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Fat replacers

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Chavan R.S., Khedkar C.D. and Bhatt S. (2016) Fat Replacer. In: Caballero, B., Finglas, P., and Toldrá, F. (eds.)
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health vol. 2, pp. 589-595. Oxford: Academic Press.

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 Author's personal copy

Fat Replacer
RS Chavan, National Institute of Food Technology and Entrepreneurship Management (NIFTEM), Kundli, India
CD Khedkar, College of Dairy Technology, Pusad, India
S Bhatt, Anand Agricultural University, India
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction reduce calories in foods. A broader scheme of FR is presented

Although many nutrition recommendations remain controver-
sial, there is consensus among health and nutrition profes-
sionals in the developed world that the ratio of saturated fatty
acids to poly- and monounsaturated fatty acids in the diet
should be decreased, and intake of dietary cholesterol should
be limited. It is further agreed that consumption of calories
from fat should not be more than 30% of the daily total and
that consumption of cholesterol should be restricted to
<300 mg day
1. It is suggested that those with elevated Low-
density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels or cardiovascular
disease should restrict saturated fats to 7% of calories. Promi-
nence is also given to increasing the intake of fruits, vegetables,
and grains and modifying the type and amount of fat con-
sumed. The emphasis is on achieving an overall healthful
pattern of eating rather than on limiting the focus to merely
achieving goals for macronutrient composition.
In the food supply, 30% of the total fat comes from meat,
poultry, and fish, and 25% comes from baked goods and other
processed grain products. Milk products and fats/oils account
for 18% and 11% of the total fat, respectively. Collectively,
these food categories account for 84% of the fat in the food
supply. Although the type of fat in these contributors to fat
intake varies, the effort to reduce total fat and calorie intake has
focused largely on reducing the fat content of foods in these
categories. The effects of fat on cardiovascular disease are so
well documented that they have been recognized as major
factors in the etiology of cardiovascular disease. Dietary treat-
ment to prevent obesity and high blood cholesterol levels have
become the cornerstone of the National Cholesterol Education
Program, which has been designed to help prevent coronary
heart disease. Advocates of this program are boosted by reports
that coronary heart disease rates can be decreased by dietary
interventions and by a recent report that changes in lifestyle,
including diet, can bring about regression of severe coronary
atherosclerosis after a year without the use of lipid-lowering
drugs. Obesity is strongly associated with the development and
severity of both diabetes and hypertension, both of which are
major risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Due to this, the
consumer demand for low-fat foods has encouraged research
on reducing the fat content of foods. Problems of inferior
organoleptic and physical properties in these products sug-
gested the use of fat replacers (FRs) to provide the desirable
qualities.
in Table 1.
FR can be classified as synthetic fat substitutes (FS), emul-
sifiers or surface active agent, starch derivatives, maltodextrins,
hemicelluloses, b-glucans, bulking agents, microparticulates,
composites, and functional blends. FR can be further catego-
rized into the following groups:
FS: a synthetic compound designed to replace fat on a weight-
by-weight basis, usually having a similar chemical structure
to fat but resistant to hydrolysis against digestive enzymes.
Fat mimetics (FMs): a substance that can imitate physical
or organoleptic properties. FMs are also referred to as
‘texturizing agents.’ It requires a high water content to
achieve its functionality.
Fat analogs: are compounds with many of the characteristics of
fat but have an altered digestibility and altered nutritional
value.
Fat extenders: optimize the functionality of fat, thus allowing a
decrease in the usual amount of fat in the product.
Some of the applications of FR along with their usage levels are
given in Table 2.
Carbohydrate-Based FRs
Carbohydrate-based FMs incorporate water into a gel-type
structure, resulting in lubrication and flow properties similar
to that of fat. Carbohydrate-based FRs are categorized into
starch-derived, cellulose-based, fiber-based, gum-based, and
others.
Starch-derived FRs
Native starch is widely used in food and industrial applications
as a thickener, colloidal stabilizer, gelling agent, bulking agent,
and water-retention agent. Starches from different plant
sources such as wheat, maize, rice, and potato have received
extensive attention.
Resistant starch
Commercial resistant starches contain about 20–60% total
dietary fiber. Resistant starch is insoluble, having a low water-
holding capacity (WHC) and is most suitable for cereal-grain-
based products with lower levels of moisture content. Resistant
starch is generally used as an FR in baked goods, extruded
snacks, pasta, breakfast cereals, and beverages.

