level of water in the pipe is below the top of the pipe, is also classified as open channel flow. In case of open channel flow, as the pressure is atmospheric, the flow takes place under the force of gravity which means the flow takes place due to the slope of the bed of the channel only. The hydraulic gradient line coincides with the free surface of water. » 16.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FLOW IN CHANNELS ‘The flow in open channel is classified into the following types = 1, Steady flow and unsteady flow, 2. Uniform flow and non-uniform flow, 3. Laminar flow and turbulent flow, and 4. Sub-critical, critical and super critical flow. 16. velocity of flow, rate of flow at any point in open channel flow do not change with respect to flow is said to be steady flow. Mathematically, steady flow is expressed as av. 20 ay WM 0, 2g oe Bao 16.1 an Or ar ie) where V = velocity, Q = rate of flow and_y = depth of flow. If at any point in open channel flow, the velocity of flow, depth of flow or rate of flow changes with respect to time, the flow is said to be unsteady flow. Mathematically, unsteady flow means av ay 92 Meo or Me0 o Seo. a8 a 88 Fy Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow. If the flow characteristics such as depth of flow, the 16.2.2. Uniform Flow and Non-uniform Flow. If for a given length of the channel, the velocity of flow, depth of flow, slope of the channel and cross-section remain constant, the flow is 737[738 Fluid Mechanics said to be uniform. On the other hand, if for a given length of the channel, the velocity of flow, depth of flow ete, do not remain constant, the flow is said tobe non-uniform flow. Mathematically, uniform and non-uniform flow are writen as: 2 9, © = 0 for uniform flow as and 2% 40, © 40 for non-uniform flow. as Non-uniform flow in open channels is also called varied flow, which is clasified inthe following to types as: (i) Rapidly Varied Flow (R.V.F.), and (ii) Gradually Varied Flow (G.V.F.) (i) Rapidly Varied Flow (R.V.F.). Rapidly varied flow is defined as that flow in which depth of flow changes abruptly over a small length of the channel. As showin in Fig. 16.1 when there is any obstruction in the path of flow of water, the level of water rises above the obstruction and then falls and again rises over a small length of channel. Thus the depth of flow changes rapidly over a short length of the channel. For this short length of the channel the flow is called rapidly varied flow vi (GRADUALLY VARIED. fron, RAPIDLY. ‘VARIED FLOW i 1 I I a (GRiFORnI=— NONUNIFORM FLOW = FLOW Fig. 16.1. Uniform and non-uniform flow. (ii) Gradually Varied Flow (G.V.F.). If the depth of flow in a channel changes gradually over a long length of the channel, the flow is said to be gradually varied flow and is denoted by G.V.F. 16.2.3 Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow. The flow in open channel is said to be laminar if the Reynold number (R,) is less than 500 or 600, Reynold number in case of open channels is defined as : R= OR (16.2) # where V = Mean velocity of flow of water R = Hydraulic radius or Hydraulic mean depth Cross-section area of flow normal to the directic ~ ‘Wetted perimeter of flow P and = Density and viscosity of water. If the Reynold number is more than 2000, the flow is said to be turbulent in open channel flow. If R, lies between 500 to 2000, the flow is considered to be in transition state. 16.2.4 Sub-critical, Critical and Super Critical Flow. The flow in open channel is said to be sub-critical if the Froude number (F,) is less than 1.0. The Froude number is defined as : (16.3)[ Flow in Open Channels 739] where V = Mean velocity of flow D = Hydraulic depth of channel and is equal to the ratio of wetted area to the top width of channel ‘The flow is called critical if F, = 1.0. And if F, > 1.0, the flow is called super critical or shooting or rapid or torrential, » 16.3 DISCHARGE THROUGH OPEN CHANNEL BY CHEZY'S FORMULA Consider uniform flow of water in a channel as shown in Fig. 16.2. As the flow is uniform, it ‘means the velocity, depth of flow and area of flow will be constant for a given length of the channel. Consider sections 1-1 and 2-2. ig.16.2 Uniform flow in open channel. Let L= Length of channel, A= Area of flow of water, i= Slope of the bed, V = Mean velocity of flow of water, P = Wetted perimeter of the cross-section, J = Frictional resistance per unit velocity per unit area, The weight of water between sections 1-1 and 2-2. W= Specific weight of water volume of water wxAXL Component of W along direction of flow = W x sin = wAL sin i @ Frictional resistance against motion of water = f x surface area x (velocity )* ‘The value of n is found experimentally equal to 2 and surface area = P x L. Frictional resistance against motion = x P x Lx V2 ii) The forces acting on the water between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are: 1. Component of weight of water along the direction of flow, 2. Friction resistance against flow of water, 3. Pressure force at section 1-1, 4. Pressure force at section 2-2 |AS the depths of water at the sections 1-1 and 2-2 are the same, the pressure forces on these two sections are same and acting in the opposite direction. Hence they cancel each other. In case of uniform flow, the velocity of flow is constant for the given length of the channel, Hence there is no acceleration acting on the water. Hence the resultant force acting in the direction of flow must be ze10.740 Fluid Mechanics Resolving all fore inthe direction of flow, we get WAL sin i= fx PXL® V2 or WAL sin i=J% PX LX a_ WALSING WAY Ga, JRPXL f P fw fA or ve Fx e xsin Aili) Aen But P i A iw Substituting the values of & and |" in equation (iii), V= CYmsini stituting . 5 imeauation (i), For small values of i, sini = tani=i Cdmi (16.4) Discharge, Q = Area x Velocity = Ax V Ax C¥imi (16.5) Problem 16.1. Find the velocity of flow and rate of flow of water through a rectangular channel ‘0f6 m wide and 3 m deep, when itis running ful. The channel is having bed slope as 1 in 2000. Take Cheey's constant C = 55. Solution. Given ‘Width of rectangular channel, b = 6 m Depth of channel, = hydraulic mean depth or hydraulic radius, C= Chezy’s constant Area, Bed slope, Chezy’s constant, c=55 Perimeter, P=b+2Md=642x3=12m A_18 Hydraulic mean depth, m=4=18 215m lydraul pth, Satis ‘Velocity of flow is given by equation (16.4) as, v= Ami = 55))15x— Rate of flow, Q= Vx Area = Vx A= 1.506 x 18 = 27.108 m°ss. Ans. Problem 16.2 Find the slope of the bed of a rectangular channel of width 5m when depth of water is 2 m and rate of flow is given as 20 m/s, Take Chezy’s constant, C = 50. Solution. Given Width of channel, Depth of water, Rate of flow, 1.506 mis. Ans.[ Flow in Open Channels 741 Chezy’s constant c=50 Let the bed slope =i Using equation (16.5), we have Q = ACY where A= Area=bxd=5x2= 10m? A__10 10 _ 10 10 = m P b+2d S+2x2 544 9 10 10, _ 20. 2 2001 Oj or fiO = 200. 2 0 10%30% fT [i= 20.2 Sauaring both sides, we have “Oi = =A ee ee ee ee * 2500 10 25000 25000 ~ 694.44" °°" 36 Bed slope is 1 in 694.44. Problem 16.3 A flow of water of 100 litres per second flows down in a rectangular flume of width 600 mm and having adjustable bottom slope. If Chezy's constant C is 56, find the bottom slope necessary for uniform flow with a depth of flow of 300 mm. Also find the conveyance K of the flume. Solution. Given Discharge, @ = 100 titresis = 1% = 0.10 miss 1000 With of channel, = 600 mm = 0.60 m Depth of flow, = 300 mm = 0:30 m .. Area of flow, A=bxd=06 X03 = 0.18 m Chezy's constant, c=56 Let the slope of bed =i Hydraulic mean depth, m= 4.048 ___O18__018 9.15, P b+2d 0642x030 12 Using equation (16.5), we have Q = ACYmi or 0.10= 0.18 x 56x JOISx? or oysp=—010_ 018%56 010 Squaring both sides, we have 0.15 #=(—4°_) = oooo9sais 018 x36 Ans. i524 Slope of the bed is 1 in 1524. Conveyance K of the channel Equation (16.5) is given as Q=AC¥mi742 Fluid Mechanics which can be written as O=Kvi where K'= ACym and K is called conveyance of the channel section. K=ACYm = 0.18 x 56 x VOIS = 3.9039 m/s. Ans. Problem 16.4 Find the discharge through a trapezoidal channel of width 8 m and side slope of I horizontal to 3 vertical. The depth of flow of water is 2.4 m and value of Chezy’s constant, C= 50. The slope of the bed of the channel is given 1 in 4000. Solution. Given width, b=8m Side slope I hor. to 3 vertical Dept d=24m Chezy’s constant, c=50 _t * 4000 From Fig. 163 when depth , CE = 2.4, Bed slope, tetovzonadstnce—BE= 24-08 m ‘Top width of the channel, CD = AB +2 BE =8.0+2%08=96m ‘Area of trapezoidal channel, ABCD is given as, CE 24 A= (AB + CD) x F = (849.6) x 17.6 x 1.2 = 21.12 m? Wetted perimeter , P=AB+ BC+ AD = AB+2BC But B= (BE +CE*= loa +2ay = P= 8.0 +2 x 2.529 = 13.058 m A_ 1212 Hydraulic mean depth, m= 4= 1212. yarn pu P 13058 ‘The discharge, Q is given by equation (16.5) as I » = ACW = 21.12 x $0,/1.617 x —— = 21.23 m’/s. Ans. @= Ac; x S0|LOITX TG Problem 16.5 Find the bed slope of trapezoidal channel of bed width 6 m, depth of water 3 m and side slope of 3 horizontal to 4 vertical, when the discharge through the channel is 30 m'/s. Take Chezy’s constant, C = 70. Solution. Given BC = AD) 529 m .617 m Bed width, 60m Depth of flow, 30m Side slope 3 horizontal to 4 vertical Discharge, 30 mls Chezy's constant, c=70 From Fig. 16.4, for depth of flow =3m=CE Distance, “i[ Flow in Open Channels 743) ‘Top width, CD = AB +2 x BE = 6.0 +2 2.25 = 10.50 m Wetted perimeter, P=AD+AB + BC= AP +2BC BC= AD) = AB + 2\ BE? + CE? = 6.0 + 2y(2.25)' +(3)) = 