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Autoecology of Castanea Sativa Mill. in Lebanon

Article  in  Acta horticulturae · March 2009

DOI: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2009.815.11

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Autoecology of Castanea sativa in Lebanon
Talih Masri1, Rida Y. Nuwayhid2, Nabil Masri3 and Katia Fakhry4
1
Remote Sensing Center, National Council for Scientific Research (CNRS), Beirut, Lebanon
2
College of Engineering, Hariri Canadian University, Mechref, Lebanon., 3Faculty of
Geography, St. Joseph University, Beirut, Lebanon. 4 Faculty of Agriculture, Lebanese
University, Beirut, Lebanon

Keywords: Castanea, bioclimatic ranges, soil tolerance, Lebanon

Abstract
The southern limit for the natural extent of Castanea sativa had been hitherto
stated to be at latitude 37oN in Tunisia to be later reduced to circa 35oN in the Syrian
Coastal range and further extended in this work to latitudes around 34oN in Mount
Lebanon. The bioclimatic ranges of existing natural Castanea occurrences in Turkey as
well as one in Syria were identified and used as benchmarks for the bioclimatic ranges
of existent Castanea sites in Lebanon. As such, the Pedoclimatic characteristics of 38 old
semi-wild and more recently planted Lebanese Castanea sites were evaluated and stand
vigor was correlated with physiochemical soil characteristics as well as with site
geographical aspects in part in order to address possible causes of failure at some of the
recently introduced Castanea sites. Several sites in Lebanon were verified to be ideal for
vigorous natural Castanea growth and guidelines for successful growth are presented.
INTRODUCTION
Castanea sativa Mill. is a tree with a large bioclimatic amplitude; growing well under
Atlantic (mild winter/rainy summer), Mediterranean (hot and dry summer), and continental
(harsh winter and hot summer) climatic conditions (Breisch et al, 1995). Two main limiting
factors are coldness and dryness (Borgeois, 1992). Castanea flourishes in the temperature
range between 15 and 18oC. For normal fruit development, a non-fluctuating temperature is
favored (Bretaudeau & Fauré, 1990). The annual water requirement of Castanea is at least
700 mm. In France (Atlantic Pyrenees and Brittany), the more productive populations receive
over 900 mm of precipitation annually (Borgeois, 1992) although excessive rainfall in mal-
drained soils may induce root asphyxiation as well as pollen wash-down. In addition, a
humid spring may induce phytophthora development (De la taille, 1985).
The effect of altitude and aspect on Castanea fructification in a given location
depends on its latitude. In France, the highest yields are obtained in the “Massif Centrale” at
altitudes ranging from 600 to 900 m. Similar yields are obtained at an altitude of 1200 m. on
the Eastern Pyrenees; while further south in Sierra Nevada (Spain), the more prosperous
forests are at an altitude of 1600m. Additionally, northern exposures inhibit early bud break
and avoid early spring frost damage (De la taille, 1985). Castanea sativa is usually
considered a Mediterranean tree, although it has a probable origin lying in the
Turkish/Georgian black sea area (Joukovcky, 1971). While today it thrives in many
cooler/wetter north Mediterranean areas, it appears to have successful adaptation in the
drier/hotter areas of western Turkey (Villani et al, 1999). In Lebanon, no endemic existence
has been found even where climatic and soil conditions are theoretically optimum for
Castanea growth. Furthermore, a casual mention of Castanea in Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon
was reported by Tristram (1834) as a native tree to Asia Minor (Post, 1933). In fact, Chestnut
Palynological pollen studies (Krebs et al, 2004) suggest a past occurrence of Castanea of
“medium probability” in the hilly regions of the eastern Mediterranean coast of Syria and
Lebanon during the last glaciations period. Resin analysis from a second century BC
Egyptian coffin was found to contain Castanea sativa pollen besides other typical east
Mediterranean arboreal species. This may arguably indicate the possible past occurrence of
Castanea somewhere in the North-east Levant (Mariotii & Mercuri 1992). An indirect
indication of the presence of chestnut is its abrupt and probably human–induced
reappearance around 8500 B.P in the Ghab Syrian region (Yasuda et al 2000). It may be
possible to theorize that some 5000-6000 years B.P. the Levant was wetter, cooler in winter
and warmer in summer. Such conditions gave rise to belts of continuous forest along the
middle elevations of the Levantine regions not too far from the Mediterranean Sea. As the
weather started to become drier – this lasting several thousand years (to about 200 B.C.), the
forest shrank considerably and retreated northward and towards higher elevations (Frumbkin
et al, 1991; Wilkinson, 2003; Bottema & Van Zeist, 1981).
As the chestnut is known to benefit from rainfall at bud break and during nut maturity
in the early and late hot season, and since it does not pathologically favor excessive summer
moisture, it is possible that the tree is of a more southerly origin manifested by its tolerance
of a long-dry summer. Villani et al (1999) show that Castanea sativa has actually adapted to
either wet conditions (Pontic Turkey) or relatively drier condition (Aegean and Lycian-
Pisidian Turkey). Additionally there is a hybrid zone (Bythnia) lying in the middle of the
East–west spread. However, as the southerly areas may have in recent times become too dry
for the tree, the regions of Castanea occurrence may have shifted towards higher altitudes.
Arguing that Castanea is in reality a Mediterranean tree, it would be logical to find it
naturally in locations not far from the coast. The current distribution of natural Castanea
stands along the rim of Turkey and into the North-East Mediterranean coastal region (Levant)
are thus of significance. Historic natural Castanea forests are abundant in the Turkish hills
overlooking the Black sea (ca. 41oN). In addition, a significant occurrence is found in
northwest Turkey in a zone extending from near Bursa to a little south and east of Izmir. A
very interesting occurrence, which is probably natural, is found slightly further south in the
Dilek Peninsula where Castanea occurs (together with Bay trees) from sea level up to about
600m on north-facing slopes (Ozenoglu, & Gokler, 2002; UNEP, 2005) All these natural
occurrences are within the climatically regulating influence of the Mediterranean/Aegean
Sea. Furthermore, an inland (Anatolian) occurrence is found just east to south-east of the
previously mentioned cases extending sporadically from semi-dry riverine valleys in the
Afyon area south to Isparta and Burdur where Castanea specimens exceeding 300 years old
abound (Genc et al, 2000). Further south in Turkey, there are no known natural Castanea
populations throughout the Taurus or Amanus mountains largely because these area are
highly calcareous. In Syria, endemic Castanea occurrences have not been fully verified,
although there is a reported population in the Cheene/Bteissa area (34o51’N) on the Syrian
Coastal range just north of Lebanon (Katana, 2001). In Lebanon, no endemic Castanea
existence has been reported even where climatic and soil conditions are optimum although at
several locations on Mount Lebanon aged specimens exist. In an effort that apparently had no
scientific basis, the Lebanese authorities attempted a few years ago to promote Castanea
culture by the importation and free distribution of a large amount of Castanea seedlings.
While the trend worldwide is to discourage non-native species, success of Castanea in
neighboring countries, notably Turkey, may have been the motive. Preliminary information
on the fate of the planted seedlings indicates that success was limited to only a few locations,
probably because of improper suitable site selection.
The historically-driven absence of indigenous Castanea occurrences in regions south
of the Anatolian plateau raises concerns regarding its possible successful growth in Lebanon.
In fact, the only proximate Castanea site occurring in Syria on basaltic soil formations at 800
m altitude, as well as reported sites in Cyprus, were probably introduced in the recent past
(Karzon, 1996). For this reason, this study surveys existing established Castanea sites in
Lebanon, in order to compare the bioclimatic characteristics with those of well-known
Turkish and Syrian sites. This leading to the establishment of appropriate bioclimatic ranges
as well as the assessment of the pedoclimatic characteristics of studied sites in relation to the
requirements of the tree in order to identify suitable areas for the establishment of sustained
successful Castanea culture in Lebanon.