Definition of FR
FR is defined as a carbohydrate-, protein-, or fat-based com-
pound that replaces one or more of the functions of fat to
Maltodextrin
Maltodextrin is a nonsweet, nutritive saccharide polymer, with
a dextrose equivalent (DE) of < 20. Starches from botanical
sources like corn, potato, wheat, rice, tapioca, sago palm,
barley, and sorghum can be used as raw material. Maltodextrins

Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00271-3 589

The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 2, pp. 589-595
 Author's personal copy

Table 1 Classification of fat replacers by nutrient source, functional properties, and use in food

Type of fat substitute Nutrient source (energy density) Functional properties Use in food

Derived from carbohydrate

Polydextrose Water-soluble polymer of dextrose (1 cal g
1) Bulking and retaining A wide range of foods, including
moisture baked goods, confections, and
frozen desserts
Modified food starch A variety of starch sources (1–4 cal g
1) Modifying texture, gelling, Processed meats, salad dressing,
thickening, and baked goods, frozen desserts, etc.
stabilizing
Dextrin and A variety of starch sources (4 cal g
1) Modifying texture and Baked goods, dairy products, salad
maltodextrins bulking dressing, sauces, and spreads
Gums and pectin Xanthan, guar, locust bean, carrageenan, alginates, Retaining moisture, Wide range of products, including
and fruit mouthfeel and modifying baked goods, sauces, and salad
texture dressings
Cellulose Various plant sources (virtually noncaloric) Modifying mouthfeel, Dairy products
texture, and pourability
b-Glucan Soluble fiber extracted from oats (1–4 cal g
1) Adding body and texture Baked goods and a variety of other
food products
Derived from protein
Microparticulated Denatured or microparticulated protein from egg/ Modifying mouthfeel Dairy products, spreads, and bakery
protein and milk (1–4 cal g
1) products
modified whey
Derived from fat
Olestra Sucrose polyester with triglycerides (noncaloric) Modifying texture and Savory snacks (stable for fried foods)
mouthfeel
Caprenin and salatrim Caprylic, capric, behenic acid, and glycerine, or Simulating properties of Confections, baked goods, and dairy
triglyceride of short- and long-chain fatty acids cocoa butter foods
(5 cal g
1)
Mono- or diglycerides Derived from vegetable oil and emulsified with water Adding moisture and Baked goods, vegetable dairy
(9 cal g
1) modifying texture and replacers
mouthfeel

Source: Judith, W. R. (2002). Fat substitutes and health an advisory from the Nutrition Committee of the American Heart Association. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.
CIR.0000019402.35632.EB.

Table 2 Fat replacers and their food applications

Type of fat replacer Usage level (%) Food application

Modified starch (potato) 21 Bakery dough

Maltodextrin 40–45 Chocolate
Maltrin M040 20 Low-calorie pudding
Maltrin M100 10–28 Butter-like product
Polydextose 20 Peanut butter
HPMC 13 White chocolate bar
Pectin 0.18 Nonfat frozen dessert
Pectin (Slendid) and maltodextrin 0.5–3 þ 0–10 Fruit spread
Microcrystalline cellulose þ pectin 0.05–0.5 þ 0.1–10 Fruit spread
Microcrystalline cellulose þ k-carrageenan (93:7) 25 Yogurt and cottage cheese
Carrageenan gels 15 Frozen dessert
k-carrageenan 10–14 No-fat coffee creamer
l-carrageenan 0.2 Whipped toping
Carrageenan þ maltodextrin 1–3 þ 0–10 Fruit spread
Xanthan gum 0.18 Fat-free cookie
0.3 Low-fat spread
Pectin þ xanthan gum 0.63 þ 0.28 Fat-free fruit bar
Starch, pectin, guar gum, and gelatin mixture 1.29 Low-calorie yogurt
Simplesse 2–20 Fruit spread
Sucrose fatty acid polyester (Olestra) 10 Low-calorie cheese
Ethoxylated glucoside tetraoleate 13 Cake mix
10 Icing mix
56.25 Mayonnaise
50 Salad dressing
80 Margarine
Ethoxylated glucoside tetrastearate 25 Plastic shortening
13 Cake mix

Compiled from various sources: Roller (1996), Sharma and Ganeshkumar (1996), Akoh (1998), Sharma et al. (1998), Sandrou and Arvanitoyannis (2000), Chavan and Prajapati
(2009), Tiwari (2005).