135m ‘Area of flow, A= Area of trapezoidal ABCD = (AB+CD)xCE _ (641050) 5 = BOE CAO 3 A 2495 © Hydrautie mean depth, m= 5-=57% = 1.833 Using equation (16.5), Q= ACA or 30.0 = 24,75 x 70x 1.8337 = 2345.67 (2) -aie hans 2345.6, (BEsy 133 30 Problem 16.6 Find the discharge of water through the channel shown in Fig. 16.5. Take the value of Checy's constant = 60 and slope of the bed as 1 in 2000. Solution. Given Chezy's constant, c= 60 1 Bed slope, iz Pe 2000 From Fig.16.5, Area, A= Area ABCD + Area BEC mR? = (12x30) + ¢ y+ sy 2 =364 7.134 m’ 36459 Wetted perimeter, P=AB+ BEC +CD S124 RR 412 = 124 Rx 1S 412= 7.1126 m A_ 2M Hydraulic mean depth, m= = 115% * ” Praia = 1008 ‘The discharge, Q is given by equation (16.5) as Q=AC¥mi = 7.134 x 60 x 4/1.003 x Problem 16.7 Find the rate of flow of water through a V-shaped channel as shown in Fig. 16.6. Take the value of C = 55 and slope of the bed 1 in 2000. Solution. Given Chezy"s constant, C255 Bed slope, ic “i744 Fluid Mechanics Dent of fo, @=40m Ale mae by ech sd wih ere ies ZABD = £CnD = 30° Tom Fig. 166, ne he Aca, A= Are of ABC <2 Aa Any = 2AD BD ° 3D tan 30° x BD tan 30° x = 9.2376 m? ‘Wetted perimeter, P AB=BC) 1 3) = ACY ini = 9.2376 x 55 x Ix —— = 16.066 m/s. Ans. e 1000 » 16.4 EMPIRICAL FORMULAE FOR THE VALUE OF CHEZY'S CONSTANT Equation (16.4) is known Chezy's formula after the name of a French Engineer, Antoine Chezy who developed this formula in 1975. In this equation C is known as Chezy’s constant, which is not a dimensionless co-efficient. The dimension of C is vi_kir_ kirk ve * ni fe T =Ler { is dimensionless} Hence the value of C depends upon the system of units. The following are the empirical formulae, after the name of their inventors, used to determine the value of C: 157. KE 181+ vm where K = Bazin’s constant and depends upon the roughness of the surface of channel, whose values are given in Table 16.1. ‘m = Hydraulic mean depth or hydraulic radius. 1. Bazin formula (In MKS units): C= (16.6)Flow in Open Channels _745| 2. Ganguillet-Kutter Formula. The value of C is given in MKS unit as, 54 2.00155, 1 1 (25+ OS N c= where N= Roughness co-efficient which is known as Kutter's constant, whose value for different surfaces are given in Table 16.2 Slope of the bed Hydraulic mean depth. ‘Table 16.1 Values of K in the Bazin’s Formula Manning’s Formula. The value of € according to this formula is given as _ 1 all cot (16.8) where m= Hydraulic mean depth N= Manning's constant which is having same value as Kutter’s constant for the normal range of slope and hydraulic mean depth. The values of N are given in Table 16.2. Problem 16.8 Find the discharge through a rectangular channel 2.5 m wide, having depth of water 1.5 m and bed slope as I in 2000. Take the value of k = 2.36 in Bazin's formula. Solution. Given : Width of channel, b=25m Depth of flow, 15m “Area, A=bxd=25x 15 =3.75 m? Wetted Perimeter, Pad+b+d=15+25+15746 Fluid Mechanics A Hydraulic mean depth, m= 4= iy pt ° Bed slope, Bazin’s constant, Using Bazin’s formula given by equation (16.6), as Discharge, Q is given by equation (16.5), as Q=ACYmi = 3.75 x 33.76 x lo.s2 *3000 Problem 16.9 Find the discharge through a rectangular channel 14 m wide, having depth of water 3 m and bed slope I in 1500. Take the value of N = 0.03 in the Kutter’s formula. Solution. Given : = 2.337 miss, Ans. Width of channel, beam Depth of water, 4=3m 1 Bed slope, i= 1 = 0.000067 Pe 1500 Kutter’s constant, N= 003 Area of flow, Wetted perimeter, A Hydraulic mean depth, m= 4 o— ” P10 Using Kutter’s formula given by equation (16.7), as oP) Eee = __23+2.3238+3333___ 58633 © Ts (23+ 2.3238) x.03286 1.832 ion (16.5) = ACMmi = 12 x 32.01 x 12 x,000667 = 10.867 m/s. Ans. Problem 16.10 Find the discharge through a rectangular channel of width 2 m, having a bed slope of 4 in 8000. The depth of flow is 1.5 m and take the value of N in Manning's formula as 0.012. Solution. Given : Width of the channel, b= 2m Depth of the flow, 15m Area of flow, Azbxd=2x15=30m" c = 32.01 Discharge, Q is given by equ[ Flow in Open Channels 747] Wetted perimeter, Pabvded=2415+15=50m , A_30 Hydrauic mean depth, m= 4=20 = 0.6 44 Bed slope . i=4:in 8000= —* = ” 8000 2000 Value of N = 0012 Using Manning’s formula, given by equation (16.8), as 1 a1 x06! = 16.54 0.012 cot ml’ = N Discharge, Q is given by equation (16.5), as Q=ACVimi Ls 3) = 3.0 x 76.54 = 3.977 m'vs. Ans. 3.0.x 76.54 J06% 3055 mils = 3977 ms. An Problem 16.11 Find the bed slope of trapezoidal channel of bed width 4 m, depth of water 3 m and side slope of 2 horizontal to 3 vertical, when the discharge through the channel is 20 m'/s. Take Manning's N = 0.03 in Manning's formula C = < ml Solution. Given Bed width, b=dem Depth of flow, d= 3m Side slope = 2 hor. to 3 vert Discharge, = 20.0 mis Manning's, N= 0.03 From Fig. 16.7, we have Distance, ne =dx2 2x2 3 3 Top width, c= AB + 28E B44 24228 Area of flow, A™= Area of taperoidal section ABCD = ABE) go U9) 3 2 gm? 2 2 Wouted perimeter, P= AD+AB+ BC= AB + 28C (2 AD = BC) 40042 BE? + EC? =40+2)2? +3? =4042x VIB = 11.21 m AL is Hydrautc mean depth, m= A=" = 1.6057 eral the P12 0 w= 1 1.6057)" Using Manning's formula, sing Manning's formula, oon “i748 Fluid Mechanics Using equation (16.5) for discharge, = ACVmi = 18 x 36.07 x J16057X7 or 20.0 = 822.71 Vi 200)? 1 (Bs) = 0,0005909 = 75 Ans. Problem 16.12 Find the diameter of a circular sewer pipe which is laid at a slope of 1 in 8000 and carries a discharge of 800 litres/s when flowing half full. Take the value of Manning's N = 0.020. Solution. Given : =H Slope of pipe, Discharge, Manning's, Let the dia. of sewer pipe, Depth of flow, Area of flow, ‘Wetted perimeter, 3._D +. Hydraulic mean depth, m= 4 2 ys ” P mDI2 4 Using Maing’ fora gen by qeion (16), C= ‘The discharge, Q through pipe is given by equation (16.6), as Q=AC\mi_ ‘Dx eb, 020 P< 0.01118 2) = 8 z, 8 9.1848)" = (9.1848)°°> = 2.296 m. Ans. “i[ Flow in Open Channels 749] » 16.5 MOST ECONOMICAL SECTION OF CHANNELS A section of a channel is said to be most economical when the cost of construction of the channel is minimum. But the cost of construction of a channel depends upon the excavation and the lining. To keep the cost down or minimum, the wetted perimeter, for a given discharge, should be minimum. This condition is utilized for determining the dimensions of a economical sections of different form of channels. Most economical section is also called the best section or most efficient section as the discharge, passing through a most economical section of channel for a given cross-sectional area (A), slope of the bed (9) and a resistance co-efficient, is maximum. But the discharge, Q is given by equation (16.5) as, a= acdni = ac A= (: m=4) For a given A, j and resistance co-efficient C, the above equation is written as L Q= where K = ACVAi = constant Hence the discharge, Q will be maximum, when the wetted perimeter P is minimum. This condition will be used for determining the best section of a channel i.e., best dimensions of a channel for a given area ‘The conditions to be most economical for the following shapes of the channels will be considered : 1, Rectangular Channel, 2. Trapezoidal Channel, and 3. Circular Channel. 16.5.1 Most Economical Rectangular Channel. The condition for most economical sec- tion, is that for a given area, the perimeter should be minimum, Consider a rectangular channel as shown in Fig. 16.9 Let = width of channel, = depth of the flow, Area of flow, Azbxd Wetted perimeter, Padebed=b+2 A From equation (), pA equation () 4 Substituting the value of b in (i), Fig. 169 Rectangular channel. Pabsr=A vr Ai) For most economical section, P should be minimum fora given area. or PL ad) Differentiating the equation (iii) with respect to d and equating the same to zero, we get lAyoa|=0 of - dala But A= bx, +. bX d= 2d? orb = 2d (16.9) AL bxd Now hydraulic mean depth, m= 4 yar Pt Po b+2d +220 of A=2d (As bd, P= b+ 2d)750 Fluid Mechanics axa 2d +2d ‘ = 2d? _d 22d 16.10) 4d 02 . » From equations (16.9) and (16.10), itis clear that rectangular channel will be most economical when: (0 Either b = 2d means width is (wo times depth of flow, Gi Or m= mans hy ahs a dh fo. Problem 16.13 A rectangular channel of width, 4 m is having a bed slope of I in 1500. Find the ‘maximum discharge through the channel. Take value of C = 50. Solution. Given : Width of channel, b=4m 1 Bed slope, ie Pe 1500 Chezy"s constant, c=50 Discharge will be maximum, when the channel is most economical. The conditions for most economical rectangular channel are : b_4 G b=2d or d=2=5=20m @ b d= ps5 520 =4.2_ Gi) m=saz= hom + Area of most economical rectangular channel, A= 6 xd = Using equation (16.5) for discharge as Q=ACYmi = 80x 50x lox Problem 16.14 A rectangular channel carries water at the rate of 400 litres/s when bed slope is 1 in 2000. Find the most economical dimensions of the channel if C = 50. Solution. Given 0 x 2.0 = 8m? 10.328 m’ss. Ans. Discharge, 0 = 400 litresis = 0.4 ms 1 Bed slope, iz re 2000 Chezy's constant, c=50 For the rectangular channel t0 be most economical, ( Width, badd (Gp Hydrauie mean depth, m= Area of flow, Azbxd=2Mx Using equation (16.5) for discharge, = ACYmi[ Flow in Open Channels 751 T samy = bS8I a or > [381 d= (.253)"* = 0.877 m. Ans. b= 2d = 2.577 = 1.184 m. Ans. Problem 16.15 A rectangular channel 4 m wide has depth of water 1.5 m. The slope of the bed of the channel is 1 in 1000 and value of Checy’s constant C = 55. lis desired to increase the discharge to a maximum by changing the dimensions of the section for