Eva Debreceni

W1629021
Word count: 1594

Divorce always has a negative effect on children

A foundation of a healthy child is a stable family. This small unit of people teaches important skills,
moral values and appropriate behaviour, which then serve as a basis for development. Any
disruption or maladaptive circumstances can change this progression; therefore, it is crucially
important to always seek for the best interest of the child. The literature says, that separation from
the parents or one of the parent always has a negative effect on children (Amato et al., 2000).
However, there are some cases that split up is truly inevitable, such as neglect or abuse. Parting can
occur for various reasons, such as parental death, divorce, migration of one parent, military service,
and incarceration. The aim of this essay to discuss the effects of divorce, resilience, and mediating
circumstances.

Divorce is a synonym for change, as it is the cause of many new environmental and emotional
circumstances that come with the separation. These new circumstances can be a shift of residence, a
sudden decline in the standard of living, changing relationship with parents, which can lead to
impaired caregiving from stressed parents, or decrease in parental supervision (Cherlin et al., 1991).
Divorce is the cause of many externalising behaviours, such as substance abuse or fighting,
( Lansford et al., 2006; Martinez & Forgatch, 2002; Sun, 2001) internalising behaviour, like
depression, anxiety( Amato, 2001; Cavanagh, 2008; Lansford et al., 2006; Strohschein, 2005), lower
academic achievement (Lansford et al., 2006; Potter, 2010; Sun & Li, 2001) as well as lower levels of
well-being (Amato, 2001; Amato & Keith, 1991; Kelly & Emery, 2003). Children cope with divorce in
different ways, usually with insecurity, loss of self-esteem, anger or repressed feelings (McCullogh,
2009). Blaming the self is not rare accompanied by depression, aggression and withdrawn behaviour
(Faber & Wittenborn). These effects become common feelings as children experience a chaotic
environment in their daily lives, their parents show less emotional support, their routine changes.
They often find themselves in the middle of a parental argument, sometimes forced to pick sides,
which can be quite stressful.

Although these feelings are by no means universal. Children vary a great deal in their level of
resilience, with one child coming out from divorce as a winner of the situation, and other kids might
end up with emotional and developmental difficulties (Rutter, 1987). It is possible that social support
and positive experiences may serve as a protective factor and increase children`s well-being. Farber
& Egeland (1984) found that children who were abused but securely attached to a caregiver or
sibling were less vulnerable to the effects of abuse when they were a few months old. They were
also found to have a better problem-solving skill in stressful situations than insecurely attached
children. Wallerstein and Kelley (1980) and Hetherington et al., (1989) noted similar characteristics
in children who were resilient to parental separation. These kids were more socially mature than
their peers, and they were able to distant themselves from their parent`s arguments, creating
routines and order in their lives. Another protective factor is psychobiologic variations in stress
susceptibility, that makes children either vulnerable or resistant to pain. Low cardiovascular
reactivity for example found to be a mediating factor as it made preschool children less vulnerable to
injury under high stress, and high cardiovascular reactivity caused opposite effects in preschool
children (Boyce, Chesney, Kaiser, Alkon-Leonard & Tschann, 1992). In middle childhood both
resilient boys and girls possessed a number of strength such as they were liked by peers and adults,
they demonstrated an internal locus of control, which is their belief that they were able to influence
their environment positively, their coping strategy was flexible in adversity, and they displayed
assertiveness and high levels of achievement orientation (Radke, Yarrow and Brown, 1993).
In contrast individuals with a history of neglect or disruptive interpersonal experiences, are possible
to develop insecure expectations, such as others will not be available when needed. A similar
suggestion found in Bowlby`s attachment theory, what suggests attachment styles are based on the
quality of relationship people had in their lives (Bowlby, 1969, 1982). Allison and Furstenberg (1989)
suggest that parental divorce have more negative effects if it takes place in early childhood, rather
than later in adolescence. One explanation could be the sensitive period hypothesis, in which
individuals might be more responsive to environmental context early in their life rather than later in
life for several reasons (e.g. in early childhood the nervous system is more plastic, early experiences
are seen as a foundation on which future experiences are compared) (Fraley et al., 2013). Although
some would argue that events that took place more recently have the more influential effect than
events that occurred long ago.

A British longitudinal study found that divorce before the age of 10 is a major predictor of
delinquency in adolescence and criminality in later adulthood. (Farrington, 1990). It might be that
divorce caused a substantial amount of stress, depression or anger in little children and they coped
with withdrawal from social situations, developing an antisocial behaviour. According to Breivik and
Olweus (2006) adolescents coming from divorced families, show more violent and antisocial
behaviour than those from stable marriages. But antisocial behaviour is not enough to predict
delinquency, there are many antisocial kids who develop to be normal, healthy adults who simply
enjoy solitude. The literature is inconsistent about the findings, as well as it is very difficult to test
this because researchers can never match all factors in terms of divorce effects and child outcomes.
In theory, associating with deviant peers and ineffective parenting styles are the main cause of
adolescent delinquency and early arrests (Patterson, 2009). After separation parental stress or
depression, disrupts parenting styles, parents fail to have enough patience or adequate time to
spend with their children. Parenting style shifts from nurturing to coercive through negative
reinforcement, which in return will cause the child to be coercive as well with his peers. Peers
answer in rejecting the coercive kid, that leads to increased engagement with deviant peers.
(Dishion, Bullock, & Granic, 2002). The pattern is always the same.