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 Author's personal copy
Fat Replacer 591

Table 3 Maltodextrin-based fat replacers

Usage
level pH Temperature
Trade name Type (%) stability stability ( C) Applications in food products Manufacturer

Paselli A2 Potato 20 3–7 25–212 Dressings, sauces, spreads, frozen desserts, Avehe American Inc.,
toppings, cakes, and butter NJ, USA
Stellar, Instant- Corn 20–25 4–6 25–200 Baked goods, frostings, fillings, gravies, A. E. Staley
Stellar sauces, and dairy products, confectionary Manufacturers, USA
Maltrin M040, Corn 20 3.5–7.5 300 Bakery and snack foods, beverages, Grain Processing
M100, M150 confectionary, dairy products, and salad Corporation, USA
dressings
Amalean I, Amalean Corn 1–8 3–7 25–200 Cheesecake, spoonable salad dressings, American Maize Product
II-Instant icings, cheese spreads, and desserts Co., USA
N-oil, Instant-N-oil Tapioca 25 3–8 25–225 Confectionary, soup, frozen desserts, spoon/ National Starch
pourable sauces, gravies, and puddings Manufacturers, USA
N-Lite LP, N-Lite B/ Maize 25–30 3–8 25–200 Salad dressings, soups sauces, bakery National Starch
L, N-Lite D, N-Lite products, dairy products, yogurt Manufacturers, USA
CL
Oatrim Oatflour 3–6 >3 Retort Dairy products, cereal, baked goods, and Rhone-Poulenc Food
meat products Ingredients, USA
Oat-fiber Oat 3–6 All All Processed meats, ice-cream, butter-coated Williamson Fiber
White Tan (770, fiber products and deep fried foods, and Products, County
780, 782) chocolate Cork, Ireland

Compiled from various sources: Roller (1996), Sharma and Ganeshkumar (1996), Akoh (1998), Sharma et al. (1998), Sandrou and Arvanitoyannis (2000), Chavan and Prajapati
(2009), Tiwari (2005).

are used as an FR in dairy products, confectionary, frozen
desserts, cereal baked goods, and meat products due to their
ability to form soft, spreadable, thermoreversible gels with
melt-in-the-mouth properties. Low-DE maltodextrin is usually
added at a level of 1–5% in liquid foods to impart a full-bodied
texture and mouth coating, whereas it can substitute about
25–35% of fat in cookies. Starches are usually hydrolyzed to a
DE’s value from 0 to 100, and as the DE increases, browning
reaction, freezing point depression, hygroscopitity, sweetness,
solubility, and osmality increase, whereas viscosity, cohesive-
ness, film-forming ability, and ability to prevent large crystal
formation decrease. Maltodextrin with low DE has similar
properties to those of native starch and can be used as an FR
(Table 3).
Maltodextrins based on potato are low DE (5), are cold
soluble, and provide low viscosity in the form of solution, but
at high concentration (>20% w/w) they are unstable and tend
to gels, which are plastic, and spreadable, which provides
shortening-like texture. Potato maltodextrin is produced by
solubilizing the slurry by jet cooking and treating it with
enzymes until the required degree of hydrolysis is achieved
(Paselli SA2, C* Pur 01906). Potato starch contains amylose
molecules with longer chains as compared to corn and wheat,
which retrograde less readily, thereby reducing the tendency to
cause turbidity and an undesirable texture in foods. Paselli SA2
is applied in products such as low-fat mayonnaise, sauces,
imitation cheese, and frozen desserts, whereas C* Pur 01906,
is used in baked goods. Preprepared gels consisting of one part
maltodextrin and three parts water provide 1 kcal g
1.
Corn maltodextrin is obtained from limited hydrolysis of
cornstarch. Maltrin M040, a product of Grain Processing
Corp., Muscatine, Iowa, is a spray-dried corn maltodextrin
(DE ¼ 5) and is able to partially or totally replace fat in
margarine, frozen desserts, salad dressings, and extruded
cereals and snacks. Tapioca maltodextrin is obtained by heat-
ing tapioca starch in the presence of hydrochloric acid, which
yields a gel and is characterized by a bland flavor, smooth
mouthfeel, and a texture similar to that of hydrogenated fat,
for example, N-oil, N-oil II. N-oil is used as a 20–35% aqueous
solution, contributes only 1 kcal g
1, and is used in products
like salad dressings, puddings, and margarine.
Oat maltodextrin is obtained by partial enzymatic hydroly-
sis of oat flour, oat fiber, or oat-bran. Oat maltodextrin (Otrim-
1, Otrim-5, Otrim-10) gels are useful for fat sparing in food
and food products like yogurt, baked products, and meat prod-
ucts. Oatrim-5, invented and patented by the USDA at the
National Center for Agricultural Research, is the only
carbohydrate-based FS and contains the unique combination
of b-glucan and low-DE maltodextrin. Wheat-based maltodex-
trin is produced by microfibrillation of wheat fibers and
maltodextrin, for example, Vitacel, produced by Rettenmaier,
is composed of 70% wheat fibers and 30% maltodextrin.
Vitacel can be used instead of hydrocolloids as a thickening
and binding agent for stabilization of emulsions, foams, and
liquid media.
Disadvantages associated with the usage of maltodextrins is
that the amylopectin present in it has a tendency to retrograde
slowly, giving rise to a phenomena of setback in low-fat spoon-
able salad dressings. Low-DE maltodextrins also suffer from
freeze–thaw stability and unreliable heat and acid stability.
Energy output of all the maltodextrin-based FMs is about
4 kcal g
1.
Polydextrose
Polydextrose was invented by Hans Rennhard at Pfizer Central
Research Laboratories, United States, in the mid-1970s.