constant area of cross-section, slope of the bed and roughness of the channel. Find the new dimensions of the channel and increase in discharge. Solution. Given Width of channel, b= 40m Depth of flow, 15m Area of flow. 0.253 Slope of bed, Chezy’s constant, Wetted perimeter, :. Hydraulic mean depth, The discharge, Qis given by Q= ACA = 6.0% 55,[0857x For maximum discharge for a given area, slope of bed and roughness we proceed as : 66 mis sali) Let = new width of channel d’ = new depth of flow Then, Area, A=’ xd’, where A= constant = 6.0 m? a bixd’=60 alii) Also for maximum discharge b = 2d” iti) Substituting the value of 6” in equation (ii), we have 2a’ xd" = 60 or a? = $9 23.0 2 d= y3 = 1.732 (ii), we get b= 2x 1,732 = 3.464 New dimensions of the channel are Substituting the value of d’ Width, b= 3.464 m. Ans. Depth, d’ = 1,732 m, Ans. Wetted perimeter, Prod! +b" + d’= 1.732 + 3.464 + 1.732 = 6.928 Hydraulic mean depth, mm’752. Fluid Mechanics (New hydraulic mean depth, m” corresponds to the condition of maximum discharge. And hence also equal to #1 0356 my T Cin? = 6.0 x 55 x ,J0.866 x 1000 Increase in discharge = Q’ ~ Q = 9.71 ~ 9.66 = 0.05 m/s, Ans. 16.5.2 Most Economical Trapezoidal Channel. The trapezoidal section of a channel will be most economical, when its wetted perimeter is minimum. Consider a trapezoidal section of channel as shown in Fig. 16.10. Let ‘b= width of channel at bottom, d= depth of flow, = ansle made by the sides with horizontal, Max. discharge, 0 is given by Q" 971 mis iv) eet Fig. 16.10 Trapezoidal section. (i The side slope is given as I vertical ton horizontal. pq (BCHAD) be (b+Ind) Area of flow, 2 2 = eA ye (b 4nd) xd A) Acoand @ b= 4nd ii) Now wetted perimeter, P= AB + BC + CD = BC + 2CD (AB = CD) = b+ 2YCE* + DE? =6 + 2yn°d? +d? =b + 2dyn? +1 iia) Substituting the value of b from equation (i), we get p= Annay 2d fel Ail) For most economical section, P should be minimum or % : Differentiating equation ji) with respect tod and equating it equal to zero, we get ola-mt fri] =o wala oe Ananya <0 nis estan) Z “i[ Flow in Open Channels 753 or Ansara F Substituting the value of A from equation (i) in the above equation, But from Fig. 16.10, bend _ Half of top width and dyn? +1 = CD = one of the sloping side Equation (16.11) is the required condition for a trapezoidal section to be most economical, which can be expressed as half of the top width must be equal to one of the sloping sides of the channel. (ii) Hydraulic mean depth Hydraulic mean depth, m= 4 Value of A from (i), Az(b+nd)xd Value of P from (iia), P= b+ 2dyn? +1 =b+(b+ 2nd) (++ From equation (16.11) b+ 2nd = dyn? #1) = 2b + 2nd = 2(b+ nd) Hydraulic mean depth, m= 4=@*ndd _ P 2Xb+nd) 2 Hence for a trapezoidal section to be most economical hydraulic mean depth must be equal to half the depth of flow, (iid) The three sides of the trapezoidal section of most economical section are tangential to the semi-circle described on the water line. This is proved as : Let Fig. 16.11 shows the trapezoidal channel of most economical section. Let ‘@= angle made by the sloping side with horizontal, and 0 = the centre of the top width, AD. Draw OF perpendicular to the sloping side AB. ‘AOAF is a right-angled triangle and angle OAF = @ OF (16.12) sing = 2E 2 OF =A0 sin @ iv) OA mo, In AB, sino= AE AB a 1 “Tee ee 1 Substituting sin@ = in equation (iv), we Bt en Fig, 16.11754 Fluid Mechanics OF = A0x eo) +n’ But AO = half of top width = 2 a7 am auton (61) Substituting this value of AO in equation (»), dyn +1 In? +1 ‘Thus, if a semi-circle is drawn with O as centre and radius equal to the depth of flow d, the three sides of most economical trapezoidal section will be tangential to the semi-circle. Hence the conditions for the most economical trapezoidal section are: b+ 2nd OF= d depth of flow (16.13) 2, m 3. A semi-cirele drawn from 0 with radius equal to depth of flow will touch the three sides of the channel. Problem 16.16 A irapezoidal channel has side slopes of I horizontal to 2 vertical and the slope of the bed is I in 1500. The area of the section is 40 m°. Find the dimensions of the section if it is most economical. Determine the discharge of the most economical section if C = 50. Solution. Given Horizontal _ 1 Side slope, "= Vertical 2 Bed slope, Area of section, Chezy's constant, For the most economical section, using equation (16.11) Qn > + badnd fos gg edad 2 : nea fi cafben. or 2 d, 4 LUIS d or b=2x L18d-—- d= 1.236 d a Botan of pz ston, = 2 P28 = dd =(1.236d+ 4} d)d b= 1.236 d and n= $) 1.736 But A= 40m (ziven)[ Flow in Open Channels 755) 4.80 m. Ans. Substituting the value of d in equation (i), we get b= 1.236 x 4,80 = 5.933 m. Ans. Discharge for most economical section. Hydraulic mean depth for most economical section is a 2 Discharge = ACYmi = 40 x 50x [2.40% = 80 m/s, Ans. Problem 16.17 A trapezoidal channel has side slopes of 3 horizontal 10 4 vertical and slope of its bed is 1 in 2000. Determine the optimum dimensions of the channel, if it is to carry water at 0.5 m°/s Take Chezy's constant as 80. Solution. Given Side slopes n= Horizontal 3 Vertical 4 1 Slope of bed, eo 2000 tes Discharge, Q=05 mis Chezy's constant, c=80 Pig. 1613 For the most economical section, the condition is given by equation (16.11) as beard adn? +1, where 6 = with of section d= depth of flow 3 p+2x3a 7 or a a3) $a or PS Sasa 2 4 4 2 or b=2x12d-1Sdad i) For the discharge, Q, using equation (16.5) as Q=ACVini Mii) But for most economical section, hydraulic mean depth m Substituting the value of m and other known values in equation (ii) 0.50 = A x 80x Jo x5 eliii) But area of trapezoidal section is given as Az(b+nd)xd =(d4+4dxd ( From()b=dandn= 4) ale asad 4 Substituting the value of A in equation (ii), we get “i756 Fluid Mechanics 0.50 = 1.75 a? x 80 x a=( 050 22138 From equation (i), 0.58 m. Ans. Optimum dimensions of the channel are width = depth = 0.55 m. Problem 16.18 A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of I to I has to be designed to convey 10 m'/s at a velocity of 2 m/s so that the amount of concrete lining for the bed and sides is the ‘minimum, Calculate the area of lining required for one metre length of canal Solution. Given : J 085m. Ans Horizontal Side slope, n= Horizontal Pe Vertical Discharge Q=10m's Velocity, V=20 mis Area of flow, a= Dacha Pt) an end elocity Let b= Width of the channel Fig. 16.4 d= Depth of flow For the amount of concrete lining for the bed and sides to be minimum the section should be most economical. But for the most economical trapezoidal section, the condition is from equation (16.11) Half of the top width = one of the sloping side ie, been < aft st 2 | the condition becomes OH ERM 8 fii = Laisa or b=2x Ladd - 2d = 0.828 d But are As (b+ nd) d= (O828d +1 xd) d = 1.828 Also from equation (, — A=Sm* Equating the two values of A, we get S= 1.828 or 5 ~ Tgog = 16538 = 1.654 m From equation (ii), b= 0.828 d = 0.828 x 1.654 = 1.369 m Area of lining required for one metre length of canal = Wetted perimeter length of canal =Px1 where P= b+ 2dyn? +1 = 1.369 +2 Lo54y 1 +1 = 6.047 m Area of lining = 6.047 x1 = 6.047 m*. Ans. “i[ Flow in Open Channels 757] Problem 16.19 A trapezoidal channel has side slopes 1 to I. Itis required to discharge 13.75 m'/s of water with a bed gradient of I in 1000. If unlined the value of Chezy's C is 44. If lined with concrete, its value is 60. The cost per m? of excavation is four times the cost per m® of lining. The channel is to bbe the most efficient one. Find whether the lined canal or the unlined canal will be cheaper. What will be the dimensions of that economical canal ? Solution. Given Sie se, noted Discharge, O= 13.75 mis Sle revi Cost per m? of excavation = 4 x cost per m? of lining Let the cost per m? of lining =x ‘Then cost per m° of excavation = 4 As the channel is most efficient, Hyrate mea dep, m= woe d= depth fan Let +b = width of channel ‘Also for the most efficient trapezoidal channel, from equation (16.11), we have Half of top width = length of sloping side or be end «ant st 2 or SABRINA ay 41 =V2d 2 b=2x y2d ~2d = 0.828 d «i Area, A=(b+nd)xd = (0828d+1 xd) xd = 1.828 @? i) 1. For unlined channel Value of c=44 The discharge, Q is given by, Q= Ax V=A x CVmi a, 1 1375 = 1828 x44 x Sx (A= 1828 4m “ *V9 000 (p= 1875x1000 182844 : d= (7.6452)"" = 2.256 m Substituting this value in equation (), we get = 7.6452758 Fluid Mechanics b= 0.828 x 2.256 = 1.868 m. Now cost of excavation per running metre length of unlined channel = Volume of channel x cost per m? of excavation, = (Area of channel x 1) x 4x = [(b + nd) xd x 1] x 4x = (1.868 + 1 x 2.256) x 2.256 x 1 x dx = 37.215 x Ait) 2. For lined channels Value of c= 60 ‘The discharge is given by the equation, Q= Ax Cx Vi Substituting the value ofA from equation (i) and value of m = , we get 13.75 = 1.828 x 60x [4x = 1375) ~ 1000 ~ L 2 = 1.828 x 60 x xd 2000 pra BISXAF000 _ 5 555 1828 x 60 = (5.606)"* = 1.992 m Substituting this value in equation (, we get b= 0.828 x 1.992 = 1.649 m In case of lined channel, the cost of lining as well as cost of excavation is to be considered. Now cost of excavation = (Volume of channel) x cost per m* of excavation = (b+ nd) xd xix dx (1.649 + 1 x 1,992) x 1,992 x Lx 4x = 29.01 x Area of lining x cost per m? of lining += (Perimeter of lining x 1) xx Cost of lining = (b+ ddyitn? x 1x x= (1.649 +2 x 19924142) x 1 xx = (1.649 + 2 x 1,992 x V2) x = 7.283 x Total cost = 29.01x + 7.283x = 36.2931 The total cost of lined channel is 36.293x whereas the total cost of unlined channel is 