Advanced Powder Technology 31 (2020) 409–415

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Advanced Powder Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apt

Perspective article

Spray drying strategy for encapsulation of bioactive peptide powders for

food applications q,qq
Yong Wang a, Cordelia Selomulya a,b,⇑
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, 18 Alliance Lane, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
b
School of Chemical Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Spray drying is commonly used to manufacture food and dairy powders at industrial scale. Bioactive pep-
Received 1 July 2019 tides, as hydrolysis products from various food proteins, are gaining interest due to their biological func-
Received in revised form 28 October 2019 tionality including immunomodulation, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties. This article reviews
Accepted 30 October 2019
several bioactive peptides/hydrolysates from different food sources, focusing on their processing and
Available online 13 November 2019
final powder characteristics. Additionally, we propose a strategy for encapsulation of food peptide/hy-
drolysate via spray drying. The identification of suitable drying parameters and/or formulation could help
Keywords:
overcome the limitations associated with the current processing of food peptides.
Bioactive peptide
Spray drying
Ó 2019 The Society of Powder Technology Japan. Published by Elsevier B.V. and The Society of Powder
Encapsulation Technology Japan. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.
Food proteins org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction tion of glucose and insulin homeostasis, and satiety regulating

The application of peptides and protein hydrolysate to food is at
the forefront of innovation for modern nutrition and represents a
promising approach for efficient delivery of bioactive compounds.
In line with this, various peptides for food applications have
recently attracted interest. Bioactive peptides are specific protein
fragments that are inactive within the sequence of the parent pro-
tein, but may exert various physiological functions after release
during digestion [1]. In general, peptide refers to a more uniform
protein fragment, while hydrolysate is a complex proteolytic mix-
ture. However, unlike in the pharmaceutical industry, food peptide
or protein hydrolysate do not have a strict distinction. Therefore,
both terms will be used here interchangeably.
Biological properties reported for peptides derived from food
proteins include anti-aging, anti-cancer, anti-cariogenic, anti-
diabetic, anti-hypertensive, anti-microbial, anti-oxidative stress,
anti-inflammatory, cholesterol lowering, growth enhancing,
immunomodulatory, mineral binding, radical scavenging, regula-
q
This is the perspective article submitted for Virtual Special Issue: the 30th
Anniversary Collection of Advanced Powder Technology.
qq
Open Access for this article was sponsored by the Society of Powder Technology,
Japan, through the KAKENHI Grant Number 18HP2009/Grant-in-Aid for Publication
of Scientific Research Results, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, 2019.
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash
University, 18 Alliance Lane, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia.
E-mail addresses: cordelia.selomulya@monash.edu, cordelia.selomulya@unsw.
edu.au (C. Selomulya).
[1–5]. In addition, the application of peptides into food is beneficial
for populations with special nutritional needs such as infants,
athletes and the elderly, due to its ease of digestion [6]. Thus the
development of functional foods or nutraceuticals fortified with
peptide is increasing [7].
Generally, food peptides require spray drying to be converted
into powder for further applications. High cost of production, poor
solubility of purified peptides powders, and consumer acceptance
are among some of the challenges for commercialization of food-
derived bioactive peptides [1,8]. Thus, a systematic design of spray
drying trials is needed to optimize the process parameters to pre-
serve the desirable attributes of the peptide. The effect of drying on
the functional properties such as bioactivity and bioavailability of
peptides needs to be considered. It is also necessary to account
for the state of peptide particles after drying, including moisture
content, shelf life, solubility, ease of use, taste/odour control, and
others [9]. Since spray drying is one of the most energy consuming
and expensive steps in the production of protein hydrolysates, care
must also be taken to balance the energy consumption of the dry-
ing process, inlet/outlet temperature selection, and the final qual-
ity of the product. [10]. In industrial production, often a
compromise must be made between the yield of hydrolysate that
can be achieved versus the amount of water that must be removed
to obtain a dry final product, e.g. adding less water during hydrol-
ysis to minimize drying cost [10,11].
There are a number of studies on peptide that mainly focus on
the amino acid composition [12–14], while microencapsulation of