GEOGRAPHY AND LAND COVER OF LEBANON

Lebanon, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean lies between latitudes 33o 03’ 38”
and 34 41’ 35” with two parallel mountain systems: Mount Lebanon running parallel to the
o

sea with a maximum peak of 3088m in the north, and the Anti-Lebanon Range running on
the eastern side peaking at 2826m in the south. Such a situation gives rise in western and
central Mount Lebanon, to yearly precipitation exceeding 1400 mm and averaging about 800
mm. While in the Bekaa valley and on the Anti-Lebanon Range, rainfall is diminished
significantly to 600 mm and even less in the northeast. The Mount Hermon system in the
south Anti-Lebanon benefits, because of reduced westerly rain-shadowing, from somewhat
higher precipitation (about 900mm) than other east Lebanon areas. The mean annual
temperature on the coast is about 20oC lapsing approximately 0.5oC per 100m elevation to
15oC at 1000m altitude. Thus, a transect from the shore-line to the inner Bekaa plain shows a
large climatic variation: the subtropical climate of the narrow coastal plain is followed by a
typical Mediterranean climate in the lower mountain zone, followed by a cold climate in the
mountainous areas, and ending in a sub-desert climate. These zonal variations lead to wide
ecosystem variability within a limited area. Two Mediterranean ensembles: the senso-stricto
and the pre-steppic exist with five levels (including different series of vegetation) being
distinguished (UNEP- MoA, 1996). As a result of its biogeographic characteristics, Lebanon
appears to be the southern limit of a number of arboreal species such as: Cedrus libani, Abies
cilicica, Pinus pinea, Juniperus excelsa, J. foetissima, J. oxycedrus, Quercus libani, Q.
cerris, Q. infectoria, Amelenchier ovalis, Arbutus unedo, Acer hyrcanum,and Alnus orientalis
among others (Quezel, 1981). Some species of a more northern origin, which occur
sporadically from Turkey through west Syria to Lebanon, such as Buxus longifolia, Ostrya
carpinofolia and Fraxinus ornus are indicative relics of a more humid past. In fact,
Rhododendron ponticum occurs only in Northern Turkey and in Lebanon and is not found
elsewhere in the east Mediterranean. Pinus pinea occurrence is also limited to Lebanon and a
few areas in northern, western and south Turkey. Interestingly Pinus pinea, Rhododendron
ponticum and Castanea sativa all thrive in sandstone-based soils (Zohary, 1973).
While the biogeographic conditions in parts of Lebanon may be suitable for
Castanea, there are no natural Castanea occurrences and it appears that Lebanon lies south of
the present “natural southern limit” for this species although many aged specimens are
scattered throughout the high mount. However, this limit may be extended and the possible
success of Castanea growth in Lebanon would thus be related to the degree of coincidence of
its pedoclimatic requirements with conditions in the existent vegetational zones.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Site Characteristics
Thirty-eight (38) sites representing the quasi-totality of known Castanea orchards and
semi-wild stands were identified and visited. In some cases, several sub-sites within the same
area were studied giving a variety of growing conditions and exposures (a total of 47
sampling locations covered). Table 1 shows the sites, their geographic location, annual
precipitation, altitude, site aspect, as well as mother rock type. These sites were described
based on their ecogeographic characteristics including: Altitude, latitude and longitude
obtained using a Global Positioning System (GPS); Precipitation rates, both annual and
monthly taken from Plasard (1972). Site temperatures and solar insolation data were obtained
from the Lebanese metrological service (Service Metrologique du Liban, 1976); Geological
formations and mother rock data were obtained from available geological maps of Lebanon
(Dubertret, 1955); Soil analyses were performed using standard physiochemical procedures
(Ryan et al, 2001) on samples taken at a depth of up to 40 cm. Determinations included:
Calcium carbonate content (active and total), soil texture, pH, organic content, and mineral
content. Soil texture was determined following the USDA diagram (Brady, 1983). pH was
determined using a 2:5 aqueous solution, Organic content by the potassium bichromate
solution in concentrated sulfuric acid method, total calcium by a 2N Hydrochloric acid,
whereas the active calcium content by using a 0.2N Oxalate solution. Phosphorous content
was determined by Olsen’s method, potassium and sodium by flame photometry using a 1N
CH3COONH4 solution, and magnesium and calcium by volumetric analysis using an ETDA
solution. Plant identification in analysis was based on Mouterde (1966) and Tohme & Tohme
(2001). Plant associations of the zones with successful Castanea growth in Lebanon were not
given; however, notable differential species in two select zones were partly discussed; Tree
vigor was estimated by visual inspection by a simple 2-way assessment: vigorous or weak.
Shoot growth, leaf color, relative leaf size, and general tree conditions were observed over a
two/three year growing period. Tree age information was obtained directly by
communication and verification with land owners and neighbors.
Pluviothermic quotients and winter variants determination
The determination of various Mediterranean bioclimates allows quantification of the
requirements of plant species regarding habitat humidity and temperature. The most
frequently used definition of Mediterranean bioclimate is that of Emberger (1954) which
defines the bioclimatic zone in terms of a humidity category, expressed by a quotient (Q2), as
well as the severity of its winter temperature (m). The pluviothermic quotient is evaluated