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 Author's personal copy
592 Fat Replacer
Table 4 Microcrystalline cellulose and polydextrose-based fat replacers
Usage
level
Trade name Type (%)
Avicel RC/CL Cellulose gel 2–5.0
Tabulose Powdered MCC 0.5–20
Novagel RCN- MCC þ Guar gum 0.5–5.0
10; RCN-15
Polydextrose, Polymer of glucose with 5%
Litesse, sorbitol and citric acid
Litesse II (89:10:1)
Sta-Lite Polydextrose (fast – –
dissolving)
Compiled from various sources: Roller (1996), Sharma and Ganeshkumar (1996), Akoh (1998), Sharma et al. (1998), Sandrou and Arvanitoyannis (2000), Chavan and Prajapati
(2009), Tiwari (2005).
Polydextrose is composed of randomly cross-linked glucose
polymers with all types of glucosidic bonds, although 1–6
bonds are predominant (min. 90%), sorbitol end-groups
(max. 2%), and monoester bonds with citric acid. Polydextrose
exists in five forms viz., coarse powder, fine powder, type N,
type K, and type F. Polydextrose is used as a low-calorie bulking
agent that can replace all or part of the sugars and some of the
fats in foods while maintaining a pleasant texture and mouth-
feel. Polydextrose can also be used as a humectant, texturizer,
thickener, stabilizer, and cryoprotectant (Table 4). Litesse®, a
white- to cream-colored powder that has a pH (10% solution)
of 2.5–3.5 and melts above 130  C, is clear, bright, and
nonsticky; exhibits no crystallization; and supplies only 1 kcal -
g
1. According to the FDA, Litesse® may be used in frozen dairy
desserts, baked goods, confections, frostings, salad dressings,
gelatins, puddings, fillings, hard and soft candy, and chewing
gum. Litesse® II, specifically developed for light foods, provides
a higher level of sugar and fat replacement. The FDA has recog-
nized polydextrose as a ‘carbohydrate.’
Cellulose-based FRs
Cellulose is a polymer based on b-(1 ! 4)-linked D-glucose.
The most widely available cellulose-based FR are microcrystal-
line cellulose (MCC) and methylcellulose (MC) gums.
Microcrystalline cellulose
Developed in 1964, is a nonfibrous form of cellulose, ranging
in size from 25 to less than 1 mm. MCC is composed of anhy-
droglucose units linked through a b (1–4) glycosidic bond,
which is hydrophilic, linear, and high molecular weight, and
it accounts 75–95% by weight. The remaining 5–20% is solu-
ble in nature (Table 4).
MCC is produced using a-cellulose, which is composed of
paracrystalline and crystalline regions of microfibrils by
employing acid depolymerization and agglomeration, which
is followed by drying to give porous particles of MCC. In case
of colloidal grade, soluble hydrocolloids such as carboxy-
methyl cellulose, xanthan gum, or alginate are added to
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 2, pp. 589-595
pH
stability Applications in food products Manufacturer
>3.5 Salad dressings, dips, spreads, bakery, products, FMC Co., PA, USA
dairy products, meat products
– Mayonnaise, salad dressings, sauces, dietary Blanver
products, bakery products, imitation cheese Farmoquimica Ltd.,
products USA
– Bakery and snack foods, beverages, FMC Corporation, PA,
confectionary, dairy products, salad dressings USA
5–6 Pastry, confectionary products, dressings, Pfizer Inc., New York,
spreads, bakery fillings, toppings, chilled USA
desserts
Confectionary and bakery products A. E. Staley
Manufacturing
Company, IL, USA
prevent aggregation during drying. On proper dispersion, the
cellulose crystallites set up a three-dimensional network that is
highly thixotropic, is temperature stable, and adds body, while
imparting a clean mouthfeel. Functionality of MCC is affected
by different factors like adequate shear, order of addition, hard
water/electrolytes presence, and pH of the food. MCC, when
used in cakes at levels from 2% to 4%, improves the spongi-
ness, increases cake volume, provides better handling
properties, and creates improved product appearance. In
doughnuts, powdered grade MCC (1–3%) can reduce the fat
absorption. MCC is indigestible, and FDA regulations permit a
maximum addition of 1.5% (w/w) of finished ice cream, with
an exception in the case of fruit sherbets, wherein a maximum
of 0.5% (w/w) can be added.
MC gums
Hydroxypropylemethyl-cellulose (HPMC) and MC are gums
derived from chemical modification of cellulose derived from
wheat, maize, potato, and/or rice. The cellulose is made solu-
ble by adding sodium hydroxide and then treating with methyl
chloride to form MC and along with propylene oxide to give
HPMC, which is further dried using hot air, followed by grind-
ing and packaging. MC and HPMC are described in terms of
degree of substitution (DS) and molar substitutions (MSs). DS
is the amount of substituent groups on the anhydroglucose