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2019.10.034
0921-8831/Ó 2019 The Society of Powder Technology Japan. Published by Elsevier B.V. and The Society of Powder Technology Japan.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
410 Y. Wang, C. Selomulya / Advanced Powder Technology 31 (2020) 409–415
food peptide is also of interest [15]. Although with the same amino
acid composition, the peptide functionality may vary greatly
depending on the powder properties. Peptide is more fragmented
than protein, which makes the drying process more complicated
if carrier is added into formulation and might interact with the
bioactive peptides [9]. Another key consideration in encapsulation
of peptides via spray drying is how well these thermally labile
materials resist heat denaturation by hot air [16].
Although it is a common procedure to process protein-based
food into powders, to the best of our knowledge, only limited stud-
ies have been done on developing a spray drying strategy to max-
imize bioactivity and functionality of food peptides, especially in
their pure or concentrated forms. Here, we briefly summarized
recent studies on the spray drying of food peptides, and propose
areas for further investigation to achieve better quality and expand
the application of food peptide powders.
2. Current research on food peptide drying
The existing literature on food protein peptide or hydrolysate
drying can be divided into three categories: (i) Direct drying of
pure peptide [17,18]; (ii) Co-drying with processing aids (e.g. mal-
todextrin or starch), but not necessarily encapsulated even with
claims of microencapsulation in some cases [19–21]; (iii) Microen-
capsulation (mainly using wall materials to encapsulate peptide,
but may also use peptide as wall material to encapsulate other
components) [9,22,23]. The main purpose of the first two cate-
gories is to manufacture powders rich in peptide for use as food
or nutraceutical ingredients, while the main purpose of last cate-
gory is on maintaining bioactivity or masking the smell/taste of
the peptide.
2.1. Dairy peptide
As major components of dairy protein, whey and casein pep-
tides are spray dried and sold as powdered ingredients. Ma et al.
compared the effects of spray drying and freeze drying on bioactiv-
ity, taste, and hygroscopicity of whey hydrolysate, and found that
spray-dried pure whey hydrolysate showed similar bitter taste,
hygroscopicity, and solubility compared to freeze-dried whey
hydrolysate [17]. Contreras et al. compared the spray-dried and
freeze-dried casein peptides, and found that the angiotensin con-
verting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory activity and the antihypertensive
properties of casein hydrolysed products were maintained after
spray drying or freeze drying [24]. Moreover, the spray-dried
casein hydrolysate powder still showed their antihypertensive
effects when added into yoghurts, indicating their potential as food
ingredient [24].
The allergic properties of bovine milk proteins could be reduced
by enzymatic hydrolysis [25]. But their relatively high cost and bit-
ter taste may restrict the use of milk peptide in infant milk for-
mula. However, recent studies demonstrated the stability of
spray-dried whey hydrolysate powders throughout thermal and
spray drying processes during infant milk formula manufacture,
with the potential to lower drying cost by decreasing liquid viscos-
ity, and increasing storage stability by reducing lactose crystalliza-
tion [26,27]. On the other hand, the high hygroscopicity of whey
hydrolysate powders may decrease the storage stability of infant
milk formula by lowering the glass transition temperature during
storage [28]. In addition, spray-dried whey protein hydrolysate
were more susceptible to sticking due to the low glass transition
temperature, also with lower surface polarity when compared to
intact proteins, which need to be taken into consideration when
using whey hydrolysate to fortify other dairy products [29,30].
Drusch et al. found that both casein hydrolysate and whey
hydrolysate showed higher surface activity than casein or whey
protein at the air-water interface, because of lower molecular
weight and more ionisable groups. Thus the hydrolysed milk
proteins can be used to alter the surface composition of the
spray-dried particles [31]. Better encapsulation of fish oil from oxi-
dation was shown with whey hydrolysate as wall material, com-
pared to b-lactoglobulin, reportedly due to higher accessibility of
antioxidant amino acids from wall material due to enzymatic
hydrolysis [22].
Microencapsulation of whey hydrolysate with whey protein
and sodium alginate did not change the immunomodulatory activ-
ity, but could lower their hygroscopicity and solubility, and pro-
vide bitterness-masking effect [17]. Maltodextrin-encapsulated
whey protein hydrolysate was significantly less hygroscopic than
without encapsulation [32], while microencapsulation also helped
to improve gastrointestinal stability of the whey protein hydroly-
sate [23]. For casein peptide, the bitter flavour can be reduced by
spray drying with different carriers including gelatine and soy pro-
tein isolate, gum Arabic, and maltodextrin [33–36]. However, the