according to:
2000 P
Q2 = ,
( M + m + 564.24)( M − m)
where P is the total yearly precipitation, M is the mean maximum monthly temperature (oC),
m is the mean minimum monthly temperature (oC). According to Nahal (1981),
Mediterranean climates can be categorized on a “climogram” on the basis of Q2 versus m.
The humidity categories of the Mediterranean bioclimate can thus be classified as being: per-
arid, arid, semi-arid, sub-humid, humid or per-humid for Q2 values that are in the ranges:
<17, 17-30, 30-57, 57-98, 98-150 and >150, respectively at m=0oC. The winter variants of
the categories can be further classified as: very hot, hot, temperate, cool, cold, or very cold
for m values ranging as: >10, 7-10, 3-7, 0-3, -3 to 0 and -7 to -3 oC respectively (see Fig. 2).
The length of the dry season (LDS) is expressed in months, where a dry month is one
where the monthly precipitation is less than twice the mean temperature of the month (in oC)
(Gaussen, 1954). Dry season severity is expressed by the dry season water deficit (DSWD)
found by subtracting potential evapotranspiration from precipitation for a given period
(Lecarpentier, 1975):
DSWD = P − PET , where PET = 0.013n(RS + 50)(T T + 15) , for RH ≥ 50%
where P is the monthly rainfall (mm), PET is the monthly potential evapotranspiration (mm),
T the average monthly temperature, RS the monthly averaged daily solar radiation in cal per
cm2 , RH the monthly average relative humidity (%), and n is the number of days in a month.
This formula is used assuming that the monthly average relative humidity is never less than
50% as is approximately the case in the Levantine region not too far from the sea.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The bioclimatic ranges of Castanea sativa in Lebanon
A map of the Levant is shown in Fig. 1a, including all of Turkey, with the studied
areas indicated; while Fig. 1b shows the Lebanese Castanea sites together with some relevant
detail. The bioclimatic range of the Castanea sites in Lebanon (prefixed with L) are shown in
Fig. 2 located on an Emberger pluviothermic chart. Most chestnut sites in Lebanon fall into
the per-humid pluviothermic category (24 out of 38 sites) and are in the Supra-Mediterranean
bioclimatic zone. However, the sites are mostly clustered into several zones. A number of
sites (14 out of 38) fall into the per-humid/temperate variant. Another grouping appears in the
Per-humid/cold category (Montane-Mediterranean/Tarshish group), while there are 4 sites in
the per-humid/cool category. In addition, 3 sites are humid/hot, 2 humid/cool and one is
humid/cold. There are 3 sub-humid/cool sites, and one site is in the semi-arid/cool category.
On the chart, are placed some notable areas of chestnut natural growth in Turkey
ranging from the Aegean (Dilek peninsula) towards the Black sea (Trabzon) by way of Bursa
and to the south the inland modified Mediterranean area of Isparta. The Black sea coastal/
hill areas from Sinop to Trabzon, while not truly Mediterranean, have climatic features that
may classify as quasi-Mediterranean. In particular, their plant associations include many
Mediterranean types. With their warm wet summers and milder than latitudinally-expected
winters, these areas appear as ideal havens for Castanea. In addition, one location at Bteissa
in Syria (near Lebanon) is placed on the chart and appears bioclimatically close to Tarshish
(Lebanon). Weather data for Turkey and Syria were taken from Karzon (1996), Nahal
(1981), Dufor-Dror & Ertas (2004) and from WeatherbaseSM records
(www.weatherbase.com). Solar intensity data were taken from Al-Mohamad (2004) Aksoy
(1997), Tiris & Tiris ( 1997), Ulgen & Hepbasli (2002) and Sozen & Arcaklioglu (2005).
The Turkish sites include a wide range of successful Castanea occurrences and
arguably may be used as a model for the Northern Levant. As such, the pluviothermic data of
the four Turkish sites were used to generate a best-fit equation. This was best done noting
that the Turkish data had a graphical change of slope feature around an m value of about 2oC
so that the resulting curve fits were as follows:
Q2 ≈ m(7.2m − 15.2) + 84.3 , m ≥ 2 and Q2 ≈ 4.7m + 70.5 ,m < 2
Thus, a Q2 versus m relation is established that may be used to extrapolate to values of Q2
and m that are found in the Lebanon Castanea sites. The resulting curve can be viewed as a
“Castanea isoxere” and is bound by the approximate limits of Q2>50, and –3<m<6 as can be
seen on the climogram. This isoxere may in fact be viewed as the “center-line” bioclimatic
niche trend line of Castanea sativa in the East Mediterranean. In fact, the lower Supra-
Mediterranean cluster (e.g. L3, L4, L5 …) appears to best follow the Turkish Castanea
isoxere and in fact does include very vigorous tree specimens. The Montane-Mediterranean
Tarshish cluster (L6, L25, L35 …), which also includes excellent aging specimens, is
displaced from the Turkish isoxere and falls in the cold-to-cool variant range. This is
interesting because this pluviothermic category is not one in which prominent Turkish
Castanea occurrences are commonly met. However, this does not necessarily mean that such
occurrences do not exist somewhere in Turkey. The relevant issue here is that, in Lebanon,
the per-humid category for Castanea can include ranges from cold through cool to temperate
variants. Lebanese cases to the upper-right of the Turkish isoxere are dry hot sites at low
elevations (L13, L18, and L28).
Table 2 shows the location, pluviothermic data and the approximate age of the oldest
specimens of Castanea for several select Lebanese clustered sites (sites with similar
bioclimatic characteristics) as well as for the Turkish and Syrian sites. The Bcharri (L7) and
Mhaydse (L16) sites appear close on the climogram (in the humid/cool category) although