Coercive parenting styles are very likely to be present in the most disadvantaged families, where
parents have lower socioeconomic status, and these marriages also have higher tendency to divorce
(Patterson, 1989). These families are usually living in areas where poverty influenced delinquency is
very common in the neighbourhood. Low financial income has also been associated with higher risk
to mental health problems, that predispose marital dissolution (Strohschein, L., 2005). Families with
a parental mental health problem or domestic violence put the child at great risk, and they must be
protected, or taken away from these toxic environments, where highly intensive conflicts are
present on a daily basis. Kids who are exposed to intensive conflicts regularly, from early childhood,
have a higher risk to develop antisocial behaviour, and they are more likely to become deviant in
adolescence, and criminals in adulthood.

Interestingly children whose families had higher income prior to divorce experienced fewer
internalising problems than children from families with lower income (Cherlin, 1991). Thus,
socioeconomic status appears to decrease the negative effects from the child, as in father`s monthly
payment of child support improves children`s economic status, wellbeing, as well as enhance their
health status and educational achievement (Amato et al., 1999). Another mediating factor was a
supportive and stimulating environment as well as efficient co-parenting (Ahrons, C. R., 2007).
Applying consistent rules and disciplines and reducing the number of quarrels certainly seem a huge
improvement, demonstrating that a good functioning family can work after divorce. When parents
had a cooperative relationship, teenagers experienced fewer behaviour problems and more positive
relationships with their parents and relatives such as grandparents stepparents and siblings (Amato
& Gilbreth, 1999). When father`s relationship with children deteriorated, it affected the child
relationships with their grandparents, stepmother and stepsiblings in a negative way. Father-child
relationships were determined by close emotional bonds and authoritative parenting, these two
factors were a positive mediator for children`s academic achievement (Amato & Gilbreth, 1999).
However, when fathers failed to be authoritative, effects disappeared. Thus, children benefit from
non-resident fathers emotional support, discipline, praise achievement, and support in academic
achievement.

To conclude, children from divorced families experience more behaviour problems than their peers
from stable marriages, and these problems are quite enduring. Separation from a parent in early
childhood found to be one of the reasons for adolescence delinquency, accompanied by inadequate
parenting style, low supervision and low socioeconomic status. Children exhibit depression, anxiety
or withdrawn behaviour as their lives become more chaotic, following with new circumstances to
adjust which can be quite stressful for both parents and children. This finding suggests that it is not
the divorce that is harmful to children it is the accompanying circumstances, which can be mediated
by interventions. Helping separated parents to create a supportive and stimulating environment
increase children`s well-being. Another protective factor against divorce is resilience, certain
personality traits were recognized in the most stress resistant kids. Better outcomes were identified
for children, when high conflict marriages separate, an escape from an intense and unresolvable
conflict that release them from a toxic environment. The so-called `good divorces` are the ones in
which children can maintain close relationships with both parents, their extended relatives, and
when parents can efficiently cooperate (Ahrons, C. R., 2007). Children are protected by their
characteristics and their close social relationships with their parents, peers or close relatives.
References

Abidoye, R. A. (1990). Nutrition Deprivation—Another Correlate in the Development of

Juvenile Delinquency. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 2(2), 151-156.

Ahrons, C. R. (2007). Family ties after divorce: Long‐term implications for children. Family
process, 46(1), 53-65.

Al Gharaibeh, F. M. (2015). The Effects of Divorce on Children: Mothers’ Perspectives in

UAE. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 56(5), 347-368.

Allison, P. D., & Furstenberg, F. F. (1989). How marital dissolution affects children:
variations by age and sex. Developmental Psychology, 25(4), 540.

Amato, P. R. (2000). The consequences of divorce for adults and children. Journal of
marriage and family, 62(4), 1269-1287.

Amato, P. R., & Anthony, C. J. (2014). Estimating the effects of parental divorce and death
with fixed effects models. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76(2), 370-386.

Amato, P. R., & Gilbreth, J. G. (1999). Nonresident fathers and children's well-being: A
meta-analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 557-573.

Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and peer attachment:
Individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence.
Journal of youth and adolescence, 16(5), 427-454.

Beckmeyer, J. J., Coleman, M., & Ganong, L. H. (2014). Postdivorce coparenting typologies
and children's adjustment. Family Relations, 63(4), 526-537.

Breivik, K., & Olweus, D. (2006). Adolescent's adjustment in four post-divorce family
structures: Single mother, stepfather, joint physical custody and single father families.
Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 44(3-4), 99-124.

Brennan, K. A., & Shaver, P. R. (1994). Attachment styles and parental divorce. Journal of
Divorce & Remarriage, 21(1-2), 161-176.