rate of dissolution of casein hydrolysate in water may decrease sig-
nificantly due to the introducing of wall material in encapsulation
process [34].
2.2. Chicken peptide
Chicken meat could be hydrolysed and spray-dried into hydro-
lysate powders. Higher inlet temperature in spray drying resulted
in lower powder moisture and bulk density, as well as spherical
shape of hydrolysate powder [20]. In addition, high inlet air tem-
perature (170–200 °C) in spray drying may also bring advantages
like higher antioxidant activity of chicken meat hydrolysate pow-
der as evidenced in precious study [37]. On the contrary, lower
drying temperature (120–160 °C) combined with low feed flow
rate could minimize the difference between inlet and outlet tem-
perature in spray drying, in order to achieve high product recovery
for chicken peptides [37]. Maltodextrin and gum Arabic could be
used as carrier to improve the drying performance of chicken meat
peptide by reducing the stickiness and hygroscopicity of hydroly-
sate powders, and also increasing their glass transition tempera-
ture [20,38]. Although freeze dried chicken skin hydrolysate
showed higher water solubility, emulsion stability, and water
holding capacity than the spray-dried powders, spray drying is still
preferable due to its high production efficiency [39].
2.3. Fish peptide
Fish meat, especially the by-product of fillet, could be spray-
dried into powder for application in food or as animal feed.
Spray-dried Black Tilapia fish hydrolysate powders showed high
in vitro digestibility (up to 92.1%) at both inlet temperature
(150 °C or 180 °C), and lower drying inlet temperature (150 °C)
was preferable to achieve higher protein efficiency ratio in animal
feed [21]. In another study, an inlet temperature of 185 °C was
used to dry the protein hydrolysate of different variety of fish
including Mackerel, White Fish, Blue Whiting, and Sprat [18]. The
bitter flavours of dried fish hydrolysate powders were found to
be relatively mild compared with the hydrolysates from milk pro-
teins, showing their potential to be added into food matrix. Spray-
dried Sauvage fish protein hydrolysate powder (inlet temperature
180 °C) showed better oil absorption capacity and emulsion activ-
ity when the hydrolysis was finished by alkali or acid instead of
enzyme, but the enzyme-hydrolysed powder has higher water sol-
ubility than the alkali or acid hydrolysis powders [40]. Pre-
treatment with ethanol could slow down the non-enzymatic
browning of spray-dried fish hydrolysate powders (inlet tempera-
ture 180 °C), and also mask the bitter taste [41]. It has been sug-
gested that despite the extensive studies of the hydrolysis
 Y. Wang, C. Selomulya / Advanced Powder Technology 31 (2020) 409–415
process, further studies on the drying and storing of fish hydroly-
sates are necessary for industrial application [11,18].
2.4. Other food peptides
There are several features that may limit the application of
plant proteins, including low solubility. Research on plant protein
hydrolysate has the potential to bring new applications into the
food industry. Spray-dried soy protein hydrolysate powder showed
significantly higher solubility than soy protein isolate around pH
4.5, which is the isoelectric point of soybean protein. Soy hydroly-
sate also showed higher foaming capacity and lower viscosity,
while retaining gel-forming ability, which is favourable for applica-
tion in meat product [42]. Wang et al. investigated the effects of
inlet drying air temperature (140–200 °C), feed flow rate (3–
12 mL/min), and solids concentration (25–40%) on the properties
of spray-dried soy protein peptide powders, and found an opti-
mized spray drying condition for soy peptide (160 °C inlet temper-
ature, 6 mL/min feed rate, and 35% solid concentration) based on
powder characteristics including colour, morphology, density,
and antioxidant capacity [43]. Using maltodextrin as carrier,
spray-dried flaxseed protein hydrolysate powder could not only
show good solubility (92–96%), but also retain high antioxidant
activity [44].
Egg white protein hydrolysate powder exhibited similar solubil-
ity and antioxidant activities when dried by either spray drying or
freeze drying. However, spray drying could lower the emulsifying
and foaming properties of egg white protein hydrolysate powder
when compared with the freeze-dried powder, which might be
caused by the low hydrophobicity of spray-dried peptide [45]. In
another study, spray-dried egg white protein peptides (inlet tem-
perature 180 °C) showed high in vitro angiotensin converting
enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity, which might be beneficial in pre-
venting hypertension, heart failure, myocardial infarction, and dia-
betic nephropathy [46]. In particular, spray-dried egg white
peptide Arg-Val-Pro-Ser-Leu (RVPSL) showed the potential as a
functional food ingredient with highest ACE-inhibitory activity
[47], while peptide Asp-His-Thr-Lys-Glu (DHTKE) had the best oxy-
gen radical absorbance capacity [48].
Spray-dried mussel meat protein hydrolysate powders had a
higher storage stability in comparison to chicken breast hydroly-
sate powder [49]. The addition of maltodextrin or gum Arabic as
carrier might increase the glass transition temperature of mussel