they are quite different biogeographically. Bcharri is a western-Mount Lebanon Montane
domain adjacent to the historically-famous Cedars of Lebanon (Cedrus Libani) grove. Total
annual precipitation in Bcharri is much higher than in Mhaydse, however, the monthly
minimum temperature is very similar (0o vs. 0.6oC). Mhaydse is a high plateau inland site
with an easterly-southeasterly exposure unique in its characteristics and with drier/hotter
summers. The Mhaydse site is mostly summer drip irrigated and it is not yet known if
success can be achieved without irrigation (e.g. L3). In Western Mountain sites Castanea can
grow naturally with no irrigation if the soil is suitable (see next section): thus, the importance
of dry season assessment fully when considering Castanea sites.
In proximity to Lebanon, the Bteissa Syrian-occurrence is of interest. There, the
yearly calculated pluviothermic quotient is similar to the Montane group (Tarshish/L6 and
others) in Lebanon. However, comparing the Tarshish and Bteissa stations on a monthly and
seasonally-averaged basis reveals some differences. At Bteissa, precipitation exceeds some
stations in Syria that are more northerly and loftier. According to Karzon (1996), the
Akkar/Tell Kalakh plain in northern Lebanon and Syria (see map) appears to direct humid
airflows from a southerly by southwesterly direction thus leading to an enhancement of the
normally westerly by southwesterly precipitation events of the eastern Mediterranean. Indeed
this phenomena appears similar, although less intense, to the well-known (Etesian) effect of
the Adana/Iskendrun plain on the Amanus above Dortyol in Turkey. There, the channeling
effect produces locally intense precipitation events in late spring and late summer that lead to
unusually high precipitation amounts and results in a singular abundance of highly
mesophilic arboreal species (e.g. Carpinus spp. and Tilia spp.) The majority of the
investigated sites in Lebanon were located in lower to true supra-Mediterranean zones (e.g.
L3/L4/L5 cluster) and Montane-Mediterranean zones (Tarshish L6/L24/L35 cluster) and are
in thriving semi-wild conditions. These sites were either along the projected Turkish isoxere
or were in the per-humid cool-to-cold range and included the Syrian Bteissa location.
Mean monthly pluviothermic data are given in Fig. 3, centered on the summer months
for some of the studied sites. The Tarshish (L6) Lebanese prime site has a lower monthly Q2
value for the late summer and very early fall period. While this raises some concern
regarding quality nut development, this deficit apparently does not create any undue stress as
evidenced by the robust and vigorous growth and by sustained significant nut production in
that zone. Interestingly, in Turkey, in the Afyon area (just north of Isparta), wild Castanea
occurrences are found as riparian specimens along summer-dry streams (Karioglu, undated).
This indicates that in areas where the warm/hot season becomes more pronounced, dry
season water requirement can only be met in very limited situations. As a result, Castanea
may flourish in areas that have a reasonably moist (but not wet) soil in summer. Since
Castanea growth is influenced by dry-season conditions, it is therefore necessary to evaluate
the Length of the dry season (LDS) and the severity of the dry season expressed by the “dry
season water deficit” (DSWD) for the investigated sites as compared to the Turkish sites.
These parameters are included in Table 2 for select groups of Lebanese stations as contrasted
to the Turkish and Syrian sites. The Lebanese sites appear generally similar to the Turkish
sites with the exception of Trabzon. Trabzon, although not of true Mediterranean character is
included since it has excellent Castanea stands starting at sea level and thriving up to
elevations of a few hundred meters. The occurrence of Mediterranean enclaves in the black
sea region of Turkey (Trabzon-Artvin) containing Pinus pinea is of significance. Here, in
very close but quite different areas of microclimate and mother rock conditions, there emerge
suddenly extensive Castanea forests (Varol et al, 2003). It is noted here, that Castanea sativa
growing in the Colchic-Euxine region (Trabzon) area was shown by Villani et al (1999) to be
genetically distinct from those of the western Turkish populations. In fact, the western
Turkish populations are considered to have adapted to the summer drought conditions
(Lauteri et al, 1999). This is significant with respect to the possibility of Castanea success in
Lebanon which is more similar climatically to the western populations in Turkey. Amongst
the sites listed in Table 2, Mhaydse (L16) has the greatest length and severity of the dry
season (6 months). This site is in a somewhat continental region with a relatively large
temperature amplitude and with lower precipitation than the sites on the west Mount Lebanon
range. As such, the LDS and DSWD values for this site are taken to be out of the range for
true Naturalization of Castanea in Lebanon and requiring summer irrigation. As a result of
this and of observation of natural Castanea growth in other sites, it is stipulated that the LDS
should be less than 5 month and DSWD should be no more than about 630 mm. (Dilek,
Turkey value). In general, although dry season rainfall is less in all the Mount Lebanon areas,
they seem candidate to be excellent Castanea areas provided the soils are suitable. This is
typified by the Tarshish (L6) group which has per-humid/cool-to cold characteristics and rich
C1 soils. Some sites seem to be bioclimatically similar to the Dilek case and given that this
occurrence is on a northern exposure, it is probable that in these areas more attention would