37.215x. Hence lined channel will be cheaper. The dimensions are 6 = 1.649 m and d= 1.992 m. Ans. Problem 16.20 An open channel of most economical section, having the form of a half hexagon with horizontal bottom is required to give a maximum discharge of 20.2 m'/s of water. The slope of the channel bottom is I in 2500. Taking Chezy's constant, C = 60 in Chezy’s equation, determine the dimensions of the cross-section. Solution. Given Maximum discharge, Q= 20.2 mis 1 2500 Chezy’s constant, c= 60 Bed slope, is[ Flow in Open Channels 759] ‘Channel is the form of a half hexagon as shown in Fig. 16.15. This means that the angle made by the sloping side with horizontal will be 60°. tan @ = tan 60° Bet Let ‘b= width of the channel, d = depth of the flow. As the channel given is of most economical section, hence the condition given by equations (16.11) and (16.12) should be satisfied i.e, 1nd yo ean ph al opi ow from ion (isi), 222M = afer b+2x Md 7 “ys) "3s ibv2d 24 Vb+2d edd 24g M8 oy 2x2d-2d _2d pa Bead 2d 24 old) 2 d ‘Area of tow, Az@endd=(2a+4\1 ornnen (Far) ee From equation (16.12) m= Using equation (16.5) for discharge Q as = AC. 2022 V3 ex 60 1.4694 4°? Q=ACYmi or 3 15% 3500 a= 202 _ 13.745 14696 “ d= (13.745) = 2.852 m. Ans. Substituting this value in equation (), we get 2d _ 2 b= Fy = pe 2852 = 3.293 m. Ans, Problem 16.21 A trapezoidal channel to carry 142 m/minute of water is designed to have a ‘minimum cross-section. Find the bottom width and depth ifthe bed slope is 1 in 1200, the side slopes at 45° and Chezy's co-efficient = 55.760 Fluid Mechanics Solution. 142 ven : Discharge, Q= 142 m/min. = “*° = 2.367 m's rae, O oO Bed slope, 5 b—$ af nd oy ° Fig. 16:16 Side slope, e=45° tan@=+ of tan d5>= + e+ or net Chezy's constant, c=55 Let +b = Width of the channel, d = Depth of the flow. ‘As the channel is to be designed for a minimum cross-section (ie., channel is of most economical section), the conditions given by equations (16.11) and (16.12) should be satisfied i.e, (® Half of top with = Length of sloping side (ii) Hydraulic mean depth = Half of depth of flow Prom eqaton 6.10), 228 a or baDxIXd _ 4 IGT 2 or b+ 2d = 22d = 2x LAL d = 2.828 d b= 2.828 d- 2d = 0.828 d “ Now using equation (16.5) for discharge 0, we get 0=4.C. Ami = (b+ nd) xd and m 3) b = 0.828d) 7 or 2.367= (b+ nd dx 55 fox (.; wna iia ( 7 = (0828 x 1d) d x5. cos x0.dx35 [ty = (1.8284) x dx 55,]—4— = 2.052 48? 2400 d= (Bay = 1.058 = 1.06 m. Ans. 2052 Substituting this value in equation (), we get b= 0.828 x 1.06 = 0.877 m. Ans.[ Flow in Open Channels 761 Problem 16.22 A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 3 horizontal to 2 vertical has to be designed to convey 10 m'/s at a velocity of 1.5 m/s, so that the amount of concrete lining for the bed and sides is minimum, Find (i) the wetted perimeter, and Gi dope of the bey Momings = 0014 te oma = Lent Solution. (i) Given : 5 Horizontal _ 3 Side slope, "= Vertical — 2 Discharge, Q= 10 ms Velocity, V= 15 mis Manning's constant, w= 014 [bef Fig. 16.17 Let = width of the channel, d = depth of the flow. ‘The amount of concrete lining for the bed and sides will be minimum, when the section is most economical. For most economical trapezoidal section, the condition is given by equation (16.11) as b+2nd _ a hea1 2 Formas, PEPSI 6 Gli e1 = VIBd = 1 bee agg ” b=2x18-3d =06d eli) But area of trapezoidal section, A = (b + nd)d (vb =0.6d,n sod Also area, A= Discharge 2 Velocity Equating the two values of A, we have 2.1 d? a= JO 21 2 1.78 m From equation (D, b= 06d = 0.6 x 1.78 = 1.068 = 1.07 m Hence wetted perimeter, P= 6 + 2dyn? +1 = 1.07 +2 1.7815" +1 (ii) Slope of the bed when N= 0.014 in the formula, “i762._ Fluid Mechanics For the most economical trapezoidal section, hydraulic mean depth m, is given by equation (16.12) as 4 _ 178 m= £248. 939 m 22 c= 1 _ x (89)! = 66.09 oor8 Using equation (165), Q= ACVmi or 10.0 = 6.67 x 66.09J0.89 x i= 415.86V7 is (Ges) =<. ans. 41586) ~ 1294 Hence slope of the bed is 1 in 1729.4 16.5.3 Best Side Slope for Most Economical Trapezoidal Section. Area of trapezoidal section, A = (b+ nd)d i) where width of trapezoidal channel, d = depth of flow, and n= slope of the side of the channel A From equation (i), b= find ali equation (i), a (ii) Perimeter (wetted) of channel, P= + 2dy)n Substituting the value of from equati (ii), perimeter becomes A prAna ii Sn + Day + Aiii) For the most economical trapezoidal section, the depth of flow, d and area A are constant. Then is the only variable. Best side slope will be when section is most economical or in other words, P is minimum, For Pto be minimum, we must have “2 = 0 dn Hence differentiating equation (ii) with respect 10 n, Eff -na2e it =] =o anld or Hd 2dx dx on DI 2n =Oor-d+ 2nd x Cancelling d and re-arranging, we get 2n = yn? + Squaring to both sides, (16.14) al-[ Flow in Open Channels 763} If the sloping side makes an angle @, with the horizontal, then we have moet tai sunt 2 0= 60" (16.15) Hence best side slope is at 60° to the horizontal or the value of n for the best side slope is given by ‘equation (16.14). For the most economical trapezoidal section, we have Half of top width * Dd a laret Substituting the value of m from equation (16.14), we have length of one sloping side a =a) + 2d ¥3b+2d _ 2d WB) OB a or Vib + 2d= 2 ABE 3 4d -“é 1 (iv) =e . Now, wetted perimeter, P=b+2dyn+1 1y 2d 1 + 2d, +1 b=—, =z F4G) (+ ems) 4034, 4 4 2g x 2 = 2d, Ad “f BE or pe Baa Bhs ( From 74 <6) For a slope of 60°, the length of sloping side is equal to the width of the trapezoidal section. Problem 16.23 A power canal of trapezoidal section has to be excavated through hard clay at the least cost. Determine the dimensions of the channel given, discharge equal to 14 m’/s, bed slope 1: 2500 and Manning's N = 0.020. Solution. Given Discharge, Q= 14 ms 1 Bed slope, 00 Pe 2500 Manning's, N= 0.020 “i764 Fluid Mechanics For excavation of the canal at the least cost, the trapezoidal section should be most economical. Here side slope (i.., value of n) is not given. Hence the best side slope for most economical trapezoidal scoton (he value of) sven by equation (16.18) asm = Let b= width of channel, d= depth of flow For most economical section, Half of top width = length of one of sloping side or beta Ps 1) 2d — Eas) 1-8 2x2d_2d_ 2d BBB 2d B or ‘Area of trapezoidal section, A = (b + nd) x = Bd? Hydraulic mean depth for most economical section, m = via. or 140 = 1.732. x (3 2 = Tos d= (12.844) = (12.844) = 2.605 m. Ans. From equation (i), b= 2h = 22.005 _ 3.908 m, Ans. WB 1732 Problem 16.24 For a trapezoidal channel with bottom width 40 m and side slopes 2H : I V, Manning's N is 0.015 and bottom slope is 0.0002. If it carries 60 m'/s discharge, determine the normal depth.[ Flow in Open Channels 765) Solution. Given : Bottom width, b= 40m Side slopes 2 horizontal o 1 vertical ie., n= 2 z+ Manning's constant, N= 0.015 Bed slope, i = 0.0002 Discharge, = 60 ms Let d= Normal depth. Now A=(b+nd)xd= (40-42 xd P=b+2dyl+n® =4042dyi +2? =40+2% \5d=40+4472d A (40+2d) xd P” 40444724 ‘The discharge is given by, Q = Area x Velocity eve I 2 Ag 2! yl? W W (40 42a) [(404 20) xd” 6 doggie o01s 40+ 4472d = [40420 xd} eooraia 0.015% (40+ 4.472ay OX O0O15 X40 +4.8720)"? 49 24 gh oo14i4 63.65(40 + 4.472 d)** = (40d + 2¢°)** (40d + 2a°)**— 63.65 (40 + 4.4724)" = 0 oD) ‘The above equation will be solved by Hit and Trial method () Assume d= 1 m, then L.H.S of equation () will as LHS. = (40 + 2)°° ~ 63.65 (40 + 4.472)" 42°° — 63.65 x 44.472" = 513.838 ~ 808.4 = - 294.56 (ii) Assume d = 2 m, then L.H.S. of equation (i) will be as LHS. = 40 x 2 + 2 x 27)% - 63.65(40 + 4.47 x 2) = 88° — 63.65 x 48.944? = 1767.2 ~ 862.77 = 904.43 where d= I m, LHS. is- ve. But when d= 2 m, LH.S. is +ve. Hence value of d lies between 1 and 2. (iii) Assume d = 1.3 m, then L.H.S. of equation (i) will be as LHS. = (40 x 1.3 + 2 x 1.3°)*? — 63.65(40 + 4.472 x 1.3)? 55.38°° — 63.65 x 45.8136 = 815.45 - 825.4 = 9.95 (iv) Assume d= 1.31 m, then L.H.S. of equation (i) will be LHS. = (40 x 1.31 + 2 x 1.31)°° - 63.65(40 + 4.472 x 1.31) = 55.8322" — 63.65 x 45.8583" = 826.6 ~ 825.9 = 0.7 is negligible in comparison to the value of 904.43. 