meat protein hydrolysate powders (from 64 °C to 69–97 °C) and
decrease water adsorption, which is beneficial for storage stability
[49]. The spray-dried mussel meat protein hydrolysate with mal-
todextrin carrier showed potential to be used as umami seasoning
in instant noodles [50].
3. Drying strategy for food peptide
Based on the analysis of existing data and our previous drying
research experience, we recommend the following parameters to
be considered when spray drying food protein peptide/hydrolysate
into powders (shown in Fig. 1).
Before drying, the hydrolysis process and the characteristics of
the peptide/hydrolysate need to be considered. Several factors in
the hydrolysis process affect the properties of hydrolysate, which
in turn affects the drying process. The degree of hydrolysis, molec-
ular weight distribution of the hydrolysate, and the amino acid
composition may affect or even to some extent determined the
water-binding ability of the peptide molecules [51]. This further
affects the rheological property, surface charge, heat tolerance,
and peptide interaction of the suspension before drying [52]. Other
factors are easier to control, such as the moisture content and pH of
the suspension, but also have a large impact on the subsequent
411
drying process. Due to the variation in the functionality of
peptides, the separation and purification steps can affect their
bioactivity [4,53], which is crucial when claiming functionality of
the ingredients in food.
During drying, various parameters need to be adjusted carefully
to accommodate the drying requirements of the peptide. Optimum
drying conditions and tailored matrix formulations are required to
avoid severe heat damage leading to loss in bioactivity [54]. Similar
to the spray drying of other powders, the critical parameters that
can be controlled are inlet temperature, outlet temperature and
feeding rate [16]. Some operating parameters are determined by
the type of spray dryer, such as evaporation efficiency and air flow,
such that suitable conditions need to be determined for a specific
dryer (e.g. drying aids or carriers) where computational modelling
may help [55]. Unlike the drying of pure peptide, more factors need
to be taken into consideration for encapsulation, including the car-
rier type, ratio between peptide and carrier, and pre-treatments,
etc [16,56,57].
In addition, the understanding of droplet drying kinetics via sin-
gle droplet drying may provide fundamental understanding of
changes that occur in the peptide suspension during drying. Our
works have demonstrated the use of single droplet drying to pro-
vide insight into micro-structural changes during drying [58,59],
in addition to drying kinetics data that can be used in modelling
the drying process including water vapor, drying rate, shrinking,
etc [54,60,61]. Novel spray drying methodology, such as nano
spray drying, developed to enhance powder solubility of pharma-
ceutical peptides, might also help to preserve the functionality of
food peptide by reducing the droplet size and the drying duration
[62].
After drying, the analysis of the powder is also critical. The
physical characteristics of peptide powder, including particle size
distribution, moisture content, morphology, and others, are rele-
vant to properties such as solubility and shelf stability. The forma-
tion of porous granules can improve solubility in water, while the
physical structure of the powder are correlated with the digestibil-
ity and peptide release [35,63].The thermal properties of peptide
powder, such as glass transition temperature, together with other
physical properties, will help to quantify flowability, stickiness,
and stability of the peptide powder [64].
Both the functionality and sensory properties of peptide pow-
ders determine their applications in food matrix. In addition to sol-
ubility, emulsifying and foaming capacities will also determine the
application of peptide powder [65]. Water activity and storage sta-
bility not only affects the peptide powder itself, but also affects the
whole formulated food [26,66,67]. In some cases, the peptide pow-
der may induce bitter taste and undesirable odour [9]. This
requires consideration of the appropriate drying condition to mask
the negative effect to food matrix. On the contrary, there are some
cases where the peptide powder may introduce pleasant taste like
umami, especially from those generated from fish and seaweed
[1,68]. Bioavailability needs to be assessed after drying to ensure
the bioactive peptides can still function normally [9,69]. The last
thing to note is the complex composition of food matrix, where a
comprehensive analysis is needed since any change can bring
unexpected effect on flavour or texture.
4. Opportunities for research on food peptide powders
In the previous section, although we try to list most of the tech-
nical areas to be considered in the peptide drying, there are some
areas worthy of further investigation. These include how to main-
tain the bioactivity of peptide during the drying process, how to
optimize the drying parameters to generate peptide powders with
desired properties, and how to render peptide powders more com-
patible with the food matrix.
412 Y. Wang, C. Selomulya / Advanced Powder Technology 31 (2020) 409–415