have to given to exposure, shading and dry season soil humidity. Thus, successful Castanea
plantation in Lebanon must be on suitable soils, northern exposures or utilize stocks
originating in drought-tolerant zones or else irrigation would need to be practiced.
Soil tolerance for Castanea sativa
Physiochemical soil analysis complements the bioclimatic studies which alone cannot
predict success notably for calcifuge species like Castanea. In fact, recommendations on soil
for good chestnut culture are somewhat variable although widely accepted characteristics are
(Bounous & Beccaro (2002)): volcanic origin, light textured, fertile, acidic (pH 5.0 to 6.5),
and well drained. Poorly drained clay soils are avoided as these facilitate the spread of ink
disease (phytophthora spp.). Suitable soil texture is one with a clay fraction less than 25%, a
fine silt fraction less than 30% , and a coarse fraction between 12 -30% (Breisch et al , 1995).
In addition, it has been suggested that chlorosis of calcifuge species in calcareous soils is due
to the fact that in calcium substrates (such as soils derived from limestone parent rock), iron
becomes insoluble as a consequence of the resulting high pH leading to the inability of the
plant to produce chlorophyll (Cottle, 2004). In general, the availability of the major plant
nutrients is highly influenced by the soil pH. As a result, it is argued that the upper bound on
Calcium carbonate tolerance in Castanea is in the range of 4 to 8%. However, values up to
about 22% may be tolerated if the Potassium content is high (e.g. 6%) (Karzon, 1996). While
the optimal pH is usually 6 – 6.5, higher values may be tolerated as long as the Carbonate
content is low. In general, basaltic soils seem to fulfill these requirements having carbonate
contents that are middle range (circa 10 %) although other soils may also be suitable.
Soil characteristics depend on the mother rock they were derived from. This is true
for both physical (texture, structure) and chemical (soil nutrients) characteristics. The
Castanea stands that were investigated were located on 4 essential soil types in the following
percentages: 35% on sandy lower cretaceous formations (C1), 40% on hard limestone
formations (C4 and J6), 10% on basaltic soil (B), 10% on tertiary alluvium-colluvium soil
(AC) and only 5% on marl soil (M). All samples from the investigated sites were analyzed in
order to determine the soil nutrient content (N, P, K, Ca, and Mg). A variance analysis
(ANOVA) was performed in order to establish the effect of soil nutritional elements on tree
growth vigor. Thus, stand vigor was categorized into 3 levels: vigorous (3), moderate (2), and
weak (1) and was subsequently connected to 5 levels of soil nutrient abundance: very low,
low, medium, high, and very high (Bashour & Sayegh, 2001). Table 3 presents the results of
the variance analysis and shows that only calcium carbonate content and soil texture are
highly correlated with tree vigor (LSD values of 0.05 and 0.001 respectively).
The majority of the soils had a pH ranging broadly from 6.4 to as high as 7.8. The
organic content varied from 2 to 4%. The total Carbonate content ranged from 2% (L12) to a
high of 82% (L32). In general, most sites had relatively low carbonate contents rarely
exceeding 30-40% and usually (34 out of 38 sites) less than 20%. The vigor of the
populations was seen to be correlated to the carbonate content with the best vigor usually
found for the low carbonate stands irrespective of the pH value (L2/L3/L4 sites for example).
In fact, active carbonate content analysis showed that indeed sites (such as L2/L3/L4) with
low active carbonate contents were quite vigorous although pH values were above 7.
Interestingly, the Castanea sites at Ajaltoun (L14-1/2) on J6 soil with elevated carbonate
content were found to have high potassium content. The average-to-high vigor of the
specimens at those sites was found to be consistent with the reported effect of potassium in
alleviating calcium carbonate tolerance. In fact, calcium carbonate tolerance is observed to be
higher in areas with dry conditions at maximum temperature stress conditions (summer). As
a result, it is likely that Castanea variants adapted to true Mediterranean dry-summer
conditions may be more tolerant to calcium stress.
To determine general land suitability for Castanea plantation, the 38 Castanea sites
investigated were divided into two categories: vigorous and weak, according to tree growth
(shoot growth) and appearance (leaf color). Each category was further subdivided into: old
neglected wild sites and newly planted orchards (≤ 15 years). Table 4 shows the pedoclimatic
and geographic (repeated here for comparison purposes) characteristics of all studied stands.
From the table, it can be seen that all old wild stands with apparent vigorous growth are in
regimes with precipitation exceeding 1000 mm. Additionally, all these sites are on light
textured soils of lower cretaceous geologic formations. Even the three sites which happen to
be on Jurassic or cretaceous hard limestone formations (L7, L15, L26) have very well
leached soils with calcium carbonate content generally less than 17%. All these sites lie in
the Supra-Mediterranean bioclimatic zone with altitudes surpassing 800 m. Although
Castanea is said to enjoy humid northerly exposures, it is apparent that at such high altitudes
aspect is no longer a limiting factor with equally successful growth on both north and south
aspects. In these old sites, common typical plant species were encountered as indicative of
the natural plant cover. These, mostly calcifuge, included: Pteridium aquilinium, Cistus
salvifoliuss, Rosa canina, Lupinus digitatus, Cytisus syriacus, Lavandula stoechas , Erica
manipuliflora , and Rubus tomentosus. In addition, the area contains vigorous Pinus pinea