units of cellulose, and MS is the average number of molecules
of substituent that have been substituted per anhydroglucose
unit. DS and MS affect physicochemical properties of MC gums
like water retention, sensitivity to electrolytes, dissolution tem-
peratures, and gelation characteristics. Methoxy substitution in
MC and HPMC corresponds to a DS range of 1.49–2.00 and
3.0–12.0%, respectively. In fried foods MC and HPMC cause
reduction in fat uptake, lower caloric value, improve cooking
economy, provide more moisture retention, and provide
improved yield. In cake and yeast-leavened doughnuts, oil
reduction of about 26–28% can be achieved along with
enhancement of air entrainment and promotion of uniform
and fine cell size in crumb structure. In liquid foods like sauces
 Author's personal copy
and dressings, MC gums act as a stabilizer and provide pour-
ability, texture, and viscosity. In frozen dairy products, their
film-forming property, thickening capability, and lubricity
mimics the feel of fat. MC is labeled either as
‘methylcellulose’ or E-461 and HPMC as ‘hydroxpropyl
methylcellulose’ or E-464.
Dietary fiber-based FRs
Dietary fibers can be used to replace fat due to their wide range
of technological functionalities, and soluble fibers, such as
pectin and gums, possess a higher WHC of almost 20 times
their weight of water as compared to cellulosic fibers. WHC is
affected by concentration, temperature, presence of certain
ions, and pH of the food system. Fibers, such as pectin,
gums, b-glucans with mixed bonds, and polysaccharides
extracted from algae, form highly viscous solutions, whereas
that of inulin is minimal. The capacity of a fiber to bind fat
depends on the porosity, which is useful for avoiding excessive
absorption of frying fat in batters. Dietary fiber also acts as a
protective agent against cardiovascular diseases, diverticulosis,
constipation, irritable colon, colon cancer, and diabetes.
Pectin
Pectin is a complex mixture of polysaccharide composed of a
galacturonan backbone of which variable proportions can be
methyl-esterified and is usually obtained from citrus fruit and
apple. D-galacturonic acid units are linked by a-(1, 4)-
glucosidic bonds. Commercial pectins are divided according
to the degree of esterification into low methocxyl (LM) pectins
and high methoxyl (HM) pectins. HM pectins can also be
chemically amidated to obtain low methyl-esterified and ami-
dated (LMA) pectins. HM pectins are used mainly in sugar-acid
gels, whereas LM and LMA pectins are used in pectate gels.
Functionality of pectin is influenced mostly by the molecular
weight and the level and distribution of methyl-esters. Slen-
did®, manufactured by Copenhagen Pectin, Denmark, is pro-
duced by extraction from plant, purification, and isolation of
the pectin followed by a controlled desertification with the
help of either acid or base. Currently, it is used for fat sparing
in confectionary products, dairy products, and bakery fillings.
To mimic the physical and sensory characteristics of emulsified
fat, the particle size of 25–50 mm and usage level of 1.5–4.0% is
recommended. It is possible to reduce the fat content in a
frankfurter from 25% to 35% to 3–5% by using a wet prepara-
tion of 2% Slendid® 110. Pectin gives a trophic effect, increases
villus height and crypt depth in the small intestine, stimulates
intestinal cell proliferation and activity of brush border mem-
brane enzymes, and stimulates short-chain fatty acid produc-
tion in the cecum. Pectin gives a net energy of 9 kJ g
1 on
digestion. In the United States, pectin is given a Generally
Recognized As Safe (GRAS) status, whereas in the European
Union it is given a designation of E440 as a food additive.
Inulin
Inulin is an oligomer found in plants such as chicory and
Jerusalem artichoke and has a sweetening power of 30–65%
that of sucrose and a high degree of polymerization (DP) of
2–60. Inulin is produced by extracting inulin from chicory
roots by diffusing the roots in hot water followed by refining
and last spray-drying the concentrate. At a concentration of
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 2, pp. 589-595
Fat Replacer 593
40–45%, it forms a gel or crème having a fatty creamy feel with
characteristics like high water binding, stability against freeze
thaw, and inhibition of syneresis in mayonnaise and salad
dressings. Inulin with lower a DP of 25 is generally available
for high-performance fat replacement. Inulin crème has been
successfully applied in fat-reduced table spreads, frozen des-
serts, cheese products, meat products, fillings, sauces, and meat
replacers (Table 4).
b-glucan
b-glucan is a cell wall polysaccharide present in oat, barley, and