Brown, S. D., & Reimer, D. A. (1984). Assessing attachment following divorce:

Development and psychometric evaluation of the Divorce Reaction Inventory. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 31(4), 520.

Cherlin, A. J., Furstenberg, F. F., Chase-Lansdale, L., Kiernan, K. E., Robins, P. K.,
Morrison, D. R., & Teitler, J. O. (1991). Longitudinal studies of effects of divorce on
children in Great Britain and the United States. Science, 252(5011), 1386-1389.

Clegg, R. T. (2015). Father-Daughter Dance: The Transference of Attachment Styles from

Parent to Partner Among African-American Daughters (Doctoral dissertation, Howard
University).
Dare, P. S., & Mallett, C. A. (2009). Parental divorce: A protection from later delinquency
for maltreated children. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 50(6), 388-399.

Egeland, B., & Farber, E. A. (1984). Infant-mother attachment: Factors related to its
development and changes over time. Child development, 753-771.

Esmaeili, N. S., & Yaacob, S. N. (2011). Post-divorce parental conflict and adolescents’
delinquency in divorced families. Asian Culture and History, 3(2), 34.

Farrington, D. P. (2005). Childhood origins of antisocial behavior. Clinical Psychology &

Psychotherapy, 12(3), 177-190.

Forgatch, M. S., Patterson, G. R., Degarmo, D. S., & Beldavs, Z. G. (2009). Testing the
Oregon delinquency model with 9-year follow-up of the Oregon Divorce Study.
Development and psychopathology, 21(2), 637-660.

Fraley, R. C., & Heffernan, M. E. (2013). Attachment and parental divorce: A test of the
diffusion and sensitive period hypotheses. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(9),
1199-1213.

Fraley, R. C., & Heffernan, M. E. (2013). Attachment and parental divorce: A test of the
diffusion and sensitive period hypotheses. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(9),
1199-1213.

Haapasalo, J., & Tremblay, R. E. (1994). Physically aggressive boys from ages 6 to 12:
family background, parenting behavior, and prediction of delinquency. Journal of consulting
and clinical psychology, 62(5), 1044.

Halligan, C., Chang, I. J., & Knox, D. (2014). Positive effects of parental divorce on
undergraduates. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 55(7), 557-567.

Kim, H. S. (2011). Consequences of parental divorce for child development. American

sociological review, 76(3), 487-511.

Melo, O., & Mota, C. P. (2014). Interparental conflicts and the development of
psychopathology in adolescents and young adults. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 24(59), 283-293.

Moon, M. (2011). The effects of divorce on children: Married and divorced parents'
perspectives. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 52(5), 344-349.

Morrison, D. R., & Coiro, M. J. (1999). Parental conflict and marital disruption: Do children
benefit when high-conflict marriages are dissolved?. Journal of Marriage and the Family,
626-637.

Palosaari, U., & Aro, H. (1994). Effect of timing of parental divorce on the vulnerability of
children to depression in young adulthood. Adolescence, 29(115), 681.

Patterson, G. R., DeBaryshe, B. D., & Ramsey, E. (1989). A developmental perspective on

antisocial behavior (Vol. 44, No. 2, p. 329). US: American Psychological Association.
Pedro-Carroll, J. (2001). The promotion of wellness in children and families: Challenges and
opportunities. American Psychologist, 56(11), 993.

Price, C., & Kunz, J. (2003). Rethinking the paradigm of juvenile delinquency as related to
divorce. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 39(1-2), 109-133.

Radke-Yarrow, M., & Brown, E. (1993). Resilience and vulnerability in children of multiple-
risk families. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 581-592.

Richards, M., Hardy, R., & Wadsworth, M. (1997). The effects of divorce and separation on
mental health in a national UK birth cohort. Psychological medicine, 27(5), 1121-1128.

Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American journal of

orthopsychiatry, 57(3), 316.

Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1994). Urban poverty and the family context of delinquency:
A new look at structure and process in a classic study. Child development, 65(2), 523-540.

Strohschein, L. (2005). Parental divorce and child mental health trajectories. Journal of
Marriage and Family, 67(5), 1286-1300.

Tschann, J. M., Kaiser, P., Chesney, M. A., Alkon, A., & Boyce, W. T. (1996). Resilience
and vulnerability among preschool children: Family functioning, temperament, and behavior
problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(2), 184-
192.

Weaver, J. M., & Schofield, T. J. (2015). Mediation and moderation of divorce effects on
children’s behavior problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 29(1), 39.

Weaver, J. M., & Schofield, T. J. (2015). Mediation and moderation of divorce effects on
children’s behavior problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 29(1), 39.

Werner, E. E. (2000). Protective factors and individual resilience. Handbook of early

childhood intervention, 2, 115-132.

Westrupp, E. M., Brown, S., Woolhouse, H., Gartland, D., & Nicholson, J. M. (2018).
Repeated early-life exposure to inter-parental conflict increases risk of preadolescent mental
health problems. European journal of pediatrics, 177(3), 419-427.