groves with sporadic occurrences of Rhododendron ponticum (rare), Arbutus unedo, Quercus
infectoria and Juniperus oxycedrus. At higher elevations (over 1300m), some of these
species such as Pinus pinea disappear while others such as Berberis libanotica gradually
emerge. Continuous anthropological pressures have in fact resulted in severely degraded
plant cover evidenced by the widespread presence of cisto-micrometia shrub associations.
Newly planted vigorous Castanea orchards were assessed in a similar manner in
order to identify optimum growth conditions as compared to the old established vigorous
sites. The geographic and pedoclimatic characteristics of the newly planted orchards with
vigorous growth are largely seen to be similar to the old wild vigorous sites. The two
exceptions (sites L8 and L16), located east of the main Mount Lebanon range and bordering
on the sub-humid/cool bioclimatic zone, have the lowest precipitation of 750 mm. In fact, it
is observed that with irrigation (practiced sparingly at L8 and L16), site aspect is not an
important factor. In a further attempt to investigate the weakness of some old Castanea sites,
tgeographic and pedoclimatic characteristics of these are also presented in Table 4. In
similarity to the previously discussed vigorous cases (both old and newly planted), these
weak sites benefit from sufficient humidity resulting from high precipitation and northerly
exposures. The apparent weak growth may therefore be attributed to the soil conditions
represented by highly calcareous content (L1, L32, L36) and poorly draining clay silt soils
(L33, L24-2). The weak tree growth condition at site L11 requires further investigation. The
characteristics of the weak newly planted Castanea orchards are also shown in Table 4. The
weak growth of Castanea trees at these sites can be attributed to several factors: Low
precipitation at sites L20, L21, L28, L29, L17; high calcium carbonate content at sites L14-2,
L20, L21, L22, L23, L26-1, L27, L30 and L34; and poorly draining soils (clayey) at sites
L14-2, L21, L23, L27, L17, L30 and L34. From a lithological point of view, it is apparent
that only two (out of 14 sites) are on sandy C1 lower cretaceous formations while others are
on hard limestone formations. In addition, the site aspect is mostly south or flat (8 out of 14
sites). Combining all the aforementioned factors, and in accordance with the law of the
minimum, the apparent tree growth weakness at these sites can be understood.
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND OBSERVATIONS
The near absence of natural Castanea stands in Lebanon may at first glance lead to
the conclusion that climatic and soil conditions have historically been and are still not
suitable for chestnut growth. This is interesting since in Turkey, in areas with bioclimatic and
soil conditions identical to many Lebanese sites and with numerous similar plant
associations, Castanea abounds and thrives naturally. This leads to the notion that a natural
southern limit exists and that Castanea has not penetrated below this limit in the recent past.
Nevertheless, this work shows that indeed Lebanon abounds in suitable locations for
vigorous Castanea growth in both semi-wild or in orchard conditions. The characteristics of
existent Castanea populations in Lebanon were presented and studied from a bioclimatic,
lithological and soil point of view. These populations were found to lie in 9-10 bioclimatic
ranges with the most successful populations, however, found in the temperate to cold winter
variant zones and the sub-humid, humid and per-humid categories. A Castanea-isoxere
representing the bioclimatic niche trend line of Castanea sativa in the East Mediterranean
was generated based on four prominent Turkish Castanea occurrences as well as one Syrian
population. Vigorous Lebanese Castanea sites were found to be mostly placed on the
climogram in three groups. The first group were clustered at consistently extrapolated values
along the Turkish isoxere – these sites were western Supra-Mediterranean Mount Lebanon
zones, the second Lebanese group were the Montane-Mediterranean per-humid/cool-to-cold
high altitude sites which were located well “off” the isoxere, and the third group were the
high inland plateau sites which fell along the Turkish isoxere with similar annual
pluviothermic values. The first two sites emerged as truly suitable for natural semi-wild
Castanea growth, whereas interestingly, the third group was found to require supplemental
summer irrigation. Tree vigor observations performed at all sites and correlated to
geographic, climatic and soil conditions gave preliminary best success conditions for
Castanea growth in Lebanon as follows:1.Local Bioclimatic requirements (a) Annual
Pluviothermic quotient: For Supra-Mediterranean sites and inland sites,
Q2 ≈ m(7.2m − 15.2) + 84.3 , m ≥ 2 . However, in the case of per-humid Montane-
Mediterranean sites, Q2 ≥ 150 and m ≤ 2 . The general bounding range was 50 < Q2 < 220 and
–3< m <7. (b) Dry season aspects: The length of the dry season (LDS) and the dry-season
water deficit (DSWD): LDS ≤ 5 months and/or DSWD ≤ 630 mm 2.Soil requirements: Most
suitable lands for Castanea growth in Lebanon are those with a sandy lithology or else with
well-leached quaternary alluvium-colluvium deposits; Marl and limestone-based soils are to
be avoided. Light textured sandy well-drained soil had the best growth in old as well as
newly planted orchards. The limits on calcium carbonate and pH are found to be as follows:
CaCO3 (Total) < 10.0 % or CaCO3 (Active) < 1.0 %, and/or pH < 7.4. 3.Site aspect: At
elevations below 1000 m, north and north-east exposure appear optimal. However, above this
altitude all exposures are equally viable.