1.31 m. Ans. ‘The value of L.H. Value of d766 Fluid Mechanics 16.5.4 Flow Through Circular Channel. The flow of a liquid through a circular pipe, when the level of liquid in the pipe is below the top of the pipe is classified as an open channel flow. The rate of flow through citcular channel is determined from the depth of flow and angle subtended by the liquid surface at the centre of the circular channel. Fig.16.19 shows a circular channel through which water is flowing. Let = depth of water, 26 = angle subtended by water sur- face AB at the centre in radians, R = radius of the channel, ‘Then the wetted perimeter and wetted area is determine as : ‘2nk $ Seeger Wetted perimeter, P= 2® x 29 = ano (16.16) D 2n Fig. 1619 Circular channel Wetted area, A = Area ADBA = Area of sector OADBO ~ Area of ABO “th 3p ACO py 200%C0 nemo = Rig — 2 Ren Geos BC = R sin 8, CO = R cos 8) = Rig E288 eos _ pag K'sin20 (> sin @ cos 8 = sin 26) : : =r(o-2828) ws) 2 ( (0 sin 20 : A ‘Then hydraulic mean depth, m = = yt pt > 2R0 [And discharge, Q is given by, Q= ACVmi. Problem 16.25 Find the discharge through a circular pipe of diameter 3.0 m, if the depth of water in the pipe is 1.0 m and the pipe is laid at a slope of I in 1000. Take the value of Chezy’s constant as 70. Solution. Given Dia. of pipe, Radius, Depth of water in pipe, Bed slope, Chezy’s constant, From Fig. 16.20, we have Fig. 16.20[ Flow in Open Channels 767] 06 “AO 15 Also cos @ x += 70.53° = 70.53 x © = 1.23 radians 180° = 1 radians) = 70.53" = 70.53 x 755 = 1.23 (Ce 180° = ) ‘Wetted perimeter is given by equation (16.16) as P= 2RO=2x 15x 1.23 (@ should be in radians) sin 38.94 Hydraulic mean depth, m= =e ‘The discharge is given by, Q= ACT = 2.06 x 10 x 3407 mA. Ans. 1000 Problem 16.26 if in the problem 16.25, the depth of water in the pipe is 2.5 m, find the rate of flow through the pipe. Solution. Given Dia. of pipe 3.0m Radius, R=15m Depth of water, d=25m 1 i= + ana c= 7 1000 c= From Fig. 1621, 0C = CD- 0D =2.5-R=25~-15= 1.0m OA=R=15m From AAOC, cos a= 2C 219 «9,667 Oa 15 a= 48.16" @= 180° ~ a= 180° ~ 48.16" = 131.84" = 131.84 x 2. = 2.30 radians 180 Now wetted perimeter is given by equation (16.16) as P= 2R0= 2x 1.5230 = 6.90 m768 Fluid Mechanics And wetted area is given by equation (16.17) as a re(o-S22) a1 (oso nats) =225 (230 2208) 22s [2s0- sn +) Fig. 16.21 = 6.293 m? sin S368") [anig Sr cnoera7e)| 4 = Maar (S| Plana TM) + + 2 = 2 paiss 4s}= 0.6735 0° Hydrautic mean depth, m= 4 = 257352" _ 9 3949 p Po 2214D Discharge by Manning's formula is given by, x Ax mS x te c ode 2, xoerss ox 300 D(a) “OS 9000, Sp? x 34521 x D® x 0.0105 = 0.213 D® 0.40 D® = —* = 1.8779 0.213 = (1.8779) =(1.8779)9"5 = 1.266 m. Ans. Problem 16.29 A sewer pipe iso be lid ata slope of! in 8100 to carry a maximum discharge of 600 litres/s, when the depth of water is 75% of the vertical diameter. Find the diameter of this pipe if the value of Manning's N is 0.025. Solution. Given Discharge, 2 = 600 litesis = 0.6 mss 1 Bed slope, = re 3100 Manning's, v= 0025 Depth of water = 15% of dia. of pipe = 0.75 dia. of pipe Let = depth of water, D = Dia. of pipe Then d=0.75D[ Flow in Open Channels 771 From Fig. 16.23 (a), we have OC = CD - OD = 0.75 D-05 D= 0.25 0 40=8=05D 5 InvingleA0C, cos a= OC 0282 40” 03D | cos! 0.5 = 60° baie And = 180° X From equation (16.16), weted perimeter Fig. 23 td) P= 2R0= 2x05 Dx 2.0496 : R=05D) = 2.0196 D [And from equation (16.17), the area of flow, As e(o- 228) 2 > ssin (2 x 120°) = (05 0» [20046 — BOO) 2 ~ 866 2 = 0.25 D* | 2.0946 — SF 0.25 D? [2.0946 + 0.433] = 0.6319 D? m= 4205319 D* «4.308 p P~ 2.0496 D Discharge by Manning’s formuta is given by Q= DA x mS x it? : vn 06= aaag 0.6019 Dx (0308 Dy x(5) = 0128 x D* 0.025 . ” 8100, D® = 8 ~ 4.6875 * ons D= (4.6875)** = 1.785 m. Ans. 16.5.5 Most Economical Circular Section. We have discussed in Art. 16.5 that for a most economical section the discharge for a constant cross-sectional area, slope of bed and resistance corefficient, is maximum, But in case of circular channels, the area of flow cannot be maintained constant. With the change of depth of flow in a circular channel of any radius, the wetted area and wetted perimeter changes. Thus in case of circular channels, for most economical section, two separate conditions are obtained. They are :772. Fluid Mechanics 1. Condition for maximum velocity, and 2. Condition for maximum discharge. 1. Condition for Maximum Velocity for Circular Section. Fig. 16.24 shows a circular channel through which water is flowing. Let d= depth of water, 20 = angle subtended at the centre by water surface, R = radius of channel, and i= slope of the bed, ‘The velocity of flow according to Chezy’s formula is given as Vecdmi =cf4 i (sm ‘The velocity of flow through a circular channel will be maximum when the hydraulic mean depth m or A/P is maximum for a given value of Cand i. In case of circular pipe, the variable is @ only. Hence for maximum value of A/P we have the condition, ol) where A and P both are functions of 8. ‘The value of wetted area, A is given by equation (16.17) as 2(9__sin20 A=R(o- i) (0-5) 2 ‘The value of wetted perimeter, P is given by equation (16.16) as, P= 2R0 iii Differentiating equation (i) with respect 10 8, we have aa dP pt_g 8 pia ga? ig iv) ao we aa £0828 2 From equation (i), 4 2) = Re ~ cos 28 rom equation (i, a 5289) = RC cos 28) a Fi wion (i, rom equation (Hi), aA oP Subsituing the values of A, PA and & in equation (i), 2n0[R* (1 ~ cos 20)]~ R* (o- a 22) 2R) = or 2R°9(1~ 00s 20) 28? (9-27) -0 or 0(1-cos20)-(0- 82) = 0 (Cancelling 28°)[ Flow in Open Channels 73) 0- 0.cos 20-0 + or 8 cos 20 s tan 26 = 26 ‘The solution of this equation by hit and trial, gives 26 = 257° 30° (approximately) or O= 128° 45" ‘The depth of flow for maximum velocity from Fig. 16.24, is d= 0D-0C=R-Reos® RL ~ cos 8] = R[I ~ cos 128° 45'] = R[1 ~ cos (180° ~ 51° 159] = R[I = (~ cos 51° 15)] = RU + cos 51° 15'] = R[l+ 0.62] = 1.62 R= exPeosy cts where D = diameter of the circular channel. ‘Thus for maximum velocity of flow, the depth of water in the circular channel should be equal to 0.81 times the diameter of the channel. Hydraulic mean depth for maximum velocity is where @ = 128° 45’ = __R [pan s22sr20 22247 2 ae oom 8 = o6itx 203088 9 =03 D do. ‘Thus for maximum velocity, the hydraulic mean depth is equal to 0.3 times the diameter of circular channel, 2. Condition for Maximum Discharge for Circular Section. The discharge through a channel is siven by a= Acvni =4c,/%i (« m 4)774 _ Fluid Mechanics ‘The discharge wil be maximum for constant values of C and i, when 4 is maximum, 4 wil be a(a maximum when { A~ " 4 P ) Differentiating this equation with respect to 8 and equation the same to zero, we get px3a? A 4s oP a cae gd <9 or spar Agi ig P wo * a8 > gpda_ 4 dP Dividing by a2, 37-4 42 <9 fi by A? PA a “ But from equation (16.16), P = 2R8 we oP oop o From equation (16.17), A= e(o- a2) dA aa 1 = cos 28) dB » ssn evs #4, 2 and guion 3 x 2RO x R° (1 ~ cos 26) ~ ae 2) x2R=0 soc - 020-20 (02822) <0 Dividing by 2R?, we get 30,1 ~c0s26)-(0- 228) <0 or 30 - 38 cos 26-0 + 5820 or 20 ~ 38 cos 26+ 928 <9 of 49-60 cos 20+ sin 26 = 0 “The solution ofthis equation by hit and tial, gives 20 = 308° (approximately) 308° o- Depth of flow for maximum discharge [See Fig. 16:24] d= 0D-0C=R-Reos 8 RLL ~ cos 6] = Rf - cos 154°] = RII ~ cos (180° — 26°)] = RII + cos 26°] = 1.898 R = 1.898 x 2 = 0.948 D = 095 D (16.20) where D = Diameter of the circular channel. ‘Thus for maximum discharge through a circular channel the depth of flow is equal to 0.95 times its diameter,[ Flow in Open Channels 75) Problem 16.30 The rate of flow of water through a circular channel of diameter 0.6 m is 150 ltres/s. Find the slope of the bed of the channel for maximum velocity. Take C = 60 Solution. Given Discharge, Q= 150 litresis = 0.15 m/s Dia. of channel, D=06m Value of c= 60 Let the slope of the bed of channel for maximum velocity = i For maximum velocity through a circular channel, depth of flow is given by equation (16.18) as d= 081 D = 0.81 x 0.6 = 486 m and O= 128° 45’ or 128.75 x = 2.247 radians 180 From equation (16.19), hydraulic mean depth for maximum velocity is given as m= 0.3 x D=03 x 0.6 = 0.18 m Wetted perimeter for circular pipe is given by equation (16.16), P=2R0 = Dx@ = 0.6 x 2.247 = 1.3482 m But m= 4 =0.18m P Area, A= 0.18 x P= 0.18 x 1.3482 = 0.2426 m? For discharge, using the relation Q=ACYmi or 0.15 = 0.2426 x 60 x JOBTX? = 6.175¥F . = (ois a . ‘=(Gia) 16947 ° Bed slope is 1 in 1694.7. Problem 16.31 Determine the maximum discharge of water through a circular channel of diameter 15 m when the bed slope of the channel is 1 in 1000. Take C = 60. Solution. Given Dia, of channel, Ans. Bed slope, Value of Is4xn For maximum discharge, @= 154° or 2.6878 radians. ‘Wetted perimeter for a circular channel is given by equation (16.16) as 1 re ano = 2 Bann « 25 1S 268 = 40317 m Wetted area A is given by equation (16.17) as = 07 aoang 888")76 Fluid Mechanics = 07s [pose 228 73:[acarg— C= 827) = 075 [26870 + 822] «ams Hydrauti mean depth, m= A= 17335 9.4299 Po 40317 imi = 1.733 0.4299 Cami 15 x 60 x XTh00 = 2.1565 mvs. Ans. Problem 16.32 A concrete lined circular channel of diameter 3_m has a bed slope of I in 500. Work out the velocity and flow rate for the conditions of (i) maximum velocity and (ii) maximum Maximum discharge is given by Q = discharge. Assume Chezy’s C = 50. Solution. Civen Dia of chanel, D=3m 1 Bed slope, ek Pe 300 Vatueot c=50 (W) Velocity and discharge for maximum velocity For maximum velocity, @= 128° 45’ = 128.75° = 12875 «5%, rans = 2247 radians Wewted permet, P=2XRX8 = 6741 m n20)_ (25128759 ‘Area of flow, ane (o-2)as [pence = 2.25 [2.247 ~ (- 0.488)] = 6.1537 m* ’. Hydraulic mean depth = m* = A 64537 912 P6741 Now velocity, v= CYmxt = 50x JO%2*! 2.135 mvs, Ans. 500 and discharge, Q=AXV = 6.1537 x 2.135 = 13.138 m/s, Ans. (i) Velocity and discharge for maximum discharge 54m 180 For maximum discharge, @= 154° = radians = 2.6878 radians * From equation (16.19), m is also equal to 0.3055 D. Hence ‘m=0,3055%3=0.9165[ Flow in Open Channels 77] ane [o-S828] 2 = 2.25 [2.6878 ~ (- 0.394)] = 6.934 “| sin x80 15° |2,6878~ 8 C*158) PE IRX 0 = 2x 1.5 x 2.6878 = 8.0634 A_ 6934 and ma An 6958, P 8.0634 8599 Now velocity V= Cand = 30 x [08899 %<1 = 2.0738 mis, Ans and discharge, Q=A x V = 6.934 x 2.0735 = 14.377 m'ss. Ans. » 16.6 NON-UNIFORM FLOW THROUGH OPEN CHANNELS We have defined uniform flow and non-uniform flow in Art. 16.2.2. A flow is said to be uniform if the velocity of flow, depth of flow, slope of the bed of the channel and area of cross-section remain constant for a given length of the channel. On the other hand, if velocity of flow, depth of flow, area of cross-section and slope of the bed of channel do not remain constant for a given length of pipe, the flow is said to be non-uniform. Non-uniform is further divided into Rapidly Varied Flow (R.V.F.), and Gradually Varied Flow (G.V.F.) depending upon the change of depth of flow over the length of the channel. If the depth of flow changes abruptly over a small length of the channel, the flow is said as rapidly varied flow. And if the depth of flow in a channel changes gradually over a long length of channel, the flow is said to be gradually varied flow. » 16.7 SPECIFIC ENERGY AND SPECIFIC ENERGY CURVE ‘The total energy of a flowing liquid per unit weight is given by, 2 Tos Ears sone 5 where z= Height of the bottom of channel above datum, i= Depth of liquid, and V = Mean velocity of flow. If the channel botom is taken as the datum as shown in Fig. 16.25, then the total energy per unit weight of liquid will be, ,CHANNEL BOTTOM parun z Fig. 16.25 Specific energy.78 Fluid Mechanics (16.21) ‘The energy given by equation (16.21) is known as specific energy. Hence specific energy of a flowing liquid is defined as energy per unit weight of the liquid with respect to the bottom of the channel, Specific Energy Curve. It is defined as the curve which shows the variation of specific energy with depth of flow. Its obtained as From equation (16.21), the specific energy of a flowing liquid E=h+-E 48, 2? where E, = Potential energy of flow = h = Kinetic energy of flow = 28 Consider a rectangular channel in which a steady but non-uniform flow is taking place. Let Q= discharge through the channel, ‘b= width of the channel, f= depth of flow, and q= discharge per unit width. o_o ‘Then = 2 = constant and. are constant width = 6 2 ) Velocity of flow, v= Discharge ____@ (: ‘Ara bxh hh Substituting the values of V in equation (16.21), we get Bane 2¢h Equation (16.22), gives the variation of specific energy (E) with the depth of flow (). Hence for a given discharge Q, for different values of depth of flow, the corresponding values of E may be ‘obtained. Then a graph between specific energy (along X-X axis) and depth of flow, /r (along Y-Y axis) may be plotted. 5 HE, +h, (16.22) SPECIFIC ENERGY CURVE Ene —at —— SPECIFIC ENERGY (=) Fig. 16.26 Specific energy curve. “i[ Flow in Open Channels 79) ‘The specific energy curve may also be obtained by first drawing a curve for potential energy ( ie. E, }), which willbe a straight line passing through the origin, making an angle of 45° with the X-axis aS show nig 1626 Then ding ar ue Bn ney [i = : where K =f = cons] which wil be @ parabola as shown in Fig. 16.26, By combining these two 6 curves, we can obtain the speifc energy curve In Fig, 16.26, uve ACB denotes the specific nergy curve 16.7.1 Critical Depth (h.. Critical depth is defined as that depth of flow of water at which the specific energy is minimum. This is denoted by “h,’ . In Fig. 16.26, curve ACB is a specific energy curve and point C corresponds to the minimum specific energy. The depth of flow of water at C is known as critical depth. The mathematical expression for critical depth is obtained by differentiating the specific energy equation (16.22) with respect to depth of flow and equating the same to zero. # xo where B= h + <1 Deh from equation (16.22) » Lisconstant 2g or But when specific energy is minimum, depth is critical and it is denoted by h,. Hence critical depth is ays hee (<) (16.23) 16.7.2 Critical Velocity (V,). The velocity of flow at the critical depth is known as critical velocity. It is denoted by V.. The mathematical expression for critical velocity is obtained from equa- tion (16.23) as hee (< } 8 Taking cube to both sides, we get > = L or gh onli) & But = 2 4 Discharge per unit width = = AteaxV _bxIXV ey, ° >780 Fluid Mechanics Substituting this value of g in (), or [Dividing by 42] or V.= exh (16.24) 16.7.3 Minimum Specific Energy in Terms of Critical Depth. Specific energy equation is given by equation (16.22) Bane 2gh When specific energy is minimum, depth of flow is critical and hence above equation becomes as Eoin = het Ey oii) But from equation (16.23), hy. (¢) or hoe 8 i in equation (ii), we get Substituting the value of 8 veel 2 2 Problem 16.33 Find the specific energy of flowing water through a rectangular channel of width Smwhen the discharge is 10 m'/s and depth of water is 3 m. Eng = ht Pee a (16.25) Solution. Given ‘Width of rectangular channel, = 5 m Discharge, Q= 10 mis Depth of water, h=3m Specific energy is given by equation (16.21), as na, where v= 2-210. 10 28 Area xh 5x3 Gy + A313 + 10226 = 3.0226 m. Ans. 2x981 Problem 16.34 Find the critical depth and critical velocity of the water flowing through a rectan- gular channel of width 5m, when discharge is 15 m'ss. Solution. Given ‘Width of channel besm Discharge, Q=15m%s O18 © Discharge per unit width, g= 2 re per areas[ Flow in Open Channels 781 Critical depth is given by equation (16.23) as ( 9 y" oat ey (ey? € 981 Critical velocity is given by equation (16.24) as V. = Jexh, = {OBIXOSTE = 3.088 mis. Ans. Problem 16.35 The discharge of water through a rectangular channel of width 8 m, is 15 m/s when depth of flow of water is 1.2 m. Calculate : (i) Specific energy of the flowing water, (ii) Critical depth and critical velocity, (iii) Value of minimum specific energy. Solution. Given Discharge, Q= 15 ms Width, b=8m Depth, he 12m Q_15 ++ Discharge per unit width, q= © .875 m/s @ _ 15 _ 150 ‘Area bxh 8X12 (0 Specific energy (£) is given by equation (16.21) as Velocity of flow, 1625 m/s bane a 124 8% 28 3x 93T (ii) Critical depth (/,) is given by equation (16.23) as he (¢) -( & Critical velocity (V,) is given by equation (16.24) as V. = exh, = J9BIXOTI = 2.639 mvs. Ans. (iii) Minimum specific energy (Eq) is given by equation (16.25) _ 3h, _ 3x07 me 2” 16.7.4 Critical Flow. It is defined as that flow at which the specific energy is minimum or the flow corresponding to critical depth is defined as critical flow. Equation (16.24) gives the relation for critical velocity in terms of critical depth as .20 + 0.124 = 1.324 m. Ans. E, 1.065 m. Ans. Froude number, 1.0 for critical flow.[782_ Fluid Mechanics 16.7.5 Streaming Flow or Sub-critical Flow or Tranquil Flow. When the depth of flow in a channel is greater than the critical depth (h.), the flow is said to be sub-critical flow or streaming flow or tranquil flow. For this type of flow the Froude number is ess than one ie., F< 1.0. 16.7.6 Super-critical Flow or Shooting Flow or Torrential Flow. When the depth of flow in a channel is less than the critical depth (i), the flow is said to be super-crtical flow or shooting flow or torrential flow. For this type of flow the Froude number is greater than one ie, F, > 1.0. 16.7.7 Alternate Depths. In the specific energy curve shown in Fig. 16.26, the point C corresponds to the minimum specific energy and the depth of flow at C is called critical depth. For any other value of the specific energy, there are two depths, one greater than the critical depth and. ‘other smaller than the critical depth. These two depths for a given specific energy are called the alternate depths. These depths are shown as fi and iy in Fig. 16.26. Or the depths corresponding to points G and H in Fig. 16.26 are called alternate depths. 16.7.8 Condition for Maximum Discharge for a Given Value of Specific Energy. The specific energy (E) at any section of a channel is given by equation (16.21) as Bans, where V 2 A” bxh pene Octane 2, Prk 2g 7 0 - C= (E~ 1 2467? or Q= YlE=M2—bH = b2e(ER —) For maximum discharge, Q, the expression (Eh? ~ f°) should be maximum. Or in other words, E is constant) or (Dividing by 1) or (16.26) or wold) But from equation (16.25), specific energy is minimum when itis equal to $ times the value of = v + dda = 2 dvds = 0 «) Equation (») is a quadratic equation in d, and hence its solution is786 Fluid Mechanics [at , 24° jae sd, 2V4 | ad First root is not possible as it gives -ve depth. Hence 23a Ay fat 2a (16.27) 2 V4" ed, The two roots of the equation are ~ St — oa 2 dy FA i sq Vid 7 fea = Mid) at (16.28) 4 Depth of Hydraulic jump = (d, ~ d,). (16.29) 16.8.2 Expression for Loss of Energy Due to Hydraulic Jump. As mentioned in Art. 16.8 that when hydraulic jump takes place, a loss of energy due to eddies formation and turbulence occurs. This loss of energy is equal to the difference of specific energies at sections 1-1 and 2-2. Or loss of energy due to hydraulic jump, hy, =E,-E; 4d,[ Flow in Open Channels 787] @.-a)azal [a= ay (16.30) ‘did, 16.8.3 Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump in Terms of Upstream Froude Number. Let V, = Velocity of flow on the upstream side, and = Depth of flow on upstream side, ‘Then Froude Number (F,), on the upstream side of the jump is given by v, Fy me (F.) Tea Avi) Now the depth of flow after the hydraulic jump is dy and itis given by equation (16.28) a, aye Hy (Ee, (EL atlat g tye ee 4a fm sti) But from equation (vii), (F,)y Ig, Substituting this value in equation (vii), we get dy S44 aay =, +s) -1) (6.31) 16.8.4 Length of Hydraulic Jump. This is defined as the length between the two sections, ‘where one section is taken before the hydraulic jump and the second section is taken immediately after the jump. For a rectangular channel from experiments, it has been found equal t0 5 to 7 times the height of the hydraulic jump. Problem 16.38 The depth of flow of water, at a certain section of a rectangular channel of 4 m wide, is 0.5 m, This discharge through the channel is 16 m/s, Ifa hydraulic jump takes place on the downstream side, find the depth of flow after the jump. Solution. Given ‘Width of channel, Depth of flow before jump, d, = 0.5 m Discharge, O= 16 ms O16 4 ny * Discharge per unit width, q=2=18 = 4 miss Let the depth of flow after jump = d, Depth of flow after the jump is given by equation (16.27), as 4, fe ae os, fos? 2x4? A 05, JOS, 2x4" 2 2 \ 4 "98x05 == 0.25 + (0.0625 +65239 d; 0.25 + 2.566 = 2.316 m. Ans.788 Fluid Mechanics Problem 16.39 The depth of flow of water, at a certain section of a rectangular channel of 2 m wide, is 0.3 m. The discharge through the channel is 1.5 m’/s. Determine whether a hydraulic jump will occur, and if so, find its height and loss of energy per kg of water. Solution. Given Depth of flow, Width of channel, Discharge, Discharge per unit width, Hydraulic jump will occur if the depth of flow on the upstream side is less than the critical depth on upstream side or if the Froude number on the upstream side is more than one. Critical depth (hi) is given by equation (16.23) as aye ays ¢ 075 (2) -(BE)" -o3s Now the depth on the upstream side is 0.3 m. This depth is less than critical depth and hence hydraulic jump will occur. ‘The depth of flow after hydraulic jump is given by equation (16.27) as 4, [&,2@ 03, fox, 2x075" Ay (AZo + [4 207 2 "aed, 2) 4 *98tx03 = 15 + 0255+ 38D = - 0.15 + 636: Height of hydraulic jump = d, ~ d = 0.4862 ~ 0,30 = 0.1862 m. Ans. Loss of energy per kg of water due to hydraulic jump is given by equation (16,30) as (4,-4,) _ [0.4862 -0.30]° 4dd, 4x.4862x 30 _ 0.1862" 4x 4862 x30 Problem 16.40 A sluice gate discharges water into a horizontal rectangular channel with a veloc- ity of 10 m/s and depth of flow of I m. Determine the depth of flow after the jump and consequent loss in total head. Solution. Given : Velocity of flow before hydraulic jump, V, = 10 m/s Depth of flow before hydraulic jump, dy =I m Discharge per unit width, q=V,xd,= 10x 1= 10 ms ‘The depth of flow after jump is given by equation (16.27) as dy 0.4862 m hy = = 0.01106 m-kg/kg. Ans. Hy [aly 2a? 10, HIP 210 aq 2 Ya" 98ixi == 0550+ 025+ 20387 = Loss in total head is given by equation (16.30) as a, .043 m. Ans.[ Flow in Open Channels 789) Problem 16.41 A sluice gate discharges water into a horizontal rectangular channel with a veloc- ity of 6 m/s and depth of flow is 0.4 m. The width of the channel is 8 m. Determine whether a Iydraulic jump will occur, and if so, find its height and loss of energy per kg of water. Also determine the power lost in the hydraulic jump. Solution. (i) Given : Velocity of flow, 6 mis Depth of flow, 0.4 m Width of channel, b=8m Q_Vxarea_Vjxd)xb = Discharge per unit width, g= © ischarge per unit width, q = =~ > 2 V, xd) = 6x04 =24 mils Froude number on the upstream side, MK. __60 Yea Jo8Ix0a {As Froude number is more than one, the flow is shooting on the upstream side, Shooting flow is unstable lw and it will convert islf into steaming low by raising its height and henee hydraulic jump wil take plac. (a) Let the depth of hydraulic jump = dy Using equation (16.31), we have 4 iva) -1) 04 ( frv8%3029"=1) 2 1 2 Height of hydraulic jump = d; ~ d, = 1.525 - 0.4 = 1.125 m. Ans. (iti) Loss of energy per kg of water is given by equation (16.30) (a,-4,)° _ (1525-04) (For= = 3.0289 = 3.029. 525 m a, a= ea) 0.5835 m-ky/kg of water. Ans. Add, 4x04 1525 wks pexOx hy, iv) Power lost in kW = PEXOXM where @ = Vx area (iv) 7000 @ 2 V,Xd,xb= 6x04 x8 = 19.2 mis Power, p= 1000x981X192 0.5835 _ 199.9 KW. Ans. 1000 Problem 16.42 A hydraulic jump forms at the downstream end of spillway carrying 17.93 m'/s discharge. If the depth before jump is 0.80 m, determine the depth after the jump and energy loss. Solution. Given Discharge Q= 1793 mis Depth before jump, 4) = 0.8 m ‘Taking width b = I m, we get Discharge per unit width, q= 1783 — 17.93 Let 4d, = Depth after jump and h, = Loss of energy. 4, [a 2¢ __ 08 Using equation (16.27), we get d,=- 44 [4 424-08 sing equation (16.27), we get TE to 2x179. 981 x08790 Fluid Mechanics =- 04+ 016+ 81927 = - 0.4 + 9.06 = Using equation (16.30) for loss of energy, ac =4,)' _ (866-08)° te ddd, 4x 0.8% 8.66 .66 m. Ans. 7.52 m. Ans. » 16.9 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (G.V.F.) If the depth of flow in a channel changes gradually over a long length of the channel, the flow is said to be gradually varied flow and is denoted by G.VF, 16.9.1 Equation of Gradually Varied Flow. Before deriving an equation for gradually var- ied flow, the following assumptions are made : 1. The bed slope of the channel is small, 2. The flow is steady and hence discharge Q is constant, 3. Accelerative effect is negligible and hence hydrostatic pressure distribution prevails over channel cross-section. 4. The energy correction factor, cis unity. 5. The roughness co-efficient is constant for the length of the channel and it does not depend on the depth of flow. 6. The formulae, such as Chezy’s formula, Manning’s formula, which are applicable, to the uni- form flow are also applicable to the gradually varied flow for determining the slope of energy line. 7. The channel is prismatic. Consider a rectangular channel having gradually varied flow as shown in Fig. 16.29. The depth of flow is gradually decreasing in the direction of flow. Let Z= height of bottom of channel above datum depth of flow, ‘mean velocity of flow, slope of the channel bed, slope of the energy line, ‘width of channel, and discharge through the channel ENERGY LINE Fig. 16.29 Equation for gradually varied flow.[ Flow in Open Channels 791 ‘The energy equation at any section is given by Bernoulli’s equation, E=Z+h+ (i) Differentiating this equation with respect to x, whete x is measured along the bottom of the channel in the direction of flow, we get de _ de dn (2) 2,4,2/5 ii) dx de de de (2g 7) (sA=bxi) bxh +: QB and g are constant) 74-254 ax Px 2gh dx ao [: 2 } Pie xgh dx gh de ” bh Substituting the value of -(”~) in equation (i), we get ax (2g a de dh Vidh de dhl, VP iy dx dx dx gh dx dx dx gh Now 2 slope ott enery tn a and © x sope ofthe bed ofthe channel =~ ve sign with i, and i, is taken as with the increase of x, the value of E and Z decreases. de Substituting the value of “= and % in equation (ii, we get @ ae and Fm equation (i, we gs v oh or dh _ (ip~ie) (16.32) ] -cs39 “i792. Fluid Mechanics Aste ep of flow anise tn: mst along he von oF he cans ene ‘Fepresents the variation of the water depth along the bottom of the channel, ae Tht scald hse of ee wa sae Te (9 When 0,his conto depth fh aso te tom fal const rns a rss of war plot of te haa (i) Wien borane. anh dep waes en he deson of ow The plo he wat so ed il ack ater cae fon Ci) when #0 oe sven hte dep wire in een o Oe flow. The ol fe Wats obese dropdown care Probl Yea Pnd hs of cone of lh ofr ns cago che! of 1 wide Sa Sm ry onthe ws og wi ly of Teflon ofr rogh hanctop be dape Tm, eu nck ey hatonrg etchant of OD Sotuton. cen With teh, Dept hae, Velo ft Bed slope, Slope of energy line, i, = .00004 Let rate of change of depth of water = ae 00004 _ .00021 1) (y-beL) 906 sh 981x3, Problem 16.44 Find the slope of the free water surface in a rectangular channel of width 20 m, having depth of flow 5 m. The discharge through the channel is 50 m'/s, The bed of the channel is having a slope of 1 in 4000. Take the value of Chezy's constant C = 60. Solution. Given Using equation (16.32) as. <* = = 000217. Ans. Width of channel, b=20m Depth of flow, h=5m Discharge, = 50 ms 1 Bed stope, i= <= 00025 ne 000 Chezy’s constant, c=60 ‘The discharge, @ is given by Q= Vx Area = C where A= Area of flow = b x h= 20x 5 = 100 m[ Flow in Open Channels 793) 100. 100 _ 100 _ 10 A ‘m = hydraulic mean depth = 4 = — * Po b+2h 242x530 3 lope of energy line. ‘The slope of the energy line* is determined from Chezy's formula 50 = 100 60% ci, 1095445 Ji, soy —*0 _) = 0.000208 (srs) ah The slope of free water surface = Using equation (16.32) as. 1 98150 Qo _ 9 0 45 Area bxh 20x5— dh _ 0.00025 ~ 0.000208 _ 0.000292 TSx05 TOOT = 9200023, Ans. 981% 50 16.9.2 Back Water Curve and Afflux. Consider the flow over a dam as shown in Fig. 16.30. On the upstream side of the dam, the depth of water will be rising. If there had not been any obstruc- tion (such as dam) in the path of flow of water in the channel, the depth of water would have been constant as shown by dotted line parallel to the bed of the channel in Fig, 16.30. Due to obstruction, the water level rises and it has maximum depth from the bed at some section. SASH WATER GUE Now owvuna ine Fig. 1630 Back water curve and afftux. Let hy = depth of water at the point, where the water stars rising up, and ‘ng = maximum height of rising water from bed. ‘Then (ly ~ h) = afflux. Thus afflux is defined as the maximum increase in water level due (0 obstruction in the path of flow of water. The profile of the rising water on the upstream side of the * Please refer to Ar. 16.9.1 point number 6. “i794 Fluid Mechanics dam is called back water curve. The distance along the bed of the channel between the section where water starts rising to the section where water is having maximum height is known as length of back water curve. 16.9.3 Expression for the Length of Back Water Curve. Consider the flow of water through a channel in which depth of water is rising as shown in Fig. 16.31. Let the two sections 1-1 and 2-2 are at such a distance that the distance between them represents the length of back water Let depth of flow at section 1-1, velocity of flow at section 1-1, iy = depth of flow at section 2-2, o L ENGKUT UNE io Mt eeig |i @ DATUM LINE an \ @ 16.31 Length of back water curve. V_ = velocity of flow at section 2-2, = bed slope, i, = energy line slope, and L= length of back water curve. Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections 1-1 and 2-2, Zhen z+ eon, ) 28 2g where fi, = Loss of energy due to friction = i, x L ‘Also taking datum line passing through the bed of the channel at section 2. . Then Z, = 0 Equation (i becomes as Z, + +¥- = hy + 2g From Fig. 16331, Z,=ixL i xbth tant eai xe 2g 2g ixte(mr2)-(n +e « petcunte(nott}-[re) “i[ Flow in Open Channels 795) or Lyi) = E,- By, where Ey (16.34) Equation (16.34) is used to calculate the length of back water curve. The value of i, (slope of ‘energy line) is calculated either by Manning’s formula or by Chezy’s formula, The mean values of velocity, depth of flow, hydraulic mean depth ete., are used between sections 1-1 and 2-2 for caleu- lating the value of i,. Problem 16.45 Determine the length of the back water curve caused by an afflux of 2.0 m in a rectangular channel of width 40 m and depth 2.5 m. The slope of the bed is given as 1 in 11000. Take Manning's N = 0.03. Solution. Width of channel, Afflux, Depth of channel, f= 2.0425=45m 1 Bed slope, i= a0 Pe, 's= Tipp = 0.000090 Manning's, N= 0.03 ‘Area of flow at section 1, Ay = b x hy = 40 x 2.5 = 100 Wetted perimeter, P,=b+ 2h, = 4042x252 45 m A, _ 100 Hydraulic mean depth, m, = St = 100 = 2.22 m en Pan as . 12 pe Using Manning’s formula, V = mi! Velocity at section 1, 1 m2? i? = —L 52.90” x 0.000909" w™ "= 003 1 = <1 «1.7.x 0.009534 = 0. Jog * #7 0.009534 = 0.54 mis spec ony at sctn Eye Hee = 2 as 2stem From cont, ely ton 2 hen Vane to v_ HA, 081100 05110055 ho bxky wOxaS where area A, = b x hy = 40x 4.5 = 180 m? Wetted perimeter at section 2, Py = b + 2h = 40 +2 4.5 = 49 m796 Fluid Mechanics . noe Bt 2 180 5675 m “ w= anon Specitic energy at section 2,8 = hy + YE = 45 + <2 pees ey ee 2g 2931 4.504 m 054% 25 Se = 03857 mis ‘Also 2 To find the value of j,, use Manning’s formula as mili? or 0.3857 = om* 2.94652! xi”? = 68.534 i! 0.3857)" or 83857)" — 0.00003167 (Sx) oonste ‘The length of back water curve (L) is obtained from equation (16.34) Ey-b, 4.504 ~ 2.5148 '0:0000909 — 0.00003167 335843 m. Ans.Flow in Open Channels _797| Ava subere (Chexy's constant, m= Hygeanic wean depth = —— A864 __ sf Wate pecimeier {= Slope of the be 6, "The value of Chexy's constant, © is given by empirival Forma as: 1576 meee arin Focus fer te whee HC = fhain's constint, = 7 2p ARIE aii 6 ——_ so Ramter’s Foemala 1 {25+ 2008) ee wehcte A= Kutter's cesta i) Ca at Masning's Formats whote N= Manning's constant = Kotter’s constant 7. Most economical section is one that gives maaimum discharge for a given valves of cross-section area, slope of the Wed spd e-effcient af resistance 8, Conditions for munimum discharge throagh » to) Rectangular section, ti) beta tb) ‘Trapeanidal section, han a= Seg ew 222 FH camel (iy het rrr em hl ft np wil ig ge 3 lho SP ae oo urate en ca ce caer msl tg Lit Onbirorne ene: 10. For circular sections: area cannet be maintained cxmstant and hence there are two different conditions, ane is for maximum velocity und other for maximus dischare- LL, Condition for maximums velocity though «circular chanel is, Depth of Nw, = OL diameter of circular channel Hdimelic mean depih, m= 0,205 diameter of eirewlar channel 12 Condition for maximum discharge through a clreatar channel i, Depth, = 0.95 dlameter of cireular channel 13. For a circular chanset, ‘Wetted perimeter, 2K798 Fluid Mechanics snsatiow, Ae (o HH) whee Ae Bai of toa som fi ieee mien ye er ies ae ate 14, Total coergy of 1 flowing tiquid per unit weight, Total energy = 2 he V2 # 2g. 1h SIC et han pe Bene, ech Dip tte Pe va to 16, ‘The depth of flow at which specific ergy 4 ininimum is called ertical dept, which is piven by. i (2) reg care po mt win TONE * k 17. The velicity of flow at critical depth Is known as crtical velocity, which ls given.as V, = [px a 18, Minimum speciic energy is related wih critical depth by the mlation, Eg = £8, 19, Ths flow comresponding to crtcal depth (or when Froude aumber is sual 10 1.0) is known an esitical iow 20, If he depth of flow In a chanel Is greater than the critical depth (or Provide mumber Is Jess than 1.0), the Now is sid sub-sitieal of reaming flow, 21, the depth of flow int chanel 3 Jess than te crit depth or Frouce number is mowe than |), the flow is known 2s super-eitical or shooting Mow. 22, The condition for marin dicharge for s given value of specie enuray by that the depth flow shold e critical 28, The rise of water-tevet which tikes place due 19 Ole tansforrmacion oF the shooting 10 the sesming flow is known 26 hydraulic jump. The depts of Now afer the jump is piven by 4, [ae es ter eh {Interns g) a oat Peres (imennest ¥) -4{ fn) tones 53 Deptt of hycnaulie jmp, = dy — a where fy = depeh of flow befoce hydrusle jump, = velocity of flow before bydlraubic jormp. 24 Energy los duc to hydrualic jump pec ky. of liquid ae 2) nay seri sin (art) fo SE 25. iquation of pradaly varied flow, t= AH + (i teen of ¥) ine ahm7, ro Flow in Open Channels 799] _daiemol oy ee ee i, slope of the eneriy line, ht depth of flow, amd V = velocity af flow, ‘Aéflus is tie increase ln water Hevel due to some obstructhon across the lowing liquid, while bask ‘unter curve lc the profile of the rising water on the upstream side OF the obstruction, Length of thick: water curve bs piven by, ds a = eee rece reee a va ape ermeeroe ns : ond = Specie enna the edo he water csc = hy +35 EXERCISE (A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS | What do you understand by “Flow in open channel’ ? = Differentiate between : (#) Uniform flow and non-uniform flow, (i?) Steady and unsteady flow, (if) [Laminar and turbulent flow and (iv) Critical, sub-citical and super-ritical flow in a open channel }- Explain the terms : (i) Rapidly varied flow and (i) Gradually varied flow. J. Derive an expression for the discharge through a channel by Chezy’s formula. . Explain the terms : (i) Slope of the bed, (i) Hydraulic mean depth and (ii) Wetted perimeter. (a) What are the empirical formulae for determining the value of Chezy's constant ? (®) What is the relation between Manning's constant and Chezy’s constant. State the following formulae for the values of C ( Bazin’s formulae, (i) Kutter’s formula, and (ii) Manning's formula. (a) Define the term most economical section of a channel. What are the conditions for the rectangu- Jar channel of the best section ? (®) What is meant by an economical section of a channel ? ). Prove that for the trapezoidal channel of most economical section : (@, Half of top width ii) Hydraulic mean depth = 4 depth of flow. Length of one of the sloping sides (a) Derive the condition for the best side slope of the most economical trapezoidal channel (®) Find the side slope in @ apezoidal section of maximum efficiency which will carry the same flow 8 half square section of the same area, Prove that for a channel of circular section, the depth of flow, d= 081 D for maximum velocity, and = 095 D for maximum discharge, ‘where D = Diameter of circular channel, d = depth of flow. Explain the terms : Specific energy of a flowing liquid, minimum specific energy, critical dept, critical velocity and alternate depths as applied to non-uniform flow. “i800 Fluid Mechanics 13. 17. 18. 19. 20. 2. 22. 23. 24, 25, 26. ‘What is specific energy curve ? Draw specific energy curve, and then derive expressions for critical depth and critical velocity |= (a) Derive an expression for critical depth and critical velocity. (b) Define critical depth in an open channel in as many ways as you can, Derive the condition for maximum discharge for a given value of specific energy. . Explain the term hydraulic jump, Derive an expression for the depth of hydraulic jump in terms of the upstream Froude number, Derive an expression forthe variation of depth long the length ofthe Bed ofthe channel for gaily Varied low in an open channel. Sate ley al he assumptions made Find an expression for fos of energy head fora hyaui jump. Define the ems: () Affix and (3) Back water curve Prove tht he length f he back wae carve i given by, = (2-2) nk where = Length of bck water cus, y= Specie enerty at the ed of bck water curve, = Speci energy atthe section where water stars ring, ‘y=Sloe of be ni, = Slope of he ener ine. Fin, interns of specie eneray B, an expression forthe cial depth in taped! chanel with oto width B an side slopes of | vera to horizontal Stow tat na etangtlar chanel (© Cea depth s twos of specie energy, and i Froude number terial depth is unity ‘Obtain the condition for a trapezoidal channel with side slopes 2H: 1 V to be most efficient for a given area A let B be its bed width By applying the momentum equation to open channel flow, show that the consequent depths and Flow rate are related bY 2 = 395 01+) Siate the assumptions made inthe desivation Derive the itferentil equation for steady gradually varied flow in open channels and list all assumptions. ah _ inie) a “(i-F:) ‘What isthe essential difference between gradually varied flow and rapidly varied flow ? Mlustrate with neatly drawn sketches (a) Prove that the loss of energy headin a hydraulic jump is equa t (dy ~ d/l, where dy and 4, are the conjugate depths (b) Obtain the relationship between the Froude Numbers of flow before and after the hydraulic jump in a horizontal rectangular channel “iFlow in Open Channels 801 10. 12. (B) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS «Find the velocity of flow and rate of flow of water through a rectangular channel of $ m wide and 2 m

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