other grains, and recently yeast b-glucan has been used as a
FR in mayonnaise. b-glucan preparation is used to partially
substitute for vegetable oil in low-fat products such as salad
dressings, ice creams, yogurts, and cheese. b-glucans can also
be used for their therapeutic values, as they are found to be
immunomodulators, antitumorogenic, and antiviral agents for
treatment of hypercholesterolemia and stabilization of
glycemia.
Bacterial cellulose
It is produced by some Acetobacter, which is a high-value raw
material for producing dietetic and dessert foods due to its high
WHC. Instead of xanthan gum, bacterial cellulose at a concen-
tration of 3% can be used in ice creams. Bacterial cellulose
improves the quality of pastry products by reducing their
stickiness.
Z-trim
Z-trim refers to zero calories and can be used for replacing fat
and some of the glycemic materials (starches, sugars, and
syrups). It provides an aqueous gel fiber structure without
taste and imparts a smooth texture. Z-Trim gels also provide
insoluble fibers to be used separately or with other fibers such
as Oatrim. Z-Trim gel can be used for considerable reduction in
calories depending on the amount of fat and carbohydrates
replaced in food formulations.
Gum-based FRs
Gums are hydrocolloids, which are long-chain,
high-molecular-weight polymers that dissolve or disperse in
water. These gums are used along with a combination of
other ingredients viz. starches, bulking agents, emulsifiers,
and flavor to yield a finished product similar to a full-fat
system. Viscosifying and gelling property are affected by tem-
perature, pH, solvent quality, ionic strength, and presence of
specific ions. Hydrocolloids usually come from: (a) plant
materials such as seaweed, seeds, roots, and tree exudates; (b)
microbial biosynthesis; and (c) chemical modification of nat-
ural polysaccharides.
Locust bean gum
It is derived from carob seed, Ceratonia Siliqua and consists
of D-Mannopyronosyl backbone with attached D-
galactopyranosyl units existing in a ratio of 4:1. It is having
a limited solubility in cold water but on heating to 80  C
for 10 min it hydrates fully, resulting in a highly viscous pseu-
doplastic solution. Prolonged heating, high rate of shear, and
the time of heating can irreversibly degrade the locust bean
gum solution.
 Author's personal copy
594 Fat Replacer
Guar gum
Guar gum or guran is the endosperm of the seed Cyampsis
tetragonolobus containing a backbone of (1 ! 4)-b-D-
mannopyranosyl units, with every second unit bearing a
(1 ! 6)-a-D-galactopyranosyl unit. Lower mannose:galactose
ratio (1.5–2) in guar gum indicates that there are few inter-
molecular interactions, and consequently, less heat is required
for solubilization (i.e., at 25–40  C). Guar gum is usually
utilized at a concentration < 1% and is stable between pH 3.5
and 9.0.
Protein-Based FRs
Protein-based FR is derived from proteins found in eggs, milk,
and other foods (Table 5). The concept of using proteins as FRs
is related to proteins with a particular spheroidal structure,
ranging from 0.1 to 2.0 mm in size and is usually produced
by microparticulation process.
Simplesse® (NutraSweet, Deerfield, IL) was the first FR
developed with protein and has received a GRAS status to be
used in frozen dessert. It contains 53% protein and is a micro-
particulated spray-dried powder that mimics emulsified fat by
forming a dispersed phase of particles that are free to move
independently. It is a multifunctional dairy ingredient made
from whey protein concentrate (WPC) that undergoes a
unique microparticulation process that results in uniform,
spherical, and deformable protein particles, much like fat
globules, which range in size from 0.1 to 3 mm. This process
helps to reduce the tendency to aggregate the spherical droplets
and form gel on heating. These droplets roll around on the
tongue, providing a smooth, creamy texture without chalkiness
or graininess. Simplesse increases the opacity of the product by
forming small spherical droplets of protein that allow more
scattering of light. Simplesse retains the biological property of
the protein used, so individuals who are allergic to egg or milk
proteins can experience allergic reactions to it.
Table 5 Protein-based fat replacers
Product name Type
SimplesseW Microparticulate whey protein
concentrate
Dairy-LoW Modified whey protein concentrate
K-BlazerW A blend of protein, food starch, gums,
and emulsifiers
LitaW Corn zein
Leancreme™ Microparticulated whey protein
Optipep™ Hydrolyzed whey protein
concentrates and isolates
N-Flate Nonfat milk, gums, emulsifiers, and
modified starch
ULTRA-BAKETM Starch, modified vegetable protein,
and xanthan gum
ULTRA- Egg-white, milk protein, corn syrup
FREEZETM solids, and modified starch
Compiled from various sources: Roller (1996), Sharma and Ganeshkumar (1996), Akoh (1998), Sharma et al. (1998), Sandrou and Arvanitoyannis (2000), Chavan and Prajapati
(2009), Tiwari (2005).
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 2, pp. 589-595
‘Dairy Lo,’ a thermally denatured WPC, interacts with water
and prevents iciness, provides opacity, controls viscosity, and
stabilizes air cells along with a fat-sparing effect in dairy prod-
uct when used at a level of 2–5%. The formulations supple-
mented with WPC showed greater elasticity, firmness,
chewiness, and gumminess compared to the control sample,
thus contributing to the texture of the fat-free dairy desserts.
Some of the other protein-based FRs available in the market are
K-Blazer®, Ultra-BakeTM, Ultra-FreezeTM, and Lita®.
Fat-Based FRs
Fat-like substances, which are resistant to hydrolysis by diges-
tive enzymes, comprise another major category of materials
being promoted as partial or full replacements for oils and
fats in bakery and other food products.
Structured lipids
A structured lipid is a triglyceride obtained by the hydrolysis
and random transesterification of medium-chain triglyceride
(MCTs) and long-chain triglyceride. Structured lipids provide
approximately half of the calories of the normal edible oil.
Caprenin, an MCT derived from coconut, palm kernel, and
canola oil, mimics the physical properties of cocoa butter or
confectionary fat. Another example of MCT is Neobee M-5,
derived from coconut oil, which prevents bloom formation
in chocolate and sticking of uncoated nutritional bars to pack-
aging material by migrating to the surface of these products.
Salatrim (short- and long-chain acyltriglyceride molecules) is a
‘family’ of triacylglycerols produced by the interesterification of
highly hydrogenated vegetable oils with triacylglycerols of
acetic and/or propionic and/or butyric acids. Salatrim prepa-
rations are available to emulate cocoa butter, as well as for use
in baked products and filled dairy products.
Applications in food products Manufacturer
Dairy products, spreads, bakery product, salad dressing, CP Kelco
dips, mayonnaise, frostings, sauces, soups
Milk/dairy products, baked goods (cheesecake), frostings, Cultor, New York, NY
salad dressing, mayonnaise-type products
Salad dressing, mayonnaise, frozen dessert, sour cream, Kraft Food Ingredients
baked goods, and dairy products Corp, Memphis, TN
Baked goods Opta Food Ingredients,
Inc., Cambridge, MA
Baked goods SPX-APV brand
Yogurts, ice cream, cheese, and drinking milk Carbery
Sports nutrition products and nutrition bars
Cake mixes, salad dressing, icings, glazes, desserts, ice
cream, and ground beef
Baked goods
 Author's personal copy
Sugar polyesters
Olestra is a mixture of hexa-, hepta-, and octaesters of sucrose
prepared by esterifying sucrose with long-chain fatty acids
isolated from edible fats and oils. Olestra can be liquid or
solid at room temperature based on the fat source in the
sucrose polyester. Olestra has the organoleptic and thermal
properties of fat and thus it can serve as a zero-calorie replace-
ment for fat in a variety of foods like savory snacks such as
potato and corn chips.
Esterified propoxylated glycerol
Esterified propoxylated glycerol (EPG) is a family of propylene
oxide derivatives with a structure similar to that of natural fat.
It is been claimed that EPG is resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis
and that it can be substituted for fats and oils in products such
as table spreads, frozen desserts, salad dressings, and bakery
products.
Dailkyl dihexadecymalonate
A fatty alcohol ester of malonie and alkylmalonic acids, dailkyl
dihexadecymalonate (DDM) in combination with soybean oil
has been used to produce potato and tortilla chips. DDM has
also been tried in products like mayonnaise and margarine.
Trialkoxytricarballate
A tricarballylie acid, esterified with fatty alcohol, is being eval-
uated as an oil substitute to produce acceptable margarine and
mayonnaise-based products.
Safety of FRs
The use of FRs as a food additives to reduce the fat content in
food products also raises the concern of consumers’ safety. The
safety of the currently used FRs is ensured by the GRAS status
by the FDA. FRs could be used and consumed by the con-
sumers in large quantities in fat-less or reduced-fat products.
Many of the carbohydrate-based, protein-based, and fat-based
FRs have not shown major health concerns except for pol-
ydextrose and Olestra. Polydextrose can have a laxative effect,
which requires a labeling disclaimer when present at specified
levels. Olestra may cause leaky and fatty stools and loss of fat-
soluble vitamins. In general, there is limited evidence at the
present time on the long-term adverse consequences associated
with the consumption of these or any other reduced-fat foods
by adults. However, further research is required to study the
safe use of these products by children and adults and to eval-
uate fully their long-term health effects.
Conclusion
Due to the increasing demand for low-fat food products,
reduced-calorie and low-fat food markets are showing a
dynamic growth. As pointed out in the beginning of this
article, the FR can mimic one or more roles of fat in food
products. Classification of an FR usually is based on the nutri-
ent source. They provide the functional and sensory qualities of
fats in foods and are absorbed and metabolized normally. The
introduction of olestra, which is a nonabsorbable FS that can
affect nutrient absorption, raises questions about its potential
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 2, pp. 589-595
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Fat Replacer 595
effect on overall health. Some research suggests that individ-
uals who consume a diet that is reduced in fat and calories and
includes use of fat-modified products have a better overall
nutrient profile than do individuals who do not use any fat-
modified products. The recent increase in the availability of
FRs in the market raises questions about the cumulative impact
of using them in multiple food products and the potential
interaction with medications and food ingredients. Within
the context of a healthy dietary pattern, FRs, when used judi-
ciously, may provide some flexibility in dietary planning,
although additional research with clinical trials is needed to
fully determine the longer-term health effects.
See also: Fats: Classification and Analysis; Fatty Acids: Determination
and Requirements; Fatty Acids: Fatty Acids; Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
Further Reading
Akoh CC (1998) Fat replacers. Food Technology 52: 47–53.
Chavan RS and Prajapati PS (2009) Carbohydrate-based fat replacers – a review. Indian
Journal of Dairy Science 62: 1–14.
Cheskin LJ, Zorich N, Miday R, and Filloon T (1998) Gastrointestinal symptoms
following consumption of olestra or regular triglyceride potato chips: a controlled
comparison. JAMA 279(2): 150–152.
Clegg SM (1996) The use of hydrocolloid gums as fat mimetics. In: Roller S and
Jones SA (eds.) Handbook of fat replacers, pp. 191–212. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press, Chapter 9.
Huyghebaert A, Dewenttinck K, and deGrey W (1996) Fat replacers. IDF Bulletin
317: 10–15.
Judith WR (2002) Fat substitutes and health: an advisory from the Nutrition Committee
of the American Heart Association. Circulation 105: 2800–2804. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1161/01.CIR.0000019402.35632.EB.
Kaur L, Singh N, and Singh J (2004) Factors influencing the properties of
hydroxypropylated potato starches. Carbohydrate Polymers 55: 211–223.
Lucca PA and Tepper BJ (1994) Fat replacers and functionality of fats in foods. Trends
in Food Science and Technology 5: 12–19.
Mitchell HL (2004) Capture the opportunity: sustained fermentation with Litesse,
polydextrose and lactitol – the health benefits. Innovations in Food Technology
13: 24–26.
Ognean CF, Neli D, and Ognean M (2006) Fat replacers – review. Journal of
Agroalimentary Processes and Technologies XII: 433–442.
Osborn HT and Akoh CC (2002) Structured lipids: novel fats with medical,
neutraceutical, and food applications. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and
Food Safety 3: 110–120.
Roller S (1996) Starch-derived fat mimetics: maltodextrins. In: Roller S and Jones SA
(eds.) Handbook of fat replacers, pp. 99–118. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Chapter
6A.
Sandrou DK and Arvanitoyannis IS (2000) Low-fat/calorie foods. Current status and
perspectives. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 40: 427–447.
Sharma A and Ganeshkumar C (1996) Fat replacers as future dietary regimes: an
overview. Indian Dairyman 48: 27–35.
Stanton JM (1990) Fat substitute update. Food Australia 42: 472–475.
Relevant Websites
http://www2.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/fcs3/fcs3208/fcs3208.pdf.
http://www.circulationaha.org.
http://www.cfs.purdue.edu/fn/fn453/pdf_full/Fat_Replacers.pdf.
http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2003/ANS01245.html.
http://www.ift.org//media/Knowledge%20Center/Science%20Reports/Scientific%
20Statu%20Summaries/fatreplacers_0398.pdf.
http://journal-of-agroalimentary.ro/admin/articole/74033L66_FAT_REPLACERS_final.
pdf.