Acknowledgments
Thanks go to Dr. Lamis Chalak, Dr. Talal Darwish, Dr. Samih El Hajj, Dr. Ghaleb Faour, Dr.
Saab Abi Saab, Dr. Mahmoud Choufi, Mr. Wehbe Abu Faour, and Mr. Elie Matar. This work
was supported in part by the Lebanese National Council for Scientific Research.

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Table 1. Chestnut (Castanea) sites in Lebanon.
No. Site P (mm) Lat. (N) Long.(E) Alt. (m) Exposure Lithology
L1 Bikfaya 1250 33 55 09 35 40 43 904 NW-N C1
L2 Karnayel 1250 33 50 57 35 43 41 1180 SW C1
L3 Salima 1150 33 52 15 35 41 44 885 N C1
L4 Ras El Matn 1050 33 51 00 35 39 60 810 NE C1
L5 Deir El Harf 1150 33 51 00 35 41 40 780 NE C1
L6-1 Tarshish 1250 33 52 29 35 50 18 1711 SE C1
L6-2 Tarshish 1250 33 52 13 35 49 08 1642 N-NW C1
L6-3 Tarshish 1250 33 52 55 35 49 42 1618 N-NE C1
L6-4 Tarshish 1250 33 52 42 35 50 14 1758 NE C1
L7-1 Bcharri 1050 34 15 04 36 00 35 1394 SE-S C4
L7-2 Bcharri 1050 34 42 09 36 00 30 1397 SE-S C4
L8 Ali El Nahri 700 33 52 11 36 01 43 961 Flat AC
L9 Aintoura/Metn 1350 33 53 51 35 48 57 1577 SE-S C1
L10 Khinchara 1350 33 55 24 35 44 22 1200 NW-N C1
L11 El Dimane 1150 34 14 36 35 56 59 1423 NW-N B
L12 Baskinta 1350 33 56 37 35 46 40 1196 E-SE C1
L13 Shayle 1050 33 57 39 35 39 44 626 SW-W J6
L14-1Ajaltoun 1150 33 58 06 35 41 49 890 SE-E J6
L14-2Ajaltoun 1150 33 57 57 35 41 03 886 S-SW J6
L15 Mayrouba 1450 34 01 02 35 46 28 1304 E-SE J6
L16 Mhaydse 750 33 33 10 35 47 30 1175 E-SE AC
L17 Ain Kanya 650 33 21 53 35 47 30 1228 SW C4
L18 Mimes 950 33 25 06 35 42 34 689 SW-W C1
L19 Ain Dara 1350 33 46 40 35 43 20 1234 Flat C1
L20 Maaser 600 34 28 16 36 20 54 1192 NE-E J6
L21 Btedeei 550 34 06 56 36 20 22 1078 E-SE AC
L22 Chatine 1450 34 11 03 35 53 11 1552 N-NE J6
L23 Balaa 1450 34 10 24 35 52 25 1529 NE-E J6
L24-1Kfarzebiane 1350 33 59 11 35 45 38 1342 Flat J6
L24-2Kfarzebiane 1350 33 59 19 35 46 01 1366 SE-S B
L24-3Kfarzebiane 1350 34 00 00 35 47 00 1466 NW-N C1
L25-1Hadas El Jebbe 1150 34 14 12 35 55 41 1473 E C1
L25-2Hadas El Jebbe 1150 34 14 48 35 55 45 1441 Flat C1
L26-1Hasroun 1150 34 14 33 35 58 45 1369 NW J6
L26-2Hasroun 1150 34 14 28 35 58 53 1393 NW J6
L27 Deir El Kamar 1050 33 42 09 35 34 13 962 Flat C4
L28 Klayaa 850 33 19 52 35 34 06 650 Flat C4
L29 Deir El Ahmar 550 34 06 32 36 06 55 1010 SE-S AC
L30 Lehfed 1450 34 10 20 35 46 20 1100 NW M
L31 Mazraat Sayyad 1450 34 10 20 35 51 12 1210 N-NE B
L32 Kartaba 1450 34 05 40 35 50 40 1580 N-NE M
L33 Aanaya 1350 34 06 60 35 45 00 1225 N-NE J6
L34 Ehmej 1450 34 07 80 35 47 40 1212 N-NE J6
L35 Laqlouq 1600 34 09 60 35 53 40 1744 N-NE B
L36 Maad 1050 34 11 45 35 40 57 509 NW J6
L37 Chanay 1150 33 47 28 35 33 56 1146 SW-W C2a
L38 Houka 1150 34 07 02 35 33 56 1185 N C1
Altitudes obtained at site by GPS. Lithology: C1: Sandy lower cretaceous, C4 : Calcareous cretaceous, J6:
Jurassic hard limestone, AC: Alluvium-colluvium, B: Basaltic, M: Marl, C2a: Upper lower cretaceous.
Table 2. Climatic, altitudinal and maximum specimen age characteristics in prominent
groups of Lebanese Castanea sites compared to Turkish and Syrian occurrences.
Location P m M Q2 LDS DSWD Altitude Age
(mm) (oC) (oC) (months) (mm) (m) (years)
Lebanon
(L6/L24/L35)
Tarshish/ 1250 to −1 to 23.2 200 4 438 1342 to 60
Laqlouq/ 1450 −0.5 1744
Kferzebiane
(L3/L4/L5)
Ras El Matn/ 1050 to 4.2 to 27.5 164 5 592 780 to 80
Salima/ 1150 4.5 885
Deir El Harf
(L7)
Bcharri 1050 0.0 25 139 4 406 1395 100
(L16)
Mhaydse 739 0.8 29.7 86 6 675 1175 10