Fig. 1. An overview of relevant process parameters and properties in the spray drying of food protein peptide/hydrolysate.

4.1. Drying protection

The fundamental issue is how to develop methods for drying

food peptide/hydrolysate without introducing unexpected
changes in relevant powder properties. At the same time, consid-
eration should be made regarding the thermal impact on peptide
bioactivity during the spray drying process, which usually cannot
be avoided but should be minimized. The co-drying of peptide
with bulking agent (not necessarily encapsulation in this particu-
lar case), such as maltodextrin or starch, may help to protect
peptide from severe denaturation [19,38,49]. Otherwise, lowering
the inlet temperature could also help to protect the thermal-
sensitive material. Our previous research showed that the addi-
tion of ethanol could decrease the inlet temperature by 20 °C
while maintain the same drying efficiency and powder quality,
and lead to secondary structure change of protein, as shown in
Fig. 2 [70].

4.2. Encapsulation and targeted release

While microencapsulation is perhaps the area that has wit-

nessed the greatest progress in the past few years for food peptide
drying, there is still the need to optimise encapsulation efficiency
and release profile, which play a crucial role in protecting the func-
tionality of peptide [23,34,44,71]. As shown in Fig. 3, our previous
work on the encapsulation of curcumin has illustrate the possibil-
ity using whey protein isolate as a wall material to increase the
loading efficiency of curcumin by increasing their aqueous solubil-
ity through hydrophobic interaction with whey protein isolate
[60]. In the future, strategies will be needed to increase encapsula-
tion efficiency, lower wall material concentration, and introduce
targeted release profile [70]. In particular, there is a need to
Fig. 2. Ethanol as spray drying aids helps to lower the drying temperature and
develop special assays for encapsulated peptides to properly anal- modify the structure of dried powders [67]. (A) Inlet temperature lowered from
yse the bioactivity & bioavailability of peptide after the encapsula- 200 °C to 180 °C when 30% ethanol was used; (B) Secondary structure of whey
tion and release process [72,73]. protein isolate (WPI) changed when different amount of ethanol was added.
 Y. Wang, C. Selomulya / Advanced Powder Technology 31 (2020) 409–415
Fig. 3. SEM images of microparticles of whey protein isolate (WPI)-curcumin complexes spray dried at different inlet temperatures of (A) 150 °C and (B) 110 °C [58].
4.3. Granulation
The granulation of food peptide powder may improve solubility
in aqueous system and avoid fine particles when mixing with other
food ingredients. In recent years, there have been significant
advances in our understanding of how wetting, nucleation, growth
and break-up combine to control granulation processes [74]. How-
ever, controlling granulation still remains a challenge for food
peptide, with fundamental understanding of agglomeration and
break-up still needed. As peptide/hydrolysate consist of smaller
molecules than proteins and increasingly smaller powders are pro-
duced after spray drying, effective granulation is needed to reduce
dust formation.
4.4. Masking flavour
The need for new manufacturing technologies will be exacer-
bated in situations where peptide/hydrolysate powders may intro-
duce unpleasant flavours into food matrix. Different combinations
of spray drying parameters and encapsulation carriers may lead to
some improvements, but it is difficult to completely solve the
problem [75]. More recently, increasing interest has been shown
in applying masking agents (such as xylitol, sucrose and maltodex-
trin) to improve the sensory properties [76].
5. Conclusion
Food peptide/hydrolysate has various health benefits but the
lack of suitable processing methods limits their range of applica-
tions in the food sector. We propose a set of parameters to be con-
sidered to optimise the spray drying of peptide powders. The focus
on the following areas is needed to further improve the properties
of spray-dried peptide powder, including thermal protection dur-
ing drying, better encapsulation and targeted release, improved
powder granulation, masking unpleasant taste or odour, extending
shelf life, and enhancing compatibility in food matrix to further
expand the application of peptide in functional foods.
Acknowledgement
We acknowledge the funding for Yong Wang from the Department
of Chemical Engineering, Monash University and for Cordelia
Selomulya from the Australian Research Council (ARC) Future
Fellowship (FT140101256).
413
Declarations of interest
None.
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