Turkey
Bursa 649 1.5 30 76 4 387 100-300 -
Isparta 560 −2 29 61 4 378 1100 350*
Dilek 777 2.5 31 91 5 629 300-800 -
Trabzon 838 3.7 26 127 2 272 100-600 -

Syria
Bteissa 1555 0.6 27.9 192 4 545 600-800 40*
* reflects generally available information on ages – there may be a few older specimens

Table 3. Influence of soil parameters on tree growth.

Parameters Classes Probability
K (ppm) 0-85 86- 170 171-300 301-500 >500 0.158
Mean ± Std 3.00 ± 0.0 2.66 ± 0.81 2.00 ± 0.86 2.00 ± 0.94 2.30 ± 0.67
Ca (ppm) 0-500 501-1200 1201-2500 2501-3500 > 3500 0.173
Mean ± Std 2.25 ± 0.00 2.80 ± 0.63 2.00 ± 0.89 2.28 ± 0.75 2.16 ± 0.85
Mg (ppm) 0-85 86-200 201-300 301-500 > 500 0.333
Mean ± Std 2.50 ± 1.00 2.44 ± 0.88 2.71 ± 0.48 1.92 ± 0.86 2.28 ± 0.95
P (ppm) 0-7 8-15 16 -30 31-50 > 50 0.872
Mean ± Std 2.25 ± 0.95 2.25 ± 0.95 2.54 ± 0.68 2.30 ± 0.94 2.16 ± 0.83
Organic
Matter (%) < 0.5 0.5-1.0 1.1-2.0 2.1-3.0 >3.0 0.579
Mean ± Std 3.00± 0.00 2.31 ± 0.55 2.46 ± 0.66 2.33 – 0.88 2.13 – 0.91
CaCO3 (%) 0-10 11-30 31-50 > 50 - 0.05
Mean* ± Std 2.50 ± 0.70 2.22 ± 0.97 1.50 ± 0.54 1.12 ± 1.00 -
c bc b a
Soil Texture Gross Moderate Very fine Fine - 0.001
Mean* ± Std 2.87 ± 0.34 2.00 ± 1.00 2.06 ± 0.88 1.70 ± 0.67 -
b ab ab a
*Means followed by a common subscript are not significantly different at 0.05
Table 4. Growth vigor assessment at old growth chestnut occurrences and new orchards
Old wild occurrences Newly planted orchards
Site Elev Prec Asp Lith Carb Text Site Elev Prec Asp Lith Carb Text
L3 885 1150 NW- C1 3.0 SL L6-2 1642 1250 N- C1 3.0 LAS
N NW
L5 780 1150 NE C1 5.0 LAS L9 1577 1350 SE- C1 4.0 SL
S
L6-1 1711 1250 SE C1 3.0 SL L16 1175 750 E- AC 10.0 LAS
SE
L7-2 1397 1050 SE- C4 17.0 SL L8 961 700 Flat AC 8.0 AS
S
L10 1200 1350 NW- C1 6.0 SL L25- 1473 1150 E C1 5.0 LS
Vigorous growth

N 1
L12 1196 1350 E- C1 2.0 SL L35 1744 1600 N- B 5.0 AL
SE NE
L15 1304 1450 E- J6 7.0 L L4 810 1050 NE C1 2.0 LAS
SE
L19 1234 1350 Flat C1 4.0 LAS L37 1146 1150 SW- C2a 10.0 AL
W
L26- 1393 1150 NW J6 11.0 L L38 1185 1150 N C1 10.0 AL
2
L31 1210 1450 N- B 10.0 L L2 1180 1250 SW C1 4.0 SL
NE
L24- 1342 1350 Flat J6 4.0 LS - - - - - - -
1
L24- 1466 1350 NW- C1 5.0 S - - - - - -
3 N
L1 904 1250 NW- C1 31.0 SL L14- 886 1150 S- J6 19.0 A
N 2 SW
L24- 1366 1350 SE- B 6.0 LAS L25- 1441 1150 Flat C1 5.0 LS
2 S 2
L11 1423 1150 N- B 5.0 LS L20 1192 600 NE- J6 12.0 LAS
NE E
L32 1580 1450 N- M 82.0 L L21 1078 550 E- AC 18.0 AL
NE SE
L33 1225 1350 N- J6 7.0 A L22 1552 1450 N- J6 30.0 L
NE NE
L36 509 1050 NW J6 45.0 LAS L23 1369 1150 NE- J6 36.0 AL
N
Weak growth

- - - - - - - L26- 1369 1150 NW J6 20.0 SL

1
- - - - - - - L27 962 1050 Flat C4 44.0 AL

- - - - - - - L28 650 850 Flat C4 5.0 LAS

- - - - - - - L29 1010 550 SE- AC 9.0 LAS

S
- - - - - - - L18 689 950 SW- C1 7.0 LS
W
- - - - - - - L17 1228 650 SW C4 5.0 A

- - - - - - - L30 1100 1450 NW M 44.0 AL

- - - - - - - L34 1212 1450

N- J6 25.0 AL
NE
* Elev: elevation (masl), Prec: annual precipitation (mm), Asp: Aspect, Lith: Soil Lithology, Carb: Total
soil calcium carbonate content (%), Text: Soil texture.
Figure 1a Northern Levant with Castanea occurrences. Shown for reference, are the approximate
areas of Cedrus libani/Abies cilicica (black) as well as Castanea sativa (grey).

Fig. 1b Castanea sites (prefixed with L) with some major geobotanical features in Lebanon.
 210 L15
L23 L34
L6 L35 L22
L2
L13
L24 L33 L37
Per-humid 190 Bteissa L1

Humid
L12 L27
L36
L14
L32
170 L38 L3 L5
L25 L4
L30
L26

150
L18 L28

L7

Sub-humid
130 Trabzon

110
L17 L16

Dilek
90
Bursa

Semi-arrid
L20

L8
Isparta 70 L21

L29
50

Arid
30

Per-arid
Cold Cool Temperate Hot Very hot
10
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Fig. 2 Q2 versus m for Lebanese Castanea sites shown on a Pluviothermic climogram (prefixed
with “L”). Also shown are four Turkish Castanea occurrences (box) and one Syrian occurrence
(diamond). A Castanea isoxere is drawn by interpolation and extrapolation of the Turkish data.

30
Pluviothermic Quotient
Monthly mean

20

Tarshish
10
Trabzon
Dilek
Bteissa
0
November

December
March

June

September

October
January

February

May

July
April

August

Fig. 3 Monthly averaged pluviothermic values during the high-sun season (summer) for the best
Lebanese site (Tarshish) compared to Turkish (Trabzon, Dilek) and Syrian (Bteissa